Investigation of fractured rock aquifer in South China using electrical resistivity tomography and self-potential methods
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摘要
Assessment of fractured rock aquifers in many parts of the world is complicated given their strong heterogeneity. Delineation of the subsurface geological formation in the weathered terrain is essential for groundwater exploration. To achieve this goal, 2D electrical resistivity tomography(ERT) and self-potential(SP) in combination with joint profile method(JPM) and boreholes have been carried out to delineate the subsurface geological units, detect the fracture/fault zones in hard rock, monitor the groundwater flow, and estimate the groundwater reserves contained within the weathered terrain at a complex heterogeneous site of Huangbu, South Guangdong of China. The integration of resistivity images with the borehole lithology along three profiles delineates three subsurface distinct layers namely topsoil cover, weathered and unweathered layers. The incorporation of ERT and SP with JPM reveal five fractures/faults, i.e., F_1, F_2, F_3, F_4 and F_5. 2D ERT models interpret the less resistive anomalies as the fractures/faults zones, and high resistive anomalies as the fresh bedrock. The inversion program based on the smoothness-constraint is used on the resistivity field data to get more realistic three layered model. SP measurements are obtained along the same electrical profiles which provide the negative anomalies clearly indicating the groundwater preferential flow pathways along the fracture/fault zones. Hydraulic parameters namely hydraulic conductivity and transmissivity were determined to estimate the groundwater resources contained within the fractures/faults. The integrated results suggest that the fractures/faults zones are most appropriate places of drilling for groundwater exploration in the investigated area. Geophysical methods coupled with the upfront borehole data provides better understanding about the conceptual model of the subsurface geological formations. The current investigation demonstrates the importance of the integrated geophysical methods as a complementary approach for groundwater assessment in the hard rock weathered areas.
Assessment of fractured rock aquifers in many parts of the world is complicated given their strong heterogeneity. Delineation of the subsurface geological formation in the weathered terrain is essential for groundwater exploration. To achieve this goal, 2D electrical resistivity tomography(ERT) and self-potential(SP) in combination with joint profile method(JPM) and boreholes have been carried out to delineate the subsurface geological units, detect the fracture/fault zones in hard rock, monitor the groundwater flow, and estimate the groundwater reserves contained within the weathered terrain at a complex heterogeneous site of Huangbu, South Guangdong of China. The integration of resistivity images with the borehole lithology along three profiles delineates three subsurface distinct layers namely topsoil cover, weathered and unweathered layers. The incorporation of ERT and SP with JPM reveal five fractures/faults, i.e., F_1, F_2, F_3, F_4 and F_5. 2D ERT models interpret the less resistive anomalies as the fractures/faults zones, and high resistive anomalies as the fresh bedrock. The inversion program based on the smoothness-constraint is used on the resistivity field data to get more realistic three layered model. SP measurements are obtained along the same electrical profiles which provide the negative anomalies clearly indicating the groundwater preferential flow pathways along the fracture/fault zones. Hydraulic parameters namely hydraulic conductivity and transmissivity were determined to estimate the groundwater resources contained within the fractures/faults. The integrated results suggest that the fractures/faults zones are most appropriate places of drilling for groundwater exploration in the investigated area. Geophysical methods coupled with the upfront borehole data provides better understanding about the conceptual model of the subsurface geological formations. The current investigation demonstrates the importance of the integrated geophysical methods as a complementary approach for groundwater assessment in the hard rock weathered areas.
