丈夫的家务劳动参与和女性初育风险
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摘要
有关中国妇女生育风险的现有研究主要关注宏观政策因素和个人婚育史的影响。随着我国总和生育率长期稳定在低水平,微观层面的个人、家庭因素日益成为决定女性生育行为的主要因素。文章采取跨学科视角,从社会学、经济学和人口学的不同角度出发,探讨了当代中国女性的经济行为、家庭中的性别关系和家务分工、照料需求的差异与女性初育风险的关系,提出了具体的研究假设,并使用"中国健康与营养调查"数据,采用事件史分析方法对研究假设进行检验。分析结果显示,女性的收入越高,初育风险越低,而与婆婆同住则和较高的初育风险相关。同时,丈夫分担家务劳动,可以明显提高女性的初育风险。进一步的研究显示,丈夫家务劳动参与的作用在难以获得婆婆家务帮助的情况下更加明显。
Previous Chinese literature on women's hazards of giving births focused on the impacts of policies or marital and childbearing histories. Under low fertility regime, gender and intergenerational relations rather than policy interventions exert more influence on Chinese women's childbearing behaviors. Under the framework of New Home Economics and gender equity theory, and gender and development approach regarding fertility, this study discusses about how Chinese women's economic activities and changes in gender relations might affect women's hazards of entering parenthood. Capitalizing on data from a longitudinal survey, this article uses event history analysis to test how housework division and wives' economic activities influence the hazards of giving first births. The results suggest that women earning higher income tend to have lower hazards of giving first births. Coresiding with women's mothers-in-law increases the hazards of entering parenthood. Also, husbands' greater involvement in housework is related to higher hazards of giving first births, and this relationship is stronger in households that can hardly get help from women's mothers-in-law.
Previous Chinese literature on women's hazards of giving births focused on the impacts of policies or marital and childbearing histories. Under low fertility regime, gender and intergenerational relations rather than policy interventions exert more influence on Chinese women's childbearing behaviors. Under the framework of New Home Economics and gender equity theory, and gender and development approach regarding fertility, this study discusses about how Chinese women's economic activities and changes in gender relations might affect women's hazards of entering parenthood. Capitalizing on data from a longitudinal survey, this article uses event history analysis to test how housework division and wives' economic activities influence the hazards of giving first births. The results suggest that women earning higher income tend to have lower hazards of giving first births. Coresiding with women's mothers-in-law increases the hazards of entering parenthood. Also, husbands' greater involvement in housework is related to higher hazards of giving first births, and this relationship is stronger in households that can hardly get help from women's mothers-in-law.
引文
1 Allison, Paul D. 2014. Event History and Survival Analysis: Regression for Longitudinal Event Data. SAGE Publications.
2 Becker, Gary S. 1991. A Treatise on the Family. Harvard University Press.
3 Charles, Maria. 2011. A World of Difference: International Trends in Women’s Economic Status. Annual Review of Sociology 1: 355-371.
4 Chen, Feinian, Guangya Liu, and Christine A. Mair. 2011. Intergenerational Ties in Context: Grandparents Caring for Grandchildren in China. Social Forces 2: 571-594.
5 Cook, S. and Xiao-yuan Dong. 2011. Harsh Choices: Chinese Women’s Paid Work and Unpaid Care Responsibilities under Economic Reform. Development and Change 4: 947-965.
6 Damaske, S. and Adrianne Frech. 2016. Women’s Work Pathways Across the Life Course. Demography 2: 365-391.
7 Elder, G. and Richard Rockwell. 1979. The Life-Course and Human Development: An Ecological Perspective. International Journal of Behavioral Development 1: 1-21.
8 Esping-Andersen, G. and Francesco C. Billari. 2015. Re-Theorizing Family Demographics. Population and Development Review 1: 1-31.
9 García-Morán, E. and Zo? Kuehn. 2017. With Strings Attached: Grandparent-Provided Child Care and Female Labor Market Outcomes. Review of Economic Dynamics 1: 80-98.
