日常之蔽:以三江源厕所变革为例透视田野细微经验
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摘要
民族学/人类学是关于人们日常生活的研究,但是最为日常的排便或上厕所行为在民族学/人类学的研究中却是缺席的。尤其是人类学家自己如何在田野中解决这一问题,极少出现在他们公开出版的著作中。然而这一最为学者所忽略的现象,却与社会结构、宗教仪式、文化价值、意识形态、洁净观念等诸多人类学的研究主题密切相关。20世纪90年代以来,厕所问题逐渐受到国外人类学界关注。这有赖于斯加克·范德吉斯特的研究和"后现代研究"期刊的呼吁。厕所问题是三江源生态移民社区较为突出的问题之一,回顾在田野调查中的厕所体验,同时呈现了移民社区内的种种厕所问题,以期国内学界对这一问题有所关注,并从民族学/人类学的视角为"厕所革命"提供见解。
Ethnology/anthropology concerns the study of people's daily life,but the most common daily behavior,such as defecation or toilet use,is usually absent in the ethnological and anthropological research. How anthropologists solve this problem in the field is rarely found in their published books. However, this phenomenon,which most scholars have neglected,is closely related to the research topics of anthropology,such as social structure,religious ceremonies,cultural values,ideology and the concept of cleanliness.In The Sexual Life of Savages,Malinowski wrote about the attitudes of the Trobriand islanders to feces. Of course,his research focused on the social and ritual relationships related to feces.Similarly,in The Nuer,Evans Pritchard alluded only obliquely to the fact that he was not used to peoples ' most private activities lying under the gaze of so many aborigines. But he remained silent as to what these most private activities meant.Monica Wilson discussed the relationship of the smell of corpses and feces with witchcraft in her study of the Nyakusa. Later,those anthropologists who have conducted an academic exploration of toilets or defecation include J. B. Loudon,Sjaak Van Der Geest,and Rachel Lea etc. It is worth of mention that in 2002, the journal of Post-Colonial Studies called on scholars to study toilet and fecal problems. Thus,in this manner,a series of related studies have appeared,including Allen Chun's discussions on the evolution of the Japanese toilet and its social cultural background,Margaret Morgan's reflection on the toilet drain system from the perspective of toilet ceramics,cesspools,sewers,social progress,toilet training,and the social hierarchy associated with toilets,and Assa Doron andIra Raja's discussions on hierarchy,gender and social space associated with toilets in India.In general,the discussions related to toilets involve various aspects,such as social hierarchy,gender,concept of cleanliness,physical discipline and social values. However,they are inseparable from several theoretical traditions,namely,1) Sigmund Freud's research on excretion,sexuality and dreams; 2) Norbert Elias' s study of the progress of civilization and the transformation of everyday behavior; 3) Michel Foucault's discussion about power and physical discipline; and 4) Mary Douglas' s research on the concept of cleanliness and pollution.In the process of doing fieldwork,scholars always have a variety of toilet experiences,see various styles of toilet and toilet environments,but this part of their data rarely appear in their published academic books. The experience,which is a curiosity to readers,but an embarrassment to the authors,seems to be a social taboo that might reduce the value of their work and undermine the subject of their research. However,as a scholar engaged in ethnological and anthropological research,it is necessary to do fieldwork. And some basic problems that need to be solved in the field will be even more at the forefront. One of them is the problem of "going to the toilet". It is relatively difficult for anthropologists,especially for female anthropologists. As a female anthropologist,the author of this article describes her different toilet experiences while doing fieldwork in Xinjiang, Gansu and Qinghai.Through her toilet experiences and field investigation,this paper points out that the toilet problem is one of the most prominent problems in theecological migrant communities in the Three River Headwater region and it sums up the four main features of the toilets in the Gansu-Qinghai migrant communities: 1) The absence of toilets is a common phenomenon. While doing fieldwork in the Gansu-Qinghai ecological migration sites, it is noteworthy that many villagers have no toilets in their yards. Some of them have public toilets,but the sanitary conditions of public toilets are often poor. Therefore,the toilet has become a problem that the migrants have to face in their daily life. 2)Cleaning toilets is also a problem for the villagers.The reason for this problem is that the herders living on the grassland do not use the "dry"toilet at all,which seems to be adapted to their production mode. It is obvious that the production mode of herders and the dry toilet are two completely different systems,but the local authorities do not teach the migrants the skills or provide grounds for waste disposal. 