Assessment of fractured rock aquifers in many parts of the world is complicated given their strong heterogeneity. Delineation of the subsurface geological formation in the weathered terrain is essential for groundwater exploration. To achieve this goal, 2D electrical resistivity tomography(ERT) and self-potential(SP) in combination with joint profile method(JPM) and boreholes have been carried out to delineate the subsurface geological units, detect the fracture/fault zones in hard rock, monitor the groundwater flow, and estimate the groundwater reserves contained within the weathered terrain at a complex heterogeneous site of Huangbu, South Guangdong of China. The integration of resistivity images with the borehole lithology along three profiles delineates three subsurface distinct layers namely topsoil cover, weathered and unweathered layers. The incorporation of ERT and SP with JPM reveal five fractures/faults, i.e., F_1, F_2, F_3, F_4 and F_5. 2D ERT models interpret the less resistive anomalies as the fractures/faults zones, and high resistive anomalies as the fresh bedrock. The inversion program based on the smoothness-constraint is used on the resistivity field data to get more realistic three layered model. SP measurements are obtained along the same electrical profiles which provide the negative anomalies clearly indicating the groundwater preferential flow pathways along the fracture/fault zones. Hydraulic parameters namely hydraulic conductivity and transmissivity were determined to estimate the groundwater resources contained within the fractures/faults. The integrated results suggest that the fractures/faults zones are most appropriate places of drilling for groundwater exploration in the investigated area. Geophysical methods coupled with the upfront borehole data provides better understanding about the conceptual model of the subsurface geological formations. The current investigation demonstrates the importance of the integrated geophysical methods as a complementary approach for groundwater assessment in the hard rock weathered areas.
引文
ABEM Instrument AB(2006)Terrameter SAS4000/SAS1000LUND Imaging System,Instruction Manual.
Akhter G,Hasan M(2016)Determination of aquifer parameters using geoelectrical sounding and pumping test data in Khanewal District,Pakistan.Open Geosciences 8(1):630-638.https://doi.org/10.1515/geo-2016-0071
Arnaud E,McGill M,Trapp A,et al.(2018)Subsurface heterogeneity in the geological and hydraulic properties of the hummocky Paris Moraine,Guelph,Ontario.Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 55(7):768-785.https://doi.org/10.1139/cjes-2016-0161.
Barker RD(1999)Surface and borehole geophysics.Section 3.2In:Lloyd JW(ed.)‘water resources of hard rock aquifers in arid and semi-arid zones’,UNESCO Studies and reports in hydrology,UNESCO,Paris,France 58:72-101.
Barker RD,White CC,Houston JFT(1992)Borehole sitting in an African accelerated drought relief project In:Wright EP,Burgess WGE(eds)Hydrogeology of crystalline basement aquifers in Africa.Geological Society London Special Publications 66(1):183-201.https://doi.org/10.1144/GSL.SP.1992.066.01.09
Carbonel D,Gutiérrez F,Linares R,et al.(2013)Differentiating between gravitational and tectonic faults by means of geomorphological mapping,trenching and geophysical surveys.The case of the Zenzano Fault(Iberian Chain,NSpain).Geomorphology 189(1):93-108.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2013.01.020
Carruthers RM,Smith IF(1992)The use of ground electrical survey methods for siting water-supply boreholes in shallow crystalline basement terrains.In:Wright EP,Burgess WGE(eds)Hydrogeology of crystalline basement aquifers in Africa.Geological Society London Special Publications 66(1):203-220.https://doi.org/10.1144/GSL.SP.1992.066.01.10
Chambers JE,Meldrum PI,Wilkinson PB,et al.(2015)Spatial monitoring of groundwater drawdown and rebound associated with quarry dewatering using automated timelapse electrical resistivity tomography and distribution guided clustering.Engineering Geology 193:412-420.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2015.05.015
Chandra S,Ahmed A,Ram A,et al.(2008)Estimation of hard rock aquifers hydraulic conductivity from geoelectrical measurements:A theoretical development with field application.Journal of Hydrology 357:218-227.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2008.05.023
Chapuis RP(1992)Using Cooper-Jacob approximation to take account of pumping well pipe storage effects in early drawdown data of a confined aquifer.Groundwater 30(3):331-337.https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6584.1992.tb02000.x
Corwin RF,Hoover DB(1979)The self potential method in geothermal exploration.Geophysics 44(2),pp 226.https://doi.org/10.1190/1.1440964
Dasargues A(1997)Modeling base flow from an alluvial aquifer using hydraulic-conductivity data obtained from a derived relation with apparent electrical resistivity.Hydrogeology Journal 5(3):97-108.https://doi.org/10.1007/s100400050125
Day-Lewis F,Lane J,Gorelick S(2006)Combined interpretation of radar,hydraulic,and tracer data from a fractured-rock aquifer near Mirror Lake,New Hampshire,USA.Hydrogeology Journal 14(1):1-14.https://doi.org/10.1007/s10040-004-0372-y
Day-Lewis FD,Singha K,Binley AM(2005)Applying petrophysical models to radar travel time and electrical resistivity tomograms:Resolution-dependent limitations.Journal of Geophysical Research:Solid Earth110(B8):B08206.https://doi.org/10.1029/2004JB003569.
