Early recovery process and restoration planning of burned pine forests in central eastern Korea
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摘要
In central eastern Korea, there has been a continued effort to sustain pine forests because of their value for wood and mushroom production, as well as for other resources. Through the analysis of previously burned areas,we clarified the effects of fire on vegetation dynamics of pine forests by measuring changes in species composition,population structure, and the growth rates of major tree species. Vegetation analysis was conducted on a series of 100 m~2 plots established in Korean red pine(Pinus densiflora Siebold. & Zucc.) and Mongolian oak(Quercus mongolica Fisch. Ex Ledeb.) forests situated in three different topographic positions on slopes where fire severity varied. We confirmed that most pine trees will succumb to even a surface fire, whereas oak may be killed following high intensity or infrequent fires but will sprout and become dominant. Complete protection from fire favors other, more shade-tolerant deciduous hardwoods. Different restoration plans apply, based on observed vegetation responses for each topographic zone. Near the ridge top,where pine seed sources are most limited, it may be necessary to restore pine forests by planting and to control competing shrubs and herbs. At the mountain foot, where exotic species and species modified by hybridization have invaded aggressively, restoration that involves the introduction of natural vegetation is required. Mid-slope sites,where pine has been replaced by natural vegetation dominated by Mongolian oak, do not require any form of restorative treatment.
In central eastern Korea, there has been a continued effort to sustain pine forests because of their value for wood and mushroom production, as well as for other resources. Through the analysis of previously burned areas,we clarified the effects of fire on vegetation dynamics of pine forests by measuring changes in species composition,population structure, and the growth rates of major tree species. Vegetation analysis was conducted on a series of 100 m~2 plots established in Korean red pine(Pinus densiflora Siebold. & Zucc.) and Mongolian oak(Quercus mongolica Fisch. Ex Ledeb.) forests situated in three different topographic positions on slopes where fire severity varied. We confirmed that most pine trees will succumb to even a surface fire, whereas oak may be killed following high intensity or infrequent fires but will sprout and become dominant. Complete protection from fire favors other, more shade-tolerant deciduous hardwoods. Different restoration plans apply, based on observed vegetation responses for each topographic zone. Near the ridge top,where pine seed sources are most limited, it may be necessary to restore pine forests by planting and to control competing shrubs and herbs. At the mountain foot, where exotic species and species modified by hybridization have invaded aggressively, restoration that involves the introduction of natural vegetation is required. Mid-slope sites,where pine has been replaced by natural vegetation dominated by Mongolian oak, do not require any form of restorative treatment.
In central eastern Korea, there has been a continued effort to sustain pine forests because of their value for wood and mushroom production, as well as for other resources. Through the analysis of previously burned areas,we clarified the effects of fire on vegetation dynamics of pine forests by measuring changes in species composition,population structure, and the growth rates of major tree species. Vegetation analysis was conducted on a series of 100 m~2 plots established in Korean red pine(Pinus densiflora Siebold. & Zucc.) and Mongolian oak(Quercus mongolica Fisch. Ex Ledeb.) forests situated in three different topographic positions on slopes where fire severity varied. We confirmed that most pine trees will succumb to even a surface fire, whereas oak may be killed following high intensity or infrequent fires but will sprout and become dominant. Complete protection from fire favors other, more shade-tolerant deciduous hardwoods. Different restoration plans apply, based on observed vegetation responses for each topographic zone. Near the ridge top,where pine seed sources are most limited, it may be necessary to restore pine forests by planting and to control competing shrubs and herbs. At the mountain foot, where exotic species and species modified by hybridization have invaded aggressively, restoration that involves the introduction of natural vegetation is required. Mid-slope sites,where pine has been replaced by natural vegetation dominated by Mongolian oak, do not require any form of restorative treatment.