10 Goldin, Claudia. 2006. The Quiet Revolution that Transformed Women’s Employment, Education, and Family. American Economic Review 2: 1-21.
11 Goldscheider, Frances, Eva Bernhardt, and Maria Brandén. 2013. Domestic Gender Equality and Childbearing in Sweden. Demographic Research 40: 1097-1126.
12 Gregson, N. and Michelle Lowe. 1994. Waged Domestic Labour and the Renegotiation of the Domestic Division of Labour within Dual Career Households. Sociology 1: 55-78.
13 Hardill, Irene, Anne E. Green, Anna C. Dudleston, and David W. Owen. 1997. Who Decides What? Decision Making in Dual-Career Households. Work, Employment and Society 2: 313-326.
14 Hochschild, A. and Anne Machung. 2012. The Second Shift: Working Families and the Revolution at Home. Penguin.
15 Ji, Yingchun. 2017. A Mosaic Temporality: New Dynamics of the Gender and Marriage System in Contemporary Urban China. Temporalités. Revue de Sciences Sociales et Humaines: 26.
16 Ji, Yingchun, Feinian Chen, Yong Cai, and Zhenzhen Zheng. 2015. Do Parents Matter? Intergenerational Ties and Fertility Intention in a Low Fertility Context. Chinese Journal of Sociology. 4: 485-514.
17 Ji, Yingchun, Xiaogang Wu, Shengwei Sun, and Guangye He. 2017. Unequal Care, Unequal Work: Toward a More Comprehensive Understanding of Gender Inequality in Post-Reform Urban China. Sex Roles 3: 1-14.
18 Lesthaeghe, Ron. 2010. The Unfolding Story of the Second Demographic Transition. Population and Development Review 2: 211-251.
19 Li, Lei and Minja Kim Choe. 1997. A Mixture Model for Duration Data: Analysis of Second Births in China. Demography 2: 189-197.
20 Li, Ying and Quanbao Jiang. 2017. The Intergenerational Effect and Second Childbirth: Survey Findings from the Shaanxi Province of China. Social Indicators Research 2: 669-691.
21 McDonald, Peter. 1996. Demographic Life Transition: An Alternative Theoretical Paradigm. Health Transition Review 6:385-392.
22 McDonald, Peter. 2000. Gender Equity in Theories of Fertility Transition. Population and Development Review 3: 427-439.
23 McDonald, Peter. 2013. Societal Foundations for Explaining Fertility: Gender Equity. Demographic Research 34: 981-994.
24 Mincer, J. and Solomon Polachek. 1974. Family Investments in Human Capital: Earnings of Women. Journal of Political Economy 2: S76-108.
25 Myrskyl?, Mikko, Hans-Peter Kohler, and Francesco C. Billari. 2009. Advances in Development Reverse Fertility Declines. Nature 7256: 741-743.
26 Qian, Yue, and Yongai Jin. 2018. Women’s Fertility Autonomy in Urban China: The Role of Couple Dynamics Under the Universal Two-Child Policy. Chinese Sociological Review 3: 275-309.
27 Schmidt, L. , Tomá? Sobotka, J. G. Bentzen, and A. Nyboe Andersen. 2012. Demographic and Medical Consequences of the Postponement of Parenthood. Human Reproduction Update 1: 29-43.
28 Shu, Xiaoling, Bowen Zhu, and Kelsey Meagher. 2018. Classifying and Mapping Gender Ideologies Globally: Gender Attitudes in 47 Countries. In . Philadelphia.
29 Taniguchi, Hiromi. 1999. The Timing of Childbearing and Women’s Wages. Journal of Marriage and Family 4: 1008-1019.
30 Tazi-Preve, Irene M. , Dieter Bichlbauer, and Anne Goujon. 2004. Gender Trouble and Its Impact on Fertility Intentions. Finnish Yearbook of Population Research: 5-24.
31 Testa, Maria Rita. 2014. On the Positive Correlation between Education and Fertility Intentions in Europe: Individual- and Country-Level Evidence. Advances in Life Course Research 3: 28-42.