Eden RN,Hazel CP(1973)Computer and graphical analysis of variable discharge pumping test of wells.Institution of Engineers Australia,Civil Engineering Transactions 15:5-10.
Fetter CW(1994)Applied Hydrogeology,third ed.Upper Saddle River,NJ:Prentice-Hall,Inc.,New Jersey,p.600.
Gao Q,Shang Y,Hasan M,et al.(2018)Evaluation of a Weathered Rock Aquifer Using ERT Method in South Guangdong,China.Water 10(3):293.https://doi.org/10.3390/w10030293
Greenhouse JP,Karrow PF(1994)Geological and geophysical studies of buried valleys and their fills near Elora and Rockwood,Ontario.Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences31(12):1838-1848.https://doi.org/10.1139/e94-163
Griffiths DH,Barker RD(1993)Two-dimensional resistivity imaging and modeling in areas of complex geology.Journal of Applied Geophysics 29(3):211-226.https://doi.org/10.1016/0926-9851(93)90005-J
Guangdong BGMR(Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resources of Guangdong Province)(1988)Regional geology of Guangdong Province.Geology Publishing House,Beijing.pp1-602.(In Chinese)
Ha HS,Kim DS,Park IJ(2010)Application of electrical resistivity techniques to detect weak and fracture zones during underground construction.Environmental Earth Sciences 60(4):723-731.https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-009-0210-6
Hasan M,Shang Y,Akhter G,et al.(2017b)Geophysical Assessment of Groundwater Potential:A Case Study from MianChannu Area,Pakistan.Groundwater 56(5):783-796.https://doi.org/10.1111/gwat.12617
Hasan M,Shang Y,Akhter G,et al.(2017a)Geophysical Investigation of Fresh-Saline Water Interface:A Case Study from South Punjab,Pakistan.Groundwater 55:841-856.https://doi.org/10.1111/gwat.12527
Hasan M,Shang Y,Akhter G,et al.(2018b)Evaluation of groundwater potential in Kabirwala area,Pakistan:A case study by using geophysical,geochemical and pump data.Geophysical Prospecting 66(9):1737-1750.https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2478.12679
Hasan M,Shang Y,Jin W(2018a)Delineation of weathered/fracture zones for aquifer potential using an integrated geophysical approach:A case study from South China.Journal of Applied Geophysics 157:47-60.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jappgeo.2018.06.017
Improta L,Ferranti L,De Martini PM,et al.(2010)Detecting young,slow-slipping active faults by geologic and multidisciplinary high-resolution geophysical investigations:A case study from the Apennine seismic belt,Italy.Journal of Geophysical Research:Solid Earth115(B11307):1-26.https://doi.org/10.1029/2010JB000871
Jardani A,Revil A,Barrash WA,et al.(2009)Reconstruction of the water table from self potential data:A Bayesian approach.Groundwater 47(2):213-227.https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6584.2008.00513.x
Johnson TC,Versteeg RJ,Ward AF,et al.(2010)Improved hydrogeophysical characterization and monitoring through high performance electrical geophysical modeling and inversion.Geophysics 75(4):27-41.https://doi.org/10.1190/1.3475513.
Jones MJ(1985)The weathered zones aquifers of Basement Complex Area of African.Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology and Hydrogeology 18(1):35-46.
https://doi.org/10.1144/GSL.QJEG.1985.018.01.06
Karim HH,Al-Neami MA,Mohammad WMY(2013)Soil site investigations using 2D Resistivity Imaging Technique.Engineering and Technology Journal 31(16):3125-3146.
Krasny J(2002)Quantitative hardrock hydrogeology in a regional scale.Norges geologiske unders?kelse Bulletin439:7-14.
Loke MH,Acworth I,Dahlin T(2003)A comparison of smooth and blocky inversion methods in 2D electrical imaging surveys.Exploration Geophysics 34(1):182-187.https://doi.org/10.1071/EG03182
Loke MH(2007)Res2dinv Software User`s Manual,Version3.57.Geotomo Software,Penang,Malysia,p.86.
