Eco-morphological characteristics of fern species for slope conservation
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摘要
Degradation of slopes due to shallow landslide and the subsequent erosional processes are a big challenge on the application of soil bioengineering techniques; that is the use of plants as main structural components of a slope protection and conservation system. An optimal application of soil bioengineering techniques should include not only the technical factor of plants as structural components but also the ecology of species and the plant adaptations to disturbances, which is crucial if a longterm successful slope restoration system is intended. Ferns are a dominant understory vegetation species in the forest of Japan, but its characteristics and influences on the recovery of shallow landslide scars have not been fully studied yet. This study aims to find out the ecological characteristics of fern species through the calculation of ecological indicators and the quantification of the morphological features of specimens growing on disturbed and non-disturbed forest slopes in Japan. Gleichenia japonica was found as the vegetation species with biggest ecological indicators on both slopes. The analysis of morphological characteristics of the specimens growing on both sites showed that the development of the specimens is focused in below-ground characteristics. The pull-out force of Gleichenia japonica root system as an indicator of ecological adaptation to a constraint environment and morphological characteristics quality is influenced by height and root length according to the principal component analysis. The eco-morphological characteristics of species can be used as an indicator of an optimal element in soil bioengineering establishment for slope conservation proposes. The long and fibrous root system could be placed on forest roads, steep or small slopes where space limitation is an issue for the establishment of bigger species and if the slope conditions allow it, it can control soil losses due to rainfall and provide stability.
Degradation of slopes due to shallow landslide and the subsequent erosional processes are a big challenge on the application of soil bioengineering techniques; that is the use of plants as main structural components of a slope protection and conservation system. An optimal application of soil bioengineering techniques should include not only the technical factor of plants as structural components but also the ecology of species and the plant adaptations to disturbances, which is crucial if a longterm successful slope restoration system is intended. Ferns are a dominant understory vegetation species in the forest of Japan, but its characteristics and influences on the recovery of shallow landslide scars have not been fully studied yet. This study aims to find out the ecological characteristics of fern species through the calculation of ecological indicators and the quantification of the morphological features of specimens growing on disturbed and non-disturbed forest slopes in Japan. Gleichenia japonica was found as the vegetation species with biggest ecological indicators on both slopes. The analysis of morphological characteristics of the specimens growing on both sites showed that the development of the specimens is focused in below-ground characteristics. The pull-out force of Gleichenia japonica root system as an indicator of ecological adaptation to a constraint environment and morphological characteristics quality is influenced by height and root length according to the principal component analysis. The eco-morphological characteristics of species can be used as an indicator of an optimal element in soil bioengineering establishment for slope conservation proposes. The long and fibrous root system could be placed on forest roads, steep or small slopes where space limitation is an issue for the establishment of bigger species and if the slope conditions allow it, it can control soil losses due to rainfall and provide stability.
Degradation of slopes due to shallow landslide and the subsequent erosional processes are a big challenge on the application of soil bioengineering techniques; that is the use of plants as main structural components of a slope protection and conservation system. An optimal application of soil bioengineering techniques should include not only the technical factor of plants as structural components but also the ecology of species and the plant adaptations to disturbances, which is crucial if a longterm successful slope restoration system is intended. Ferns are a dominant understory vegetation species in the forest of Japan, but its characteristics and influences on the recovery of shallow landslide scars have not been fully studied yet. This study aims to find out the ecological characteristics of fern species through the calculation of ecological indicators and the quantification of the morphological features of specimens growing on disturbed and non-disturbed forest slopes in Japan. Gleichenia japonica was found as the vegetation species with biggest ecological indicators on both slopes. The analysis of morphological characteristics of the specimens growing on both sites showed that the development of the specimens is focused in below-ground characteristics. The pull-out force of Gleichenia japonica root system as an indicator of ecological adaptation to a constraint environment and morphological characteristics quality is influenced by height and root length according to the principal component analysis. The eco-morphological characteristics of species can be used as an indicator of an optimal element in soil bioengineering establishment for slope conservation proposes. The long and fibrous root system could be placed on forest roads, steep or small slopes where space limitation is an issue for the establishment of bigger species and if the slope conditions allow it, it can control soil losses due to rainfall and provide stability.