3) The local people think that the person who can locate the toilet means a person who is cultured. When conducting interviews,we found that many migrants cannot speak Chinese,but they have the desire to learn Chinese. We found that"Being able to recognize the sign for toilet and not make a mistake"became the purpose for the villagers to learn Chinese. "Not even finding a toilet " became a self-deprecating cultural expressions; 4) Toilet space is a content for identity.The reasonable layout of the house and size of the toilet space also become a marker of the construction of self-identity of the villagers in the eco-migrant communities.Through what she saw in the field,the author experienced a deep feeling: whether a society is well-off or not,can be seen from the toilet,in other words,"small toilet,big livelihood". The toilet problem is not only related to peoples' daily lives,but also is a mirror of Chinese social civilization and progress. In December 2014,during his investigation in Zhenjiang,Jiangsu province,General Secretary Xi Jinping pointed out that toilet reform is an important work for improving rural health conditions and improving peoples' quality of life. In 2015,Xi Jinping stressed that the "toilet revolution" should be carried out relentlessly to make up for the shortcomings that affect the qualityof peoples' lives. At the National Conference on Health and Hygiene in August 2016,General Secretary Xi Jinping fully affirmed the significance and achievements of the "toilet revolution",promoted the continuous campaign for urban and rural environmental hygiene and cleanliness,and once again stressed the need for a "toilet revolution"in rural areas. Peoples ' livelihoods exist in every trivial matter,and the trivial matter of millions of people is a major event. In 2017,General Secretary Xi once again proposed to transform all public toilets across the country,especially those in rural areas which had poor environments. He believed that solving the problem of toilets is of iconic significance in the construction of new rural areas. Toilets are not only a necessary part of daily life,but also a symbol of local civilization. Due to the impact of inadequate infrastructure and outdated concepts,rural soil toilets have not completely disappeared,something which is seriously affecting the rural ecological environment and peoples' health.To change this situation,we must have a "toilet revolution"to solve the toilet problem,which is of iconic significance in the new rural construction.As for the environmental remediation of the ecological migration sites in Gansu-Qinghai region,the proper placement and cleanliness of toilets are equally significant and far-reaching.
Ethnology/anthropology concerns the study of people's daily life,but the most common daily behavior,such as defecation or toilet use,is usually absent in the ethnological and anthropological research. How anthropologists solve this problem in the field is rarely found in their published books. However, this phenomenon,which most scholars have neglected,is closely related to the research topics of anthropology,such as social structure,religious ceremonies,cultural values,ideology and the concept of cleanliness.In The Sexual Life of Savages,Malinowski wrote about the attitudes of the Trobriand islanders to feces. Of course,his research focused on the social and ritual relationships related to feces.Similarly,in The Nuer,Evans Pritchard alluded only obliquely to the fact that he was not used to peoples ' most private activities lying under the gaze of so many aborigines. But he remained silent as to what these most private activities meant.Monica Wilson discussed the relationship of the smell of corpses and feces with witchcraft in her study of the Nyakusa. Later,those anthropologists who have conducted an academic exploration of toilets or defecation include J. B. Loudon,Sjaak Van Der Geest,and Rachel Lea etc. It is worth of mention that in 2002, the journal of Post-Colonial Studies called on scholars to study toilet and fecal problems. Thus,in this manner,a series of related studies have appeared,including Allen Chun's discussions on the evolution of the Japanese toilet and its social cultural background,Margaret Morgan's reflection on the toilet drain system from the perspective of toilet ceramics,cesspools,sewers,social progress,toilet training,and the social hierarchy associated with toilets,and Assa Doron andIra Raja's discussions on hierarchy,gender and social space associated with toilets in India.In general,the discussions related to toilets involve various aspects,such as social hierarchy,gender,concept of cleanliness,physical discipline and social values. However,they are inseparable from several theoretical traditions,namely,1) Sigmund Freud's research on excretion,sexuality and dreams; 2) Norbert Elias' s study of the progress of civilization and the transformation of everyday behavior; 3) Michel Foucault's discussion about power and physical discipline; and 4) Mary Douglas' s research on the concept of cleanliness and pollution.In the process of doing fieldwork,scholars always have a variety of toilet experiences,see various styles of toilet and toilet environments,but this part of their data rarely appear in their published academic books. The experience,which is a curiosity to readers,but