32 The Economist. 2018. China’s Two-Child Policy is Having Unintended Consequences. July, 26.
33 Torr, B. M. and Short, S. E. 2004. Second Births and the Second Shift: A Research Note on Gender Equity and Fertility. Population and Development Review 1: 109-130.
34 Yamaguchi, K. and Linda R. Ferguson. 1995. The Stopping and Spacing of Childbirths and Their Birth-History Predictors: Rational-Choice Theory and Event-History Analysis. American Sociological Review 2: 272-298.
35 Zhao, Menghan. 2018. From Motherhood Premium to Motherhood Penalty? Heterogeneous Effects of Motherhood Stages on Women’s Economic Outcomes in Urban China. Population Research and Policy Review 6:967-1002.
36 巫锡炜. 初婚初育史对育龄妇女二孩生育间隔的影响. 中国人口科学,2010;1: 36-45Wu Xiwei. 2010. The Effects of First Marriage and First Birth on Second Birth Interval for Chinese Women at Childbearing Ages. Chinese Journal of Population Science 1:36-45.
37 於嘉. 性别观念、现代化与女性的家务劳动时间. 社会, 2014; 2: 166-192Yu Jia. 2014. Gender Ideology, Modernization, and Women’s Housework Time in China. Chinese Journal of Sociology 2:166-192.
38 涂平. 1979～1983年陕西妇女生育胎次间隔分布的初步分析. 中国人口科学, 1990;6: 20-24Tu Ping. 1990. Analysis on Women’s Birth Intervals in Shaanxi between 1979 and 1983. Chinese Journal of Population Science 6:20-24.
39 王军. 我国生育政策对二孩生育间隔影响的分层模型研究. 南方人口,2013;4: 1-7Wang Jun. 2013. The Effects of Family Planning Policy on the Birth Interval between the First and the Second Child. South China Population 4:1-7.
40 翟振武, 陈卫. 1990年代中国生育水平研究. 人口研究, 2007;1: 19-32Zhai Zhenwu and Chen Wei. 2007. Chinese Fertility in the 1990s. Population Research 1: 19-32.
41 计迎春, 郑真真. 社会性别和发展视角下的中国低生育率. 中国社会科学, 2018;8: 143-161Ji Yingchun and Zheng ZhenZhen. 2018. China’s Low Fertility Rate from the Perspective of Gender and Development. Social Sciences in China 8:143-161.
42 计迎春. 马赛克家庭主义:浅谈转型期中国家庭制度变迁. 2018(未发表手稿、会议发言)Ji Yingchun. 2018. Mosaic Familism: The Changing Family Institution in Post-Reform China. (Unpublished manuscript).
43 李婷, 宋健, 范文婷. 中国家庭结构变迁:1982～2015. 2018(未发表手稿、会议发言)Li Ting,Song Jian and Fan Wenting. 2018. Family Structure Transition in China: 1982-2015. (Unpublished manuscript).
44 赵梦晗. 全面二孩政策下重新审视公共政策中缺失的性别平等理念. 人口研究,2016a;6: 38-48Zhao Menghan. 2016a. Gender Equity Should be Promoted by Public Policies under the Two-Child Policy. Population Research 6:38-48.
45 赵梦晗. 我国妇女生育推迟与近期生育水平变化. 人口学刊, 2016b;1: 14-25Zhao Menghan. 2016b. Postponement of Childbearing and Recent Trends of Fertility in China. Population Journal 1: 14-25.
46 郭志刚. 中国低生育进程的主要特征——2015年1%人口抽样调查结果的启示. 中国人口科学, 2017; 4: 2-14Guo Zhigang. 2017. The Main Features of the Low Fertility Process in China: Enlightenment from the Results of the National 1% Population Sampling Survey in 2015. Chinese Journal of Population Science 4:2-14.
47 郭志刚, 李剑钊. 农村二孩生育间隔的分层模型研究. 人口研究,2006;4: 2-11Guo Zhigang and Li Jianzhao. 2006. Second Birth Intervals in Rural China: An HLM Analysis. Population Research 4:2-11.