引文
Aber JD(1987)Restored forests and the identification of critical factors in species-site interactions.In:Jordan WE,Gilpin ME,Aber JD(eds)Restoration ecology:a synthetic approach to ecological research.Cambridge University Press,Cambridge,pp 241-250
Aronson J,Floret C,Le floc’h E,Ovalle C,Pontainer P(1993)Restoration and rehabilitation of degraded ecosystems in arid and semi-arid lands.I.A review from the South.Restor Ecol1:8-17
Barbour MG,Burk JH,Pitts WD,Gilliam FS,Schwartz MW(1999)Terrestrial plant ecology,3rd edn.The Benjamin/Cummings Co,Menlo Park
Barton AM(1999)Pines versus oaks:effects of fire on the composition of Madrean forestsin Arizona.For Ecol Manag120:143-156
Berger JJ(1993)Ecological restoration and non-indigenous plant species:a review.Restor Ecol 1:74-82
Blake JG,Schuette B(2000)Restoration of an oak forest in eastcentral Missouri:early effects of prescribed burning on woody vegetation.For Ecol Manag 139:109-126
Boerner REJ(1983)Nutrient dynamics of vegetation and detritus following two intensities of fire in the New Jersey Pine Barrens.Oecologia 59:129-134
Boerner REJ,Forman RTT(1982)Hydrologic and mineral budgets of New Jersey Pine Barrens upland forests following two intensities of fire.Can J For Res 12:503-515
Bradshaw AD(1983)The reconstruction of ecosystems.J Appl Ecol20:1-17
Braun-Blanquet J(1964)Pflanzensoziologie,3rd edn.Springer,Wien
Burrows CJ(1990)Processes of vegetation change.Unwin Hyman,London
Choung Y,Lee BC,Cho JH,Lee KS,Jang IS,Kim SH,Hong SK,Jung HC,Choung HL(2004)Forest responses to the large-scale east coast fires in Korea.Ecol Res 19:43-54
Connell JH,Slatyer RO(1977)Mechanisms of succession in natural communities and their role in community stability and organization.Am Nat 111:1119-1124
Forestry Research Institute(1996)Ecological report on forest fires at Kosung.Forestry Research Institute,Seoul(in Korean)
Fujihara M(1996)Development of secondary pine forests after pine wilt disease in western Japan.J Veg Sci 7:729-738
Gutsell SL,Johnson EA(2007)Wildfire and Tree population processes.In:Johnson EA,Miyanishi K(eds)Plant disturbance ecology:the process and the response.Academic Press,New York,pp 441-485
Hill MO(1979)DECORANA-a FORTRAN program for detrended correspondence analysis and reciprocal averaging.Ecology and systematics.Connell University,Ithaca
Hill MO,Gauch HG(1980)Detrended ordination analysis:an improved ordination technique.Vegetatio 42:47-58
Holzner W,Werger MJA,Ikushima I(1983)Man’s impact on vegetation.Dr.W.Junk,The Hague
Hough M(1984)City form and natural processes.Croom Helm,London
Howell EA,Harrington JA,Glass SB(2012)Introduction to restoration ecology.Island Press,Washington
Institute SAS(2001)PROC user’s manual,version,6th edn.SASInstitute,Cary
Isagi Y,Nakagoshi N(1990)A Markov approach for describing postfire succession of vegetation.Ecol Res 5:163-171
Johnson EA(1995)Fire and vegetation dynamics:studies from the North American Boreal forest.Cambridge University Press,Cambridge
Kennard DK,Gould K,Putz FE,Fredericksen TS,Morales F(2002)Effect of disturbance intensity on regeneration mechanisms in a tropical dry forest.For Ecol Manag 162:197-208
Klaudisova A,Osbornova J(1990)Abandoned fields in the region.In:Osbornova J,Kovarova M,Leps J,Prach K(eds)Succession and abandoned fields:studies in central Bohemia,Czechoslovakia,vol 15.Geobotany.Kluwer Academic Publisher,Dordrecht,pp 7-21