Loke MH,Barker RD(1996)Rapid least-squares inversion of apparent resistivity pseudosections by a quasi-Newton method.Geophysical Prospecting 44(1):131-152.https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2478.1996.tb00142.x
Loke MH,Chambers JE,Rucker DF,et al.(2013)Recent developments in the direct-current geoelectrical imaging method.Journal of Applied Geophysics 95:135-156.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jappgeo.2013.02.017
Lowrie W(1997)Fundamentals of Geophysics.Cambridge University Press,UK.
Lucas DR,Fankhauser K,Springman SM(2016)Application of geotechnical and geophysical field measurements in an active alpine environment.Engineering Geology 219:32-51.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2016.11.018
Medeiros WE,Lima OAL(1990)Ageoelectrical investigation for ground water in crystalline terrains of Central Bahia,Brazil.Ground Water 28(4):518-523.https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6584.1990.tb01707.x
Meisner P(1962)A method of qualitative interpretation of self potential measurements.Geophysical Prospecting 10(2):203-218.https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2478.1962.tb02009.x
Meyer PA,Eyles CH(2007)Nature and origin of sediments infilling poorly defined buried bedrock valleys adjacent to the Niagara Escarpment,southern Ontario,Canada.Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 44(1):89-105.https://doi.org/10.1139/E06-085
Mitchell JK(1976)Fundamentals of soil behavior,John Wiley and Sons,New York,USA.
Mulligan RPM,Bajc AF(2018)The pre-Late Wisconsin stratigraphy of southern Simcoe County,Ontario:implications for ice sheet buildup,decay,and Great Lakes drainage evolution.Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 55.https://doi.org/10.1139/cjes-2016-0160
Okhue ET,Olorunfemi MO(1991)Electrical resistivity investigation of a typical basement complex area:The Obafemi Awolowo University campus case study.Journal of Mining and Geology 2(27):63-69.
Olayinka AI,Weller A(1997)The inversion of geoelectrical data for hydrogeological application in crystalline basement areas of Nigeria.Journal of Applied Geophysics 37(2):103-115.https://doi.org/10.1016/S0926-9851(97)00005-0
Paul MK(1965)Direct interpretation of self-potential anomalies caused by inclined sheets of finite horizontal extension.Geophysics 30(3):418-423.https://doi.org/10.1190/1.1439596
Revil A,Naudet V,Nouzaret J,et al.(2003)Principles of electrography applied to self-potential electrokinetic sources and hydrological applications.Water Resources Research39(5):1114.https://doi.org/10.1029/2001WR000916
Rubin Y,Hubbard S(2005)Hydrogeophysics,water science and technology library:Springer 50:523.
Salem HS(1999)Determination of fluid transmissivity and electric transverse resistance for shallow aquifers and deep reservoirs from surface and well-log electric measurements.Hydrology and Earth System Sciences 3(3):421-427.https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-3-421-1999
Seaton WJ,Burbey TJ(2002)Evaluation of two-dimensional resistivity methods in a fractured crystalline-rock terrain.Journal of Applied Geophysics 51(1):21-41.https://doi.org/10.1016/S0926-9851(02)00212-4
Self Potential Technique(2008)Available online at:http://www.nga.com/Geo_ser_Self_potential_tech.htm(Accessed on 20 July 2008)
Suski B,Ladner F,Baron L,et al.(2008)Detection and characterization of hydraulically active fractures in a carbonate aquifer:results from self-potential,temperature and fluid electrical conductivity logging in the Combioula hydrothermal system in the southwestern Swiss Alps.Hydrogeology Journal 16(7):1319-1328.https://doi.org/10.1007/s10040-008-0302-5
Taylor R,Howard K(2000)Atectono-geomorphic model of the hydrogeology of deeply weathered crystalline rock:evidence from Uganda.Hydrogeology Journal 8(3):279-294.https://doi.org/10.1007/s100400000069
Telford WM,Geldarl LP,Sheriff RE(1990)Applied Geophysics.Cambridge University Press,UK.
Todd DK,Mays LW(1980)Groundwater Hydrology,3rd ed.Hoboken,NJ:John Wiley and Sons.