(1)习近平在中国共产党第十九次全国代表大会上的报告,引自http://cpc.people.com.cn/n1/2017/1028/c64094-29613660-2.html。
(2)由于有的女性虽然在1990年及以后才初育,但是在孩子年龄较大时才接受调查,因此在模型分析时不纳入这些观测数据(未用于分析的1994条人—期数据中,孩子的平均年龄达到5岁)。
(3)本研究未使用丈夫家务劳动时间来测量丈夫家务劳动参与的原因为,使用该变量的不同形式(包括时间长短、对数值以及分类变量)对因变量的影响均不显著。
(4)家庭资产状况为使用主成分分析法合成的一个均值为0的变量,考虑的变量包括是否拥有汽车、彩色电视、电冰箱、洗衣机,因子的解释度达53%以上,KMO值为0.712。考虑到在本研究所用数据的主要时间段,房价还未开始大幅度上升,并且问卷中并无相关问题,因此没有纳入有关房产的变量。
(5)[exp(0.432)-1]*100≈54%。
(6)由于女性家务劳动时间与丈夫家务劳动参与、女性经济活动变量存在较强相关性(於嘉, 2014),因此没有直接纳入本研究的分析模型。
(7)[exp(1.123-0.861)-1]*100%≈30%。
(8)其他自变量设定为均值。
2 Becker, Gary S. 1991. A Treatise on the Family. Harvard University Press.
3 Charles, Maria. 2011. A World of Difference: International Trends in Women’s Economic Status. Annual Review of Sociology 1: 355-371.
4 Chen, Feinian, Guangya Liu, and Christine A. Mair. 2011. Intergenerational Ties in Context: Grandparents Caring for Grandchildren in China. Social Forces 2: 571-594.
5 Cook, S. and Xiao-yuan Dong. 2011. Harsh Choices: Chinese Women’s Paid Work and Unpaid Care Responsibilities under Economic Reform. Development and Change 4: 947-965.
6 Damaske, S. and Adrianne Frech. 2016. Women’s Work Pathways Across the Life Course. Demography 2: 365-391.
7 Elder, G. and Richard Rockwell. 1979. The Life-Course and Human Development: An Ecological Perspective. International Journal of Behavioral Development 1: 1-21.
8 Esping-Andersen, G. and Francesco C. Billari. 2015. Re-Theorizing Family Demographics. Population and Development Review 1: 1-31.
9 García-Morán, E. and Zo? Kuehn. 2017. With Strings Attached: Grandparent-Provided Child Care and Female Labor Market Outcomes. Review of Economic Dynamics 1: 80-98.
10 Goldin, Claudia. 2006. The Quiet Revolution that Transformed Women’s Employment, Education, and Family. American Economic Review 2: 1-21.
11 Goldscheider, Frances, Eva Bernhardt, and Maria Brandén. 2013. Domestic Gender Equality and Childbearing in Sweden. Demographic Research 40: 1097-1126.
12 Gregson, N. and Michelle Lowe. 1994. Waged Domestic Labour and the Renegotiation of the Domestic Division of Labour within Dual Career Households. Sociology 1: 55-78.
13 Hardill, Irene, Anne E. Green, Anna C. Dudleston, and David W. Owen. 1997. Who Decides What? Decision Making in Dual-Career Households. Work, Employment and Society 2: 313-326.
14 Hochschild, A. and Anne Machung. 2012. The Second Shift: Working Families and the Revolution at Home. Penguin.
15 Ji, Yingchun. 2017. A Mosaic Temporality: New Dynamics of the Gender and Marriage System in Contemporary Urban China. Temporalités. Revue de Sciences Sociales et Humaines: 26.
16 Ji, Yingchun, Feinian Chen, Yong Cai, and Zhenzhen Zheng. 2015. Do Parents Matter? Intergenerational Ties and Fertility Intention in a Low Fertility Context. Chinese Journal of Sociology. 4: 485-514.