Korea Forest Service(2004)Statistical analysis of forest fire in Korea.Korea Forest Service,Seoul(in Korean)
Korea Metrological Administration(2011)Annual climatological report.Korea Metrological Administration,Seoul(in Korean)
Koyama N(1943)Light und Bodenwasser in ihrer Wirkung als Grundfaktor auf Die Kiefernnaturverjungung.Forestry Experiment Station of the Government-general of Korea,Seoul
Lavoie L,Sirois L(1998)Vegetative changes caused by recent fires in the northern boreal forest of eastern Canada.J Veg Sci9:483-492
Lee CS(1989)A study on the succession of pine forests damaged by pine gall midge.PhD thesis,Seoul National Univ,Seoul(in Korean with English abstract)
Lee CS(1995a)Disturbance regime of the Pinus densiflora forest in Korea.Korean J Ecol 18:179-188(in Korean with English abstract)
Lee CS(1995b)Regeneration process after disturbance of the Pinus densiflora forest in Korea.Korean J Ecol 18:189-201(in Korean with English abstract)
Lee CS(1995c)Disturbance of forest and its regeneration.In:Kim JH(ed)Advanced ecology.Gyomunsa,Seoul,pp 385-423(in Korean)
Lee CS(2015)Role and task of restoration ecology in changing environment.Natl Acad Sci 5:481-527(in Korean)
Lee CS,Hong SK(1998)Changes of landscape pattern and vegetation structure in rural area disturbed by fire.Korean JEcol 21:389-399(in Korean with English abstract)
Lee CS,Hong SK(2001)Landscape ecological perspectives in the structure and dynamics of fire-disturbed vegetation in a rural landscape,eastern Korea.In:van der Zee D,Zonneveld IS(eds)Landscape ecology applied in land evaluation,development and conservation,vol 81.Some worldwide selected examples.ITCPublication,IALE Publication MM-1,Cannon Hill,pp 81-94
Lee CS,Kim HE(1989)Ecological studies for natural regeneration by selfsown of Pinus densiflora forest.J Agric Sci Chungbuk Natl Univ 7:100-109(in Korean with English abstract)
Lee CS,Kim JH,Yi H,You YH(2004a)Seedling establishment and generation of Korean red pine(Pinus densiflora S.et Z.)forests in Korea in relation to soil moisture.For Ecol Manag199:423-432
Lee CS,Lee KS,Hwangbo JK,You YH,Kim JH(2004b)Selection of tolerant plants and their arrangement to restore a forest ecosystem damaged by air pollution.Water Air Soil Pollut156:251-273
Lee CS,Moon JS,Cho YC(2007)Effects of soil amelioration and tree planting on restoration of an air-pollution damaged forest in south Korea.Water Air Soil Pollut 179:239-254
Lloyd PS(1971)Effects of fire on the chemical status of herbaceous communities of the Derbyshire Dales.J Ecol 5:1120-1127
Lloyd PS(1972)Effects of fire on a Derbyshire grassland community.Ecology 60:915-920
MacMahon JA(1987)Disturbed lands and ecological theory:an essay about mutualistic associations.In:Jordan WR,Gilpin ME,Aber JD(eds)Restoration ecology.Cambridge University Press,Cambridge,pp 221-240
Malanson GP(1987)Diversity,stability,and resilience:effects of fire regime.In:Trabaud L(ed)The role of fire in ecological systems.SPB Academic Publishing,The Hague,pp 49-63
McDonell MJ,Pickett STA(1990)Ecosystem structure and function along urban-rural gradients:an unexploited opportunity for ecology.Ecology 71:1232-1237
Mun HT,Choung YS(1996)Effects of forests fire on soil nutrients in pine forests in Kosong,Kangwon Province.Korean J Ecol20:375-383(in Korean with English abstract)