引文
Alcántara-Ayala I,Esteban-Chávez O,Parrot JF(2006)Landsliding related to land-cover change:A diachronic analysis of hillslope instability distribution in the Sierra Norte,Puebla,Mexico.Catena 65(2):152-165.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2005.11.006
Bailey PHJ,Currey JD,Fitter AH(2002)The role of root system architecture and root hairs in promoting anchorage against uprooting forces in Allium cepa and root mutants of Arabidopsis thaliana.Journal of Experimental Botany 53:333-340.https://doi.org/10.1093/jexbot/53.367.333
Bhadra AK,Pattanayak SK(2016)Abundance or dominance:Which is more justified to calculate Importance Value Index(IVI)of plant species?.Asian Journal of Sciences and Technology 7(9):3577-3601.
Bischetti GB,Chiaradia EA,Simonato T,et al.(2005)Root strength and root area ratio of forest species in Lombardy(Northern Italy).Plant and Soil 278(1-2):11-22.https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-5593-5_4
Bonnesoeur V,Constant T,Moulia B,et al.(2016)Forest trees filter chronic wind-signals to acclimate to high winds.New Phytologist 210(3):850-860.https://doi.org/10.1111/nph.13836
Burylo M,Rey F,Roumet C,et al.(2009)Linking plant morphological traits to uprooting resistance in eroded marly lands(Southern Alps,France).Plant Soil 324:31-42.https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-009-9920-5
Charbonneau BR,Wooton LS,Wnek JP,et al.(2017)A species effect on storm erosion:Invasive sedge stabilized dunes more than native grass during Hurricane Sandy.Journal of Applied Ecology 2017(54):1385-1394.https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.12846
Coutard C,Dupraz C,Jaouen G,et al.(2008)Mechanical stimuli regulate the allocation of biomass in trees:demonstration with young Prunus avium trees.Annals of Botany 101:1421-1432.https://doi.org/10.1093/aob/mcn054
Cruz-Cárdenas G,López-Mata L,Villase?or JL,Ortiz E(2014)Potential species distribution modeling and the use of principal component analysis as predictor variables.Mexican Journal of Biodiversity 85(1):188-199.https://doi.org/10.7550/rmb.36723
Curtis JT(1959)The vegetation of Wisconsin:an ordination of plant communities.University of Wisconsin Press.
Dalling JW,Tanner EVJ(1995)An Experimental Study of Regeneration on Landslides in Montane Rain Forest in Jamaica.Journal of Ecology 83:55-64.https://doi.org/10.2307/2261150
Danjon F,Fourcaud T,Bert D(2005).Root architecture and wind-firmness of mature Pinus pinaster.New Phytologist168(2):387-400.https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8137.2005.01497.x
Danjon F,Khuder H,Stokes A(2013)Deep Phenotyping of Coarse Root Architecture in R.pseudoacacia Reveals That Tree Root System Plasticity Is Confined within Its Architectural Model.Plos One 8(12):e83548.https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0083548
De Baets S,Poesen J,Reubens B,et al.(2008)Root tensile strength and root distribution of typical Mediterranean plant species and their contribution to soil shear strength.Plant and Soil 305(1-2):207-226.https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-008-9553-0
Devkota BD,Omura H,Kubota T,et al.(2006)Revegetation condition and morphological characteristics of grass species observed in landslide scars,Shintategawa watershed,Fukuoka,Japan.Journal of Applied Sciences 6-10:2238-2244.https://doi.org/10.3923/jas.2006.2238.2244
Di Lorio A,Lasserre B,Scippa GS,et al.(2005)Root System Architecture of Quercus pubescens Trees Growing on Different Sloping Conditions.Annals of Botany 95(2):351-361.https://doi.org/10.1093/aob/mci033
Dolidon N,Hofer T,Jansky L,Sidle R(2009)Watershed and forest management for landslide risk reduction.In:Landslides-Disaster Risk Reduction.Springer,Berlin,Heidelberg.pp 633-649.
Dupuy L,Fourcaud T,Stokes A(2005)A numerical investigation into factors affecting the anchorage of roots in tension.European Journal of Soil Science 53(3):319-327.https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2389.2004.00666.x
Garwood NC(1985)Earthquake-caused landslides in Panama:recovery of the vegetation.National Geographic Society Research Reports 21:181-184
Gomi T,Sidle RC,Ueno M,et al.(2008)Characteristics of overland flow generation on steep forested hillslopes of central Japan.Journal of Hydrology 361:275-290.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2008.07.045
Gonzalez-Ollauri A,Mickovski SB(2017)Shallow landslides as drivers for slope ecosystem evolution and biophysical diversity.Landslides 14(5):1699-1714.https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-017-0822-y
Grace JB(1999)The factors controlling species density in herbaceous plant communities:an assessment.Perspectives in Plant Ecology,Evolution and Systematics 2:1-28.https://doi.org/10.1078/1433-8319-00063
Gray DH,Sotir RB(1996)Biotechnical and Soil Bioengineering Slope Stabilization.John Wiley and Son,INC.