an embarrassment to the authors,seems to be a social taboo that might reduce the value of their work and undermine the subject of their research. However,as a scholar engaged in ethnological and anthropological research,it is necessary to do fieldwork. And some basic problems that need to be solved in the field will be even more at the forefront. One of them is the problem of "going to the toilet". It is relatively difficult for anthropologists,especially for female anthropologists. As a female anthropologist,the author of this article describes her different toilet experiences while doing fieldwork in Xinjiang, Gansu and Qinghai.Through her toilet experiences and field investigation,this paper points out that the toilet problem is one of the most prominent problems in theecological migrant communities in the Three River Headwater region and it sums up the four main features of the toilets in the Gansu-Qinghai migrant communities: 1) The absence of toilets is a common phenomenon. While doing fieldwork in the Gansu-Qinghai ecological migration sites, it is noteworthy that many villagers have no toilets in their yards. Some of them have public toilets,but the sanitary conditions of public toilets are often poor. Therefore,the toilet has become a problem that the migrants have to face in their daily life. 2)Cleaning toilets is also a problem for the villagers.The reason for this problem is that the herders living on the grassland do not use the "dry"toilet at all,which seems to be adapted to their production mode. It is obvious that the production mode of herders and the dry toilet are two completely different systems,but the local authorities do not teach the migrants the skills or provide grounds for waste disposal. 3) The local people think that the person who can locate the toilet means a person who is cultured. When conducting interviews,we found that many migrants cannot speak Chinese,but they have the desire to learn Chinese. We found that"Being able to recognize the sign for toilet and not make a mistake"became the purpose for the villagers to learn Chinese. "Not even finding a toilet " became a self-deprecating cultural expressions; 4) Toilet space is a content for identity.The reasonable layout of the house and size of the toilet space also become a marker of the construction of self-identity of the villagers in the eco-migrant communities.Through what she saw in the field,the author experienced a deep feeling: whether a society is well-off or not,can be seen from the toilet,in other words,"small toilet,big livelihood". The toilet problem is not only related to peoples' daily lives,but also is a mirror of Chinese social civilization and progress. In December 2014,during his investigation in Zhenjiang,Jiangsu province,General Secretary Xi Jinping pointed out that toilet reform is an important work for improving rural health conditions and improving peoples' quality of life. In 2015,Xi Jinping stressed that the "toilet revolution" should be carried out relentlessly to make up for the shortcomings that affect the qualityof peoples' lives. At the National Conference on Health and Hygiene in August 2016,General Secretary Xi Jinping fully affirmed the significance and achievements of the "toilet revolution",promoted the continuous campaign for urban and rural environmental hygiene and cleanliness,and once again stressed the need for a "toilet revolution"in rural areas. Peoples ' livelihoods exist in every trivial matter,and the trivial matter of millions of people is a major event. In 2017,General Secretary Xi once again proposed to transform all public toilets across the country,especially those in rural areas which had poor environments. He believed that solving the problem of toilets is of iconic significance in the construction of new rural areas. Toilets are not only a necessary part of daily life,but also a symbol of local civilization. Due to the impact of inadequate infrastructure and outdated concepts,rural soil toilets have not completely disappeared,something which is seriously affecting the rural ecological environment and peoples' health.To change this situation,we must have a "toilet revolution"to solve the toilet problem,which is of iconic significance in the new rural construction.As for the environmental remediation of the ecological migration sites in Gansu-Qinghai region,the proper placement and cleanliness of toilets are equally significant and far-reaching.
引文
[1]陆中.浅谈厕所文化和厕所更——我国城乡现实卫生和初级卫生保健工作中的特大难题[J].中国卫生事业管理,1992(11).
[2]Zizek,S.Slavoj Zizek on toilets and ideology[EB/OL].(2007-07-16)[2018-07-23].https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AwTJXHNP0bg.
[3][英]马林诺夫斯基.野蛮人的性生活[M].刘文远,等,译.北京:团结出版社,1989.
[4][英]埃文斯·普里查德.努尔人:对一个尼罗特人群生活方式和政治制度的描述[M].褚建芳,译.北京:商务印书馆,2014:20.
[5]Loudon J B.Stools,Mansions&Syndromes[J].RAIN,1975(10):1-5.
[6]Wilson M.Nyakyusa ritual and symbolism[J].American Anthropologist,1954,56(2).
[7]Van Der Geest S.Not knowing about defecation[M]//On Knowing and Not Knowing in the Anthropology of Medicine.Routledge,2016.