17 Ji, Yingchun, Xiaogang Wu, Shengwei Sun, and Guangye He. 2017. Unequal Care, Unequal Work: Toward a More Comprehensive Understanding of Gender Inequality in Post-Reform Urban China. Sex Roles 3: 1-14.
18 Lesthaeghe, Ron. 2010. The Unfolding Story of the Second Demographic Transition. Population and Development Review 2: 211-251.
19 Li, Lei and Minja Kim Choe. 1997. A Mixture Model for Duration Data: Analysis of Second Births in China. Demography 2: 189-197.
20 Li, Ying and Quanbao Jiang. 2017. The Intergenerational Effect and Second Childbirth: Survey Findings from the Shaanxi Province of China. Social Indicators Research 2: 669-691.
21 McDonald, Peter. 1996. Demographic Life Transition: An Alternative Theoretical Paradigm. Health Transition Review 6:385-392.
22 McDonald, Peter. 2000. Gender Equity in Theories of Fertility Transition. Population and Development Review 3: 427-439.
23 McDonald, Peter. 2013. Societal Foundations for Explaining Fertility: Gender Equity. Demographic Research 34: 981-994.
24 Mincer, J. and Solomon Polachek. 1974. Family Investments in Human Capital: Earnings of Women. Journal of Political Economy 2: S76-108.
25 Myrskyl?, Mikko, Hans-Peter Kohler, and Francesco C. Billari. 2009. Advances in Development Reverse Fertility Declines. Nature 7256: 741-743.
26 Qian, Yue, and Yongai Jin. 2018. Women’s Fertility Autonomy in Urban China: The Role of Couple Dynamics Under the Universal Two-Child Policy. Chinese Sociological Review 3: 275-309.
27 Schmidt, L. , Tomá? Sobotka, J. G. Bentzen, and A. Nyboe Andersen. 2012. Demographic and Medical Consequences of the Postponement of Parenthood. Human Reproduction Update 1: 29-43.
28 Shu, Xiaoling, Bowen Zhu, and Kelsey Meagher. 2018. Classifying and Mapping Gender Ideologies Globally: Gender Attitudes in 47 Countries. In . Philadelphia.
29 Taniguchi, Hiromi. 1999. The Timing of Childbearing and Women’s Wages. Journal of Marriage and Family 4: 1008-1019.
30 Tazi-Preve, Irene M. , Dieter Bichlbauer, and Anne Goujon. 2004. Gender Trouble and Its Impact on Fertility Intentions. Finnish Yearbook of Population Research: 5-24.
31 Testa, Maria Rita. 2014. On the Positive Correlation between Education and Fertility Intentions in Europe: Individual- and Country-Level Evidence. Advances in Life Course Research 3: 28-42.
32 The Economist. 2018. China’s Two-Child Policy is Having Unintended Consequences. July, 26.
33 Torr, B. M. and Short, S. E. 2004. Second Births and the Second Shift: A Research Note on Gender Equity and Fertility. Population and Development Review 1: 109-130.
34 Yamaguchi, K. and Linda R. Ferguson. 1995. The Stopping and Spacing of Childbirths and Their Birth-History Predictors: Rational-Choice Theory and Event-History Analysis. American Sociological Review 2: 272-298.
35 Zhao, Menghan. 2018. From Motherhood Premium to Motherhood Penalty? Heterogeneous Effects of Motherhood Stages on Women’s Economic Outcomes in Urban China. Population Research and Policy Review 6:967-1002.
36 巫锡炜. 初婚初育史对育龄妇女二孩生育间隔的影响. 中国人口科学,2010;1: 36-45Wu Xiwei. 2010. The Effects of First Marriage and First Birth on Second Birth Interval for Chinese Women at Childbearing Ages. Chinese Journal of Population Science 1:36-45.
37 於嘉. 性别观念、现代化与女性的家务劳动时间. 社会, 2014; 2: 166-192Yu Jia. 2014. Gender Ideology, Modernization, and Women’s Housework Time in China. Chinese Journal of Sociology 2:166-192.