Mun HT,Choung YS(1997)Species composition and nutrient absorption by plants in the immediate postfire year.Korean JEcol 21:27-33(in Korean with English abstract)
Nakagoshi N(1984)Fire and forest vegetation.In:Miyawaki A(ed)Vegetation of Japan,Kinki.Shibundo,Tokyo,pp 402-410(in Japanese)
Nakagoshi N,Touyama Y(1995)Disturbances and recovery processes of a pine forest ecosystem in a fire regime.J Int Dev Coop 1:43-59
Nakagoshi N,Nehira K,Takahashi F(1987)The role of fire in pine forests of Japan.In:Trabaud L(ed)The role of fire in ecological systems.SPB Academic Publishing,The Hague,pp 91-119
Oliver CD,Larson BC(1990)Forest stand dynamics.McGraw-Hill,New York
Pyne SJ,Andrew PL,Laven RD(1996)Introduction to wildland fire,2nd edn.Wiley,New York
Raison JJ(1979)Modification of the soil environment by vegetation fires,with particular references to nitrogen transformations:a review.Plant Soil 51:73-108
Romme WH(1982)Fire and landscape diversity in subalpine forests of Yellowstone National Park.Ecol Monogr 52:199-221
Rundel PW(1981)Fire as an ecological factor.In:Lange OL,Nobel PS,Osmond CB,Ziegler H(eds)Encyclopedia of plant physiology,vol 12A.New series.Physiological plant ecology I.Springer,Berlin
Ryan KC(2002)Dynamic interactions between forest structure and fire behavior in boreal ecosystems.Silva Fennica 36:13-39
SERI and PWG(2004)The SER international primer on ecological restoration.www.ser.org&Tucson:Society for Ecological Restoration International.https://www.seri.org/.Accessed 15July 2016
Stock WD,Lewis OAM(1986)Soil nitrogen and the role of fire as a mineralizing agent in a South African coastal fynbos ecosystem.J Ecol 74:317-328
Trabaud L(1987)Fire and survival traits of plants.In:Trabaud L(ed)The role of fire in ecological systems.SPB Academic Publishing,The Hague,pp 65-89
Trabund L,Gatti JF(1996)Effects of fire frequency on plant communities and landscape pattern in the Massif des Aspres(southern France).Landsc Ecol 11:215-224
Turner MG,Bratton SP(1987)Fire,grazing,and the landscape heterogeneity of a Georgia Barrier Island.In:Turner MG(ed)Landscape heterogeneity and disturbance.Springer,New York,pp 85-101
Turner M,Hargrove W,Gardner R,Romme W(1994)Effects of fire on landscape heterogeneity in Yellowstone National Park,Wyoming.J Veg Sci 5:731-742
Walstad JD,Radonsevic SR,Sanberg DV(1990)Natural and prescribed fire in pacific northwest forests.Oregon State University Press,Corvallis
Whelan RJ(1995)The ecology of fire.Cambridge University Press,New York
White PS,Pickett STA(1985)Natural disturbance and patch dynamics:An introduction.In:Pickett STA,White PS(eds)The ecology of natural disturbance and patch dynamics.Academic Press,Orlando,pp 3-13
Yim YJ,Kira T(1975)Distribution of forest vegetation and climate in Korean Peninsula I.Distribution of some indices of thermal climate.Jpn J Ecol 25:77-88
Yim YJ,Kira T(1976)Distribution of forest vegetation and climate in Korean Peninsula II.Distribution of climatic humidity/aridity.Jpn J Ecol 26:157-164
Yim YJ,Kira T(1977)Distribution of forest vegetation and climate in Korean Peninsula III.Distribution of tree species along the thermal gradient.Jpn J Ecol 27:177-189
Zedler PH(2007)Fire effects on grasslands.In:Johnson EA,Miyanishi K(eds)Plant disturbance ecology:the process and the response.Academic Press,New York,pp 397-439
Zonneveld IS(1989)The land unit-a fundamental concept in landscape ecology,and its application.Landsc Ecol 3:67-86
1Corresponds to a county.