Wyns RJC,Gourry JM,Baltassat,et al.(1999)Caractérisation multiparamètres des horizons de subsurface(0-100 m)en contexte de soclealtéré.In:BRGM,IRD,UPMC,I.(Ed.),2ème ColloqueGEOFCAN,Orléans,France.pp.105-110.
Xiao Y,Shao J,Frape SK,et al.(2018)Groundwater origin,flow regime and geochemical evolution in arid endorheic watersheds:a case study from the Qaidam Basin,northwestern China,Hydrology and Earth System Sciences22(8):4381-4400.https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-22-4381-2018
Akhter G,Hasan M(2016)Determination of aquifer parameters using geoelectrical sounding and pumping test data in Khanewal District,Pakistan.Open Geosciences 8(1):630-638.https://doi.org/10.1515/geo-2016-0071
Arnaud E,McGill M,Trapp A,et al.(2018)Subsurface heterogeneity in the geological and hydraulic properties of the hummocky Paris Moraine,Guelph,Ontario.Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 55(7):768-785.https://doi.org/10.1139/cjes-2016-0161.
Barker RD(1999)Surface and borehole geophysics.Section 3.2In:Lloyd JW(ed.)‘water resources of hard rock aquifers in arid and semi-arid zones’,UNESCO Studies and reports in hydrology,UNESCO,Paris,France 58:72-101.
Barker RD,White CC,Houston JFT(1992)Borehole sitting in an African accelerated drought relief project In:Wright EP,Burgess WGE(eds)Hydrogeology of crystalline basement aquifers in Africa.Geological Society London Special Publications 66(1):183-201.https://doi.org/10.1144/GSL.SP.1992.066.01.09
Carbonel D,Gutiérrez F,Linares R,et al.(2013)Differentiating between gravitational and tectonic faults by means of geomorphological mapping,trenching and geophysical surveys.The case of the Zenzano Fault(Iberian Chain,NSpain).Geomorphology 189(1):93-108.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2013.01.020
Carruthers RM,Smith IF(1992)The use of ground electrical survey methods for siting water-supply boreholes in shallow crystalline basement terrains.In:Wright EP,Burgess WGE(eds)Hydrogeology of crystalline basement aquifers in Africa.Geological Society London Special Publications 66(1):203-220.https://doi.org/10.1144/GSL.SP.1992.066.01.10
Chambers JE,Meldrum PI,Wilkinson PB,et al.(2015)Spatial monitoring of groundwater drawdown and rebound associated with quarry dewatering using automated timelapse electrical resistivity tomography and distribution guided clustering.Engineering Geology 193:412-420.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2015.05.015
Chandra S,Ahmed A,Ram A,et al.(2008)Estimation of hard rock aquifers hydraulic conductivity from geoelectrical measurements:A theoretical development with field application.Journal of Hydrology 357:218-227.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2008.05.023
Chapuis RP(1992)Using Cooper-Jacob approximation to take account of pumping well pipe storage effects in early drawdown data of a confined aquifer.Groundwater 30(3):331-337.https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6584.1992.tb02000.x
Corwin RF,Hoover DB(1979)The self potential method in geothermal exploration.Geophysics 44(2),pp 226.https://doi.org/10.1190/1.1440964
Dasargues A(1997)Modeling base flow from an alluvial aquifer using hydraulic-conductivity data obtained from a derived relation with apparent electrical resistivity.Hydrogeology Journal 5(3):97-108.https://doi.org/10.1007/s100400050125
Day-Lewis F,Lane J,Gorelick S(2006)Combined interpretation of radar,hydraulic,and tracer data from a fractured-rock aquifer near Mirror Lake,New Hampshire,USA.Hydrogeology Journal 14(1):1-14.https://doi.org/10.1007/s10040-004-0372-y
Day-Lewis FD,Singha K,Binley AM(2005)Applying petrophysical models to radar travel time and electrical resistivity tomograms:Resolution-dependent limitations.Journal of Geophysical Research:Solid Earth110(B8):B08206.https://doi.org/10.1029/2004JB003569.