[8]Van Der Geest S.The night-soil collector:bucket latrines in Ghana[J].Postcolonial Studies:Culture,Politics,Economy,2002,5(2).
[9]Van Der Geest S.Akan shit:Getting rid of dirt in Ghana[J].Anthropology today,1998,14(3):8-12.
[10]Van Der Geest S.The toilet:Dignity,privacy and care of elderly people in Kwahu,Ghana[J].Sociolinguistic and anthropological approaches to ageing in Africa,2002:227-244.
[11]Van Der Geest S,Kutalek R,Prinz A.Children and dirt in Kwahu,Ghana:a social-anthropological perspective[J].Wiener ethnomedizinische Reihe,2009(6):179-190.
[12]Van Der Geest S,ObirihOpareh N.Getting out of the shit:toilets and the daily failure of governance in Ghana[J].Bulletin de I'APAD,2004:151-166.
[13]Van der Geest,Sjaak,Nelson ObirihOpareh.Liquid waste management in urban and rural Ghana:privatisation as governance?[J].The Governance of Daily Life in Africa.Brill,2008:205-222.
[14]Van Der Geest S.Scatological Children's Humour:Notes from the Netherlands and Anywhere[J].Etnofoor,2016,28(1):127-140.
[15]Srivastava V K.On Sanitation:A Memory Ethnography[J].Social Change,2014,44(2):275-290.
[16]Chun A.Flushing in the future:The supermodern Japanese toilet in a changing domestic culture[J].Postcolonial Studies:Culture,Politics,Economy,2002,5(2):153-170.
[17]Jun'IchirōT.One thing and another on the privy[J].translated by Thomas Harper.Postcolonial Studies:Culture,Politics,Economy,2002,5(2):147-151.
[18]Morgan M.The plumbing of modern life[J].Postcolonial Studies:Culture,Politics,E-conomy,2002,5(2):171-195.
[19]Doron A,Raja I.The cultural politics of shit:class,gender and public space in India[J].Postcolonial Studies,2015,18(2):189-207.
[20](民国)杨希尧.青海风土记[M].新亚细亚学会,1933:31-32.
[21]冯雪红.三江源藏族生态移民三村[M].北京:社会科学文献出版社,2016:138.
[22]Pickering L.Toilets,bodies,selves:Enacting composting as counterculture in Hawaii[J].Body&Society,2010,16(4):33-55.
[23][韩国]金光彦.东亚的厕所[M].金茂韩,译.南京:译林出版社,2008:149.
[24][斯洛文尼亚]斯拉沃热·齐泽克.幻想的瘟疫[M].胡雨谭,叶肖,译.南京:江苏人民出版社,2006:4.
[25]贾小华,等.“厕所革命”让中国更美丽——海外人士为中国厕所文明进步点赞[EB/OL].(2017-11-30)[2018-06-25].http://www.xinhuanet.com/world/2017-11/30/c_1122037777.htm.
[26]民生小事大情怀——习近平总书记倡导推进“厕所革命”[EB/OL].(2017-11-28)[2018-06-25].http://www.xinhuanet.com/politics/leaders/2017-11/28/c_1122023895.htm.
[27]习近平.农村也要来个“厕所革命”[EB/OL].(2017-11-29)[2018-06-25].http://china.chinadaily.com.cn/2017-11/29/content_35121846.htm.
Bronislaw Malinowski.yemangren de xing shenghuo(The Sexual Life of Savages).Liu Wenyuan,tranl.Beijing:tuanjie chubanshe,1989.
Doron A,Raja I.The Cultural Politics of Shit:Class,Gender and Public Space in India.In Postcolonial Studies,2015,18(2):189-207.
Evans-Pritchard.nuerren:dui yige niluote renqun shenghuo fangshi he zhengzhi zhidu de miaosu(The Nuer:A Description of the Modes of Livelihood and Political Institutions of a Nilotic People).Zhu Jianfang,transl.Beijing:shangwu yinshuguan,2014.
Jia Xiaohua.“cesuo geming”rang zhongguo geng meili-haiwai renshi wei zhongguo cesuo wenming jinbu dianzan(“Toilet Revolution”Makes China More Beautiful-Oversea Chinese thumbs up to the progress of the toilet civilization in China).Nov.30,2017.http://www.xinhuanet.com/world/2017-11/30/c_1122037777.htm.