Aronson J,Floret C,Le floc’h E,Ovalle C,Pontainer P(1993)Restoration and rehabilitation of degraded ecosystems in arid and semi-arid lands.I.A review from the South.Restor Ecol1:8-17
Barbour MG,Burk JH,Pitts WD,Gilliam FS,Schwartz MW(1999)Terrestrial plant ecology,3rd edn.The Benjamin/Cummings Co,Menlo Park
Barton AM(1999)Pines versus oaks:effects of fire on the composition of Madrean forestsin Arizona.For Ecol Manag120:143-156
Berger JJ(1993)Ecological restoration and non-indigenous plant species:a review.Restor Ecol 1:74-82
Blake JG,Schuette B(2000)Restoration of an oak forest in eastcentral Missouri:early effects of prescribed burning on woody vegetation.For Ecol Manag 139:109-126
Boerner REJ(1983)Nutrient dynamics of vegetation and detritus following two intensities of fire in the New Jersey Pine Barrens.Oecologia 59:129-134
Boerner REJ,Forman RTT(1982)Hydrologic and mineral budgets of New Jersey Pine Barrens upland forests following two intensities of fire.Can J For Res 12:503-515
Bradshaw AD(1983)The reconstruction of ecosystems.J Appl Ecol20:1-17
Braun-Blanquet J(1964)Pflanzensoziologie,3rd edn.Springer,Wien
Burrows CJ(1990)Processes of vegetation change.Unwin Hyman,London
Choung Y,Lee BC,Cho JH,Lee KS,Jang IS,Kim SH,Hong SK,Jung HC,Choung HL(2004)Forest responses to the large-scale east coast fires in Korea.Ecol Res 19:43-54
Connell JH,Slatyer RO(1977)Mechanisms of succession in natural communities and their role in community stability and organization.Am Nat 111:1119-1124
Forestry Research Institute(1996)Ecological report on forest fires at Kosung.Forestry Research Institute,Seoul(in Korean)
Fujihara M(1996)Development of secondary pine forests after pine wilt disease in western Japan.J Veg Sci 7:729-738
Gutsell SL,Johnson EA(2007)Wildfire and Tree population processes.In:Johnson EA,Miyanishi K(eds)Plant disturbance ecology:the process and the response.Academic Press,New York,pp 441-485
Hill MO(1979)DECORANA-a FORTRAN program for detrended correspondence analysis and reciprocal averaging.Ecology and systematics.Connell University,Ithaca
Hill MO,Gauch HG(1980)Detrended ordination analysis:an improved ordination technique.Vegetatio 42:47-58
Holzner W,Werger MJA,Ikushima I(1983)Man’s impact on vegetation.Dr.W.Junk,The Hague
Hough M(1984)City form and natural processes.Croom Helm,London
Howell EA,Harrington JA,Glass SB(2012)Introduction to restoration ecology.Island Press,Washington
Institute SAS(2001)PROC user’s manual,version,6th edn.SASInstitute,Cary
Isagi Y,Nakagoshi N(1990)A Markov approach for describing postfire succession of vegetation.Ecol Res 5:163-171
Johnson EA(1995)Fire and vegetation dynamics:studies from the North American Boreal forest.Cambridge University Press,Cambridge
Kennard DK,Gould K,Putz FE,Fredericksen TS,Morales F(2002)Effect of disturbance intensity on regeneration mechanisms in a tropical dry forest.For Ecol Manag 162:197-208
Klaudisova A,Osbornova J(1990)Abandoned fields in the region.In:Osbornova J,Kovarova M,Leps J,Prach K(eds)Succession and abandoned fields:studies in central Bohemia,Czechoslovakia,vol 15.Geobotany.Kluwer Academic Publisher,Dordrecht,pp 7-21
Korea Forest Service(2004)Statistical analysis of forest fire in Korea.Korea Forest Service,Seoul(in Korean)