Eden RN,Hazel CP(1973)Computer and graphical analysis of variable discharge pumping test of wells.Institution of Engineers Australia,Civil Engineering Transactions 15:5-10.
Fetter CW(1994)Applied Hydrogeology,third ed.Upper Saddle River,NJ:Prentice-Hall,Inc.,New Jersey,p.600.
Gao Q,Shang Y,Hasan M,et al.(2018)Evaluation of a Weathered Rock Aquifer Using ERT Method in South Guangdong,China.Water 10(3):293.https://doi.org/10.3390/w10030293
Greenhouse JP,Karrow PF(1994)Geological and geophysical studies of buried valleys and their fills near Elora and Rockwood,Ontario.Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences31(12):1838-1848.https://doi.org/10.1139/e94-163
Griffiths DH,Barker RD(1993)Two-dimensional resistivity imaging and modeling in areas of complex geology.Journal of Applied Geophysics 29(3):211-226.https://doi.org/10.1016/0926-9851(93)90005-J
Guangdong BGMR(Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resources of Guangdong Province)(1988)Regional geology of Guangdong Province.Geology Publishing House,Beijing.pp1-602.(In Chinese)
Ha HS,Kim DS,Park IJ(2010)Application of electrical resistivity techniques to detect weak and fracture zones during underground construction.Environmental Earth Sciences 60(4):723-731.https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-009-0210-6
Hasan M,Shang Y,Akhter G,et al.(2017b)Geophysical Assessment of Groundwater Potential:A Case Study from MianChannu Area,Pakistan.Groundwater 56(5):783-796.https://doi.org/10.1111/gwat.12617
Hasan M,Shang Y,Akhter G,et al.(2017a)Geophysical Investigation of Fresh-Saline Water Interface:A Case Study from South Punjab,Pakistan.Groundwater 55:841-856.https://doi.org/10.1111/gwat.12527
Hasan M,Shang Y,Akhter G,et al.(2018b)Evaluation of groundwater potential in Kabirwala area,Pakistan:A case study by using geophysical,geochemical and pump data.Geophysical Prospecting 66(9):1737-1750.https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2478.12679
Hasan M,Shang Y,Jin W(2018a)Delineation of weathered/fracture zones for aquifer potential using an integrated geophysical approach:A case study from South China.Journal of Applied Geophysics 157:47-60.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jappgeo.2018.06.017
Improta L,Ferranti L,De Martini PM,et al.(2010)Detecting young,slow-slipping active faults by geologic and multidisciplinary high-resolution geophysical investigations:A case study from the Apennine seismic belt,Italy.Journal of Geophysical Research:Solid Earth115(B11307):1-26.https://doi.org/10.1029/2010JB000871
Jardani A,Revil A,Barrash WA,et al.(2009)Reconstruction of the water table from self potential data:A Bayesian approach.Groundwater 47(2):213-227.https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6584.2008.00513.x
Johnson TC,Versteeg RJ,Ward AF,et al.(2010)Improved hydrogeophysical characterization and monitoring through high performance electrical geophysical modeling and inversion.Geophysics 75(4):27-41.https://doi.org/10.1190/1.3475513.
Jones MJ(1985)The weathered zones aquifers of Basement Complex Area of African.Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology and Hydrogeology 18(1):35-46.
https://doi.org/10.1144/GSL.QJEG.1985.018.01.06
Karim HH,Al-Neami MA,Mohammad WMY(2013)Soil site investigations using 2D Resistivity Imaging Technique.Engineering and Technology Journal 31(16):3125-3146.
Krasny J(2002)Quantitative hardrock hydrogeology in a regional scale.Norges geologiske unders?kelse Bulletin439:7-14.
Loke MH,Acworth I,Dahlin T(2003)A comparison of smooth and blocky inversion methods in 2D electrical imaging surveys.Exploration Geophysics 34(1):182-187.https://doi.org/10.1071/EG03182
Loke MH(2007)Res2dinv Software User`s Manual,Version3.57.Geotomo Software,Penang,Malysia,p.86.