38 涂平. 1979～1983年陕西妇女生育胎次间隔分布的初步分析. 中国人口科学, 1990;6: 20-24Tu Ping. 1990. Analysis on Women’s Birth Intervals in Shaanxi between 1979 and 1983. Chinese Journal of Population Science 6:20-24.
39 王军. 我国生育政策对二孩生育间隔影响的分层模型研究. 南方人口,2013;4: 1-7Wang Jun. 2013. The Effects of Family Planning Policy on the Birth Interval between the First and the Second Child. South China Population 4:1-7.
40 翟振武, 陈卫. 1990年代中国生育水平研究. 人口研究, 2007;1: 19-32Zhai Zhenwu and Chen Wei. 2007. Chinese Fertility in the 1990s. Population Research 1: 19-32.
41 计迎春, 郑真真. 社会性别和发展视角下的中国低生育率. 中国社会科学, 2018;8: 143-161Ji Yingchun and Zheng ZhenZhen. 2018. China’s Low Fertility Rate from the Perspective of Gender and Development. Social Sciences in China 8:143-161.
42 计迎春. 马赛克家庭主义:浅谈转型期中国家庭制度变迁. 2018(未发表手稿、会议发言)Ji Yingchun. 2018. Mosaic Familism: The Changing Family Institution in Post-Reform China. (Unpublished manuscript).
43 李婷, 宋健, 范文婷. 中国家庭结构变迁:1982～2015. 2018(未发表手稿、会议发言)Li Ting,Song Jian and Fan Wenting. 2018. Family Structure Transition in China: 1982-2015. (Unpublished manuscript).
44 赵梦晗. 全面二孩政策下重新审视公共政策中缺失的性别平等理念. 人口研究,2016a;6: 38-48Zhao Menghan. 2016a. Gender Equity Should be Promoted by Public Policies under the Two-Child Policy. Population Research 6:38-48.
45 赵梦晗. 我国妇女生育推迟与近期生育水平变化. 人口学刊, 2016b;1: 14-25Zhao Menghan. 2016b. Postponement of Childbearing and Recent Trends of Fertility in China. Population Journal 1: 14-25.
46 郭志刚. 中国低生育进程的主要特征——2015年1%人口抽样调查结果的启示. 中国人口科学, 2017; 4: 2-14Guo Zhigang. 2017. The Main Features of the Low Fertility Process in China: Enlightenment from the Results of the National 1% Population Sampling Survey in 2015. Chinese Journal of Population Science 4:2-14.
47 郭志刚, 李剑钊. 农村二孩生育间隔的分层模型研究. 人口研究,2006;4: 2-11Guo Zhigang and Li Jianzhao. 2006. Second Birth Intervals in Rural China: An HLM Analysis. Population Research 4:2-11.
(1)习近平在中国共产党第十九次全国代表大会上的报告,引自http://cpc.people.com.cn/n1/2017/1028/c64094-29613660-2.html。
(2)由于有的女性虽然在1990年及以后才初育,但是在孩子年龄较大时才接受调查,因此在模型分析时不纳入这些观测数据(未用于分析的1994条人—期数据中,孩子的平均年龄达到5岁)。
(3)本研究未使用丈夫家务劳动时间来测量丈夫家务劳动参与的原因为,使用该变量的不同形式(包括时间长短、对数值以及分类变量)对因变量的影响均不显著。
(4)家庭资产状况为使用主成分分析法合成的一个均值为0的变量,考虑的变量包括是否拥有汽车、彩色电视、电冰箱、洗衣机,因子的解释度达53%以上,KMO值为0.712。考虑到在本研究所用数据的主要时间段,房价还未开始大幅度上升,并且问卷中并无相关问题,因此没有纳入有关房产的变量。
(5)[exp(0.432)-1]*100≈54%。
(6)由于女性家务劳动时间与丈夫家务劳动参与、女性经济活动变量存在较强相关性(於嘉, 2014),因此没有直接纳入本研究的分析模型。
(7)[exp(1.123-0.861)-1]*100%≈30%。
(8)其他自变量设定为均值。