Lu Zhong.qiantan cesuo wenhua he cesuo geming-woguo chengxiang xianshi wensheng he chuji weisheng baojian gongzuo zhong de teda nanti(ABrief Discussion on Toilet Culture and Toilet Revolution-A Major Problem in the Work of the Urban and Rural Health Care in China).In China Health Management,1992(11).
Loudon J B.Stools,Mansions&Syndromes.In RAIN,1975(10):1-5.
Srivastava V K.On Sanitation:A Memory Ethnography.In Social Change,2014,44(2):275-290.
Chun A.Flushing in the future:The supermodern Japanese toilet in a changing domestic culture.In Postcolonial Studies:Culture,Politics,E-conomy,2002,5(2):153-170.
Feng Xuehong.sanjiangyuan zangzu shengtai yimin sancun(Three Eco-Migrated Tibetan Villages in the Three River Headwater Region).Beijing:shehui kexue wenxian chubanshe,2016:138.
Jun’IchirōT.One Thing and Another on the Privy.Thomas Harper,transl.In Postcolonial Studies:Culture,Politics,Economy,2002,5(2):147-151.
Minsheng xiaoshi daqingkuai-xijinping zongshuji changdao tuijin“cesuo geming”(Small Things,Big Livelihood:General Secretary Xi Jinping advocated advancing“toilet revolution”).June25,2018.
Morgan M.The Plumbing of Modern Life.In Postcolonial Studies:Culture,Politics,Economy,2002,5(2):171-195.
Pickering L.Toilets,Bodies,Selves:Enacting composting as Counterculture in Hawaii.In Body&Society,2010,16(4):33-55.http://www.xinhuanet.com/politics/leaders/2017-11/28/c_1122023895.htm.
Slavoj Zizek.huanxiang de wenyi(The Plague of Fantansies).Hu Yutan,Ye Xiao,transl.Nan-jing:Jiangsu renmin chubanshe,2006
Van Der Geest S.Not Knowing about Defecation.In On Knowing and Not Knowing in the Anthropology of Medicine.Routledge,2016.
Van Der Geest S.The Night-soil Collector:bucket Latrines in Ghana.In Postcolonial Studies:Culture,Politics,Economy,2002,5(2).
Van Der Geest S.Akan Shit:Getting Rid of Dirt in Ghana.In Anthropology Today,1998,14(3):8-12.
Van Der Geest S.The Toilet:Dignity,Privacy and Care of Elderly People in Kwahu,Ghana.In Sociolinguistic and Anthropological Approaches to Aging in Africa,2002:227-244.
Van Der Geest S,Kutalek R,Prinz A.Children and Dirt in Kwahu,Ghana:A Social-Anthropological Perspective.In Wiener ethnomedizinische Reihe,2009(6):179-190.
Van Der Geest S,Obirih Opareh N.Getting out of the Shit:Toilets and the Daily Failure of Governance in Ghana.In Bulletin de I’APAD,2004:151-166.
Van der Geest S.Obirih-Opareh N.Liquid Waste Management in Urban and Rural Ghana:Privatisation as Governance?In The Governance of Daily Life in Africa.Brill,2008:205-222.
Van Der Geest S.Scatological Children’s Humour:Notes from the Netherlands and Anywhere.In Etnofoor,2016,28(1):127-140.
Wilson M.Nyakyusa Ritual and Symbolism.In American Anthropologist,1954,56(2).
Xi Jinping.nongcun yeyao laige“cesuo geming”(Rural community also need a“toilet revolution”).Nov.29,2017.http://china.chinadaily.com.cn/2017-11/29/content_35121846.htm.
Yang Xiyao(Republic China).qinghai fengtu ji(Record of Qinghai Customs).New Asian Siciety,1933:31-32.
Zizek,S.Slavoj Zizek on Toilets and Ideology[EB/OL].(2007-07-16)[2018-07-23].https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AwTJXH-NP0bg.
(1)P.Ventevogel,Private diary,1991.转引自Van Der Geest S.Not knowing about defecation[M]//On Knowing and Not Knowing in the Anthropology of Medicine.Routledge,2016:80.
(2)Lydall J,Strecker I A.The Hamar of Southern Ethiopia:Work journal[M].Renner,1979.转引自Van Der Geest S.Not knowing about defecation[M]//On Knowing and Not Knowing in the Anthropology of Medicine.Routledge,2016:80-81.