Korea Metrological Administration(2011)Annual climatological report.Korea Metrological Administration,Seoul(in Korean)
Koyama N(1943)Light und Bodenwasser in ihrer Wirkung als Grundfaktor auf Die Kiefernnaturverjungung.Forestry Experiment Station of the Government-general of Korea,Seoul
Lavoie L,Sirois L(1998)Vegetative changes caused by recent fires in the northern boreal forest of eastern Canada.J Veg Sci9:483-492
Lee CS(1989)A study on the succession of pine forests damaged by pine gall midge.PhD thesis,Seoul National Univ,Seoul(in Korean with English abstract)
Lee CS(1995a)Disturbance regime of the Pinus densiflora forest in Korea.Korean J Ecol 18:179-188(in Korean with English abstract)
Lee CS(1995b)Regeneration process after disturbance of the Pinus densiflora forest in Korea.Korean J Ecol 18:189-201(in Korean with English abstract)
Lee CS(1995c)Disturbance of forest and its regeneration.In:Kim JH(ed)Advanced ecology.Gyomunsa,Seoul,pp 385-423(in Korean)
Lee CS(2015)Role and task of restoration ecology in changing environment.Natl Acad Sci 5:481-527(in Korean)
Lee CS,Hong SK(1998)Changes of landscape pattern and vegetation structure in rural area disturbed by fire.Korean JEcol 21:389-399(in Korean with English abstract)
Lee CS,Hong SK(2001)Landscape ecological perspectives in the structure and dynamics of fire-disturbed vegetation in a rural landscape,eastern Korea.In:van der Zee D,Zonneveld IS(eds)Landscape ecology applied in land evaluation,development and conservation,vol 81.Some worldwide selected examples.ITCPublication,IALE Publication MM-1,Cannon Hill,pp 81-94
Lee CS,Kim HE(1989)Ecological studies for natural regeneration by selfsown of Pinus densiflora forest.J Agric Sci Chungbuk Natl Univ 7:100-109(in Korean with English abstract)
Lee CS,Kim JH,Yi H,You YH(2004a)Seedling establishment and generation of Korean red pine(Pinus densiflora S.et Z.)forests in Korea in relation to soil moisture.For Ecol Manag199:423-432
Lee CS,Lee KS,Hwangbo JK,You YH,Kim JH(2004b)Selection of tolerant plants and their arrangement to restore a forest ecosystem damaged by air pollution.Water Air Soil Pollut156:251-273
Lee CS,Moon JS,Cho YC(2007)Effects of soil amelioration and tree planting on restoration of an air-pollution damaged forest in south Korea.Water Air Soil Pollut 179:239-254
Lloyd PS(1971)Effects of fire on the chemical status of herbaceous communities of the Derbyshire Dales.J Ecol 5:1120-1127
Lloyd PS(1972)Effects of fire on a Derbyshire grassland community.Ecology 60:915-920
MacMahon JA(1987)Disturbed lands and ecological theory:an essay about mutualistic associations.In:Jordan WR,Gilpin ME,Aber JD(eds)Restoration ecology.Cambridge University Press,Cambridge,pp 221-240
Malanson GP(1987)Diversity,stability,and resilience:effects of fire regime.In:Trabaud L(ed)The role of fire in ecological systems.SPB Academic Publishing,The Hague,pp 49-63
McDonell MJ,Pickett STA(1990)Ecosystem structure and function along urban-rural gradients:an unexploited opportunity for ecology.Ecology 71:1232-1237
Mun HT,Choung YS(1996)Effects of forests fire on soil nutrients in pine forests in Kosong,Kangwon Province.Korean J Ecol20:375-383(in Korean with English abstract)
Mun HT,Choung YS(1997)Species composition and nutrient absorption by plants in the immediate postfire year.Korean JEcol 21:27-33(in Korean with English abstract)