Loke MH,Barker RD(1996)Rapid least-squares inversion of apparent resistivity pseudosections by a quasi-Newton method.Geophysical Prospecting 44(1):131-152.https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2478.1996.tb00142.x
Loke MH,Chambers JE,Rucker DF,et al.(2013)Recent developments in the direct-current geoelectrical imaging method.Journal of Applied Geophysics 95:135-156.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jappgeo.2013.02.017
Lowrie W(1997)Fundamentals of Geophysics.Cambridge University Press,UK.
Lucas DR,Fankhauser K,Springman SM(2016)Application of geotechnical and geophysical field measurements in an active alpine environment.Engineering Geology 219:32-51.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2016.11.018
Medeiros WE,Lima OAL(1990)Ageoelectrical investigation for ground water in crystalline terrains of Central Bahia,Brazil.Ground Water 28(4):518-523.https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6584.1990.tb01707.x
Meisner P(1962)A method of qualitative interpretation of self potential measurements.Geophysical Prospecting 10(2):203-218.https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2478.1962.tb02009.x
Meyer PA,Eyles CH(2007)Nature and origin of sediments infilling poorly defined buried bedrock valleys adjacent to the Niagara Escarpment,southern Ontario,Canada.Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 44(1):89-105.https://doi.org/10.1139/E06-085
Mitchell JK(1976)Fundamentals of soil behavior,John Wiley and Sons,New York,USA.
Mulligan RPM,Bajc AF(2018)The pre-Late Wisconsin stratigraphy of southern Simcoe County,Ontario:implications for ice sheet buildup,decay,and Great Lakes drainage evolution.Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 55.https://doi.org/10.1139/cjes-2016-0160
Okhue ET,Olorunfemi MO(1991)Electrical resistivity investigation of a typical basement complex area:The Obafemi Awolowo University campus case study.Journal of Mining and Geology 2(27):63-69.
Olayinka AI,Weller A(1997)The inversion of geoelectrical data for hydrogeological application in crystalline basement areas of Nigeria.Journal of Applied Geophysics 37(2):103-115.https://doi.org/10.1016/S0926-9851(97)00005-0
Paul MK(1965)Direct interpretation of self-potential anomalies caused by inclined sheets of finite horizontal extension.Geophysics 30(3):418-423.https://doi.org/10.1190/1.1439596
Revil A,Naudet V,Nouzaret J,et al.(2003)Principles of electrography applied to self-potential electrokinetic sources and hydrological applications.Water Resources Research39(5):1114.https://doi.org/10.1029/2001WR000916
Rubin Y,Hubbard S(2005)Hydrogeophysics,water science and technology library:Springer 50:523.
Salem HS(1999)Determination of fluid transmissivity and electric transverse resistance for shallow aquifers and deep reservoirs from surface and well-log electric measurements.Hydrology and Earth System Sciences 3(3):421-427.https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-3-421-1999
Seaton WJ,Burbey TJ(2002)Evaluation of two-dimensional resistivity methods in a fractured crystalline-rock terrain.Journal of Applied Geophysics 51(1):21-41.https://doi.org/10.1016/S0926-9851(02)00212-4
Self Potential Technique(2008)Available online at:http://www.nga.com/Geo_ser_Self_potential_tech.htm(Accessed on 20 July 2008)
Suski B,Ladner F,Baron L,et al.(2008)Detection and characterization of hydraulically active fractures in a carbonate aquifer:results from self-potential,temperature and fluid electrical conductivity logging in the Combioula hydrothermal system in the southwestern Swiss Alps.Hydrogeology Journal 16(7):1319-1328.https://doi.org/10.1007/s10040-008-0302-5
Taylor R,Howard K(2000)Atectono-geomorphic model of the hydrogeology of deeply weathered crystalline rock:evidence from Uganda.Hydrogeology Journal 8(3):279-294.https://doi.org/10.1007/s100400000069
Telford WM,Geldarl LP,Sheriff RE(1990)Applied Geophysics.Cambridge University Press,UK.
Todd DK,Mays LW(1980)Groundwater Hydrology,3rd ed.Hoboken,NJ:John Wiley and Sons.
Wyns RJC,Gourry JM,Baltassat,et al.(1999)Caractérisation multiparamètres des horizons de subsurface(0-100 m)en contexte de soclealtéré.In:BRGM,IRD,UPMC,I.(Ed.),2ème ColloqueGEOFCAN,Orléans,France.pp.105-110.
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