(3)阿村乃一学名,出于田野伦理要求,将真实名称隐去。
[2]Zizek,S.Slavoj Zizek on toilets and ideology[EB/OL].(2007-07-16)[2018-07-23].https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AwTJXHNP0bg.
[3][英]马林诺夫斯基.野蛮人的性生活[M].刘文远,等,译.北京:团结出版社,1989.
[4][英]埃文斯·普里查德.努尔人:对一个尼罗特人群生活方式和政治制度的描述[M].褚建芳,译.北京:商务印书馆,2014:20.
[5]Loudon J B.Stools,Mansions&Syndromes[J].RAIN,1975(10):1-5.
[6]Wilson M.Nyakyusa ritual and symbolism[J].American Anthropologist,1954,56(2).
[7]Van Der Geest S.Not knowing about defecation[M]//On Knowing and Not Knowing in the Anthropology of Medicine.Routledge,2016.
[8]Van Der Geest S.The night-soil collector:bucket latrines in Ghana[J].Postcolonial Studies:Culture,Politics,Economy,2002,5(2).
[9]Van Der Geest S.Akan shit:Getting rid of dirt in Ghana[J].Anthropology today,1998,14(3):8-12.
[10]Van Der Geest S.The toilet:Dignity,privacy and care of elderly people in Kwahu,Ghana[J].Sociolinguistic and anthropological approaches to ageing in Africa,2002:227-244.
[11]Van Der Geest S,Kutalek R,Prinz A.Children and dirt in Kwahu,Ghana:a social-anthropological perspective[J].Wiener ethnomedizinische Reihe,2009(6):179-190.
[12]Van Der Geest S,ObirihOpareh N.Getting out of the shit:toilets and the daily failure of governance in Ghana[J].Bulletin de I'APAD,2004:151-166.
[13]Van der Geest,Sjaak,Nelson ObirihOpareh.Liquid waste management in urban and rural Ghana:privatisation as governance?[J].The Governance of Daily Life in Africa.Brill,2008:205-222.
[14]Van Der Geest S.Scatological Children's Humour:Notes from the Netherlands and Anywhere[J].Etnofoor,2016,28(1):127-140.
[15]Srivastava V K.On Sanitation:A Memory Ethnography[J].Social Change,2014,44(2):275-290.
[16]Chun A.Flushing in the future:The supermodern Japanese toilet in a changing domestic culture[J].Postcolonial Studies:Culture,Politics,Economy,2002,5(2):153-170.
[17]Jun'IchirōT.One thing and another on the privy[J].translated by Thomas Harper.Postcolonial Studies:Culture,Politics,Economy,2002,5(2):147-151.
[18]Morgan M.The plumbing of modern life[J].Postcolonial Studies:Culture,Politics,E-conomy,2002,5(2):171-195.
[19]Doron A,Raja I.The cultural politics of shit:class,gender and public space in India[J].Postcolonial Studies,2015,18(2):189-207.
[20](民国)杨希尧.青海风土记[M].新亚细亚学会,1933:31-32.
[21]冯雪红.三江源藏族生态移民三村[M].北京:社会科学文献出版社,2016:138.
[22]Pickering L.Toilets,bodies,selves:Enacting composting as counterculture in Hawaii[J].Body&Society,2010,16(4):33-55.
[23][韩国]金光彦.东亚的厕所[M].金茂韩,译.南京:译林出版社,2008:149.
[24][斯洛文尼亚]斯拉沃热·齐泽克.幻想的瘟疫[M].胡雨谭,叶肖,译.南京:江苏人民出版社,2006:4.
[25]贾小华,等.“厕所革命”让中国更美丽——海外人士为中国厕所文明进步点赞[EB/OL].(2017-11-30)[2018-06-25].http://www.xinhuanet.com/world/2017-11/30/c_1122037777.htm.
[26]民生小事大情怀——习近平总书记倡导推进“厕所革命”[EB/OL].(2017-11-28)[2018-06-25].http://www.xinhuanet.com/politics/leaders/2017-11/28/c_1122023895.htm.
[27]习近平.农村也要来个“厕所革命”[EB/OL].(2017-11-29)[2018-06-25].http://china.chinadaily.com.cn/2017-11/29/content_35121846.htm.
Bronislaw Malinowski.yemangren de xing shenghuo(The Sexual Life of Savages).Liu Wenyuan,tranl.Beijing:tuanjie chubanshe,1989.
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(3)阿村乃一学名,出于田野伦理要求,将真实名称隐去。