Nakagoshi N(1984)Fire and forest vegetation.In:Miyawaki A(ed)Vegetation of Japan,Kinki.Shibundo,Tokyo,pp 402-410(in Japanese)
Nakagoshi N,Touyama Y(1995)Disturbances and recovery processes of a pine forest ecosystem in a fire regime.J Int Dev Coop 1:43-59
Nakagoshi N,Nehira K,Takahashi F(1987)The role of fire in pine forests of Japan.In:Trabaud L(ed)The role of fire in ecological systems.SPB Academic Publishing,The Hague,pp 91-119
Oliver CD,Larson BC(1990)Forest stand dynamics.McGraw-Hill,New York
Pyne SJ,Andrew PL,Laven RD(1996)Introduction to wildland fire,2nd edn.Wiley,New York
Raison JJ(1979)Modification of the soil environment by vegetation fires,with particular references to nitrogen transformations:a review.Plant Soil 51:73-108
Romme WH(1982)Fire and landscape diversity in subalpine forests of Yellowstone National Park.Ecol Monogr 52:199-221
Rundel PW(1981)Fire as an ecological factor.In:Lange OL,Nobel PS,Osmond CB,Ziegler H(eds)Encyclopedia of plant physiology,vol 12A.New series.Physiological plant ecology I.Springer,Berlin
Ryan KC(2002)Dynamic interactions between forest structure and fire behavior in boreal ecosystems.Silva Fennica 36:13-39
SERI and PWG(2004)The SER international primer on ecological restoration.www.ser.org&Tucson:Society for Ecological Restoration International.https://www.seri.org/.Accessed 15July 2016
Stock WD,Lewis OAM(1986)Soil nitrogen and the role of fire as a mineralizing agent in a South African coastal fynbos ecosystem.J Ecol 74:317-328
Trabaud L(1987)Fire and survival traits of plants.In:Trabaud L(ed)The role of fire in ecological systems.SPB Academic Publishing,The Hague,pp 65-89
Trabund L,Gatti JF(1996)Effects of fire frequency on plant communities and landscape pattern in the Massif des Aspres(southern France).Landsc Ecol 11:215-224
Turner MG,Bratton SP(1987)Fire,grazing,and the landscape heterogeneity of a Georgia Barrier Island.In:Turner MG(ed)Landscape heterogeneity and disturbance.Springer,New York,pp 85-101
Turner M,Hargrove W,Gardner R,Romme W(1994)Effects of fire on landscape heterogeneity in Yellowstone National Park,Wyoming.J Veg Sci 5:731-742
Walstad JD,Radonsevic SR,Sanberg DV(1990)Natural and prescribed fire in pacific northwest forests.Oregon State University Press,Corvallis
Whelan RJ(1995)The ecology of fire.Cambridge University Press,New York
White PS,Pickett STA(1985)Natural disturbance and patch dynamics:An introduction.In:Pickett STA,White PS(eds)The ecology of natural disturbance and patch dynamics.Academic Press,Orlando,pp 3-13
Yim YJ,Kira T(1975)Distribution of forest vegetation and climate in Korean Peninsula I.Distribution of some indices of thermal climate.Jpn J Ecol 25:77-88
Yim YJ,Kira T(1976)Distribution of forest vegetation and climate in Korean Peninsula II.Distribution of climatic humidity/aridity.Jpn J Ecol 26:157-164
Yim YJ,Kira T(1977)Distribution of forest vegetation and climate in Korean Peninsula III.Distribution of tree species along the thermal gradient.Jpn J Ecol 27:177-189
Zedler PH(2007)Fire effects on grasslands.In:Johnson EA,Miyanishi K(eds)Plant disturbance ecology:the process and the response.Academic Press,New York,pp 397-439
Zonneveld IS(1989)The land unit-a fundamental concept in landscape ecology,and its application.Landsc Ecol 3:67-86
1Corresponds to a county.