Guariguata MR(1990).Landslide disturbance and forest regeneration in the Upper Luquillo Mountains of Puerto Rico.Journal of Ecology 78:814-832.https://doi.org/10.2307/2260901
Hiraoka M,Onda Y(2012)Factors affecting the infiltration capacity in bamboo groves.Journal of Forest Research 17:403-412.https://doi.org/10.1007/s10310-011-0311-4
Hiraoka M,Onda Y,Kato H,et al.(2010)Effects of understory vegetation on infiltration capacity in Japanese cypress plantation.Journal of the Japan Forest Society 92:145-150.(In Japanese)https://doi.org/10.4005/jjfs.92.145
Hou GC,Blancaflor EB(2010)Fern root development.In:Beeckman T(ed.),Annual plant reviews,root development.Wiley-Blackwell,Oxford.pp 192-208.
Karizumi N(1979)Illustration of tree roots.Seibundo Shinkosha,Tokyo.(In Japanese)
Kubo T(1982)Classification of Forest Soils in Japan.Japan Agricultural Research Quarterly 16(3):212-217.
Lee J,Tsai S,Lee M(2017)Uprooting resistance of two tropical tree species for sand dune stabilization.African Journal of Agricultural Research 12(45):3214-3220.https://doi.org/10.5897/AJAR2017.12715
Magurran A(2004)Measuring Biological Diversity.Blackwell Science Ltd.Blackwell Publishing Company.Oxford,UK.pp.256.
Mickovski SB,Van Beek LPH,Salin F(2005)Uprooting of vetiver uprooting resistance of vetiver grass(Vetiveria zizanioides).Plant Soil 278:33-41.https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-005-2379-0
Miyata S,Kosugi K,Gomi T,et al.(2007)Surface runoff as affected by soil water repellency in a Japanese cypress forest.Hydrological Processes 21:2365-2376.https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.6749
Obara H,Maejima Y,Kohyama K,et al.(2015)Outline of the Comprehensive Soil Classification System of Japan-First Approximation.Japan Agricultural Research Quarterly 49(3):217-226.
Peque?o-Ledezma MA,Alanis-Rodriguez E,Jimenez-Perez J,et al.(2012)Analysis of the livestock passive forest restoration in the Tamaulipan Thornscrub in northeast México.Science UAT 7(1):48-53.https://doi.org/10.29059/cienciauat.v7i1.39
Pollen N,Simon A(2005)Estimating the mechanical effects of riparian vegetation on stream bank stability using a fiber bundle model.Water Resources Research 41:1-11.https://doi.org/10.1029/2004WR003801
Rauchecker M,Wriessnig K,Wu W(2019)Measuring the Tensile Strength of Phleum pratense L.Roots.In:Wu W.(eds)Recent Advances in Geotechnical Research.Springer Series in Geomechanics and Geoengineering.Springer,Cham.https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-89671-7_14
Reubens B,Poesen J,Danjon F,et al.(2007)The role of fine and coarse roots in shallow slope stability and soil erosion control with a focus on root system architecture:A review.Trees 21:385-402.https://doi.org/10.1007/s00468-007-0132-4
Roberts MR(2004)Response of the herbaceous layer to natural disturbance in North American forests.Canadian Journal of Botany 82:1273-1283.https://doi.org/10.1139/b04-091
Sadeghi SHR,Mizuyama T,Miyata S,et al.(2008)Development,evaluation and interpretation of sediment rating curves for a Japanese small mountainous reforested watershed.Geoderma 144:198-211.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2007.11.008
Schutten J,Dainty J,Davy AJ(2005)Root anchorage and its significance for submerged plants in shallow lakes.Journal of Ecology 93(3):556-571.https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2745.2005.00980.x
Silvertown J,Dodd ME,Mcconway K,et al.(1994)Rainfall,Biomass Variation,and Community Composition in the Park Grass Experiment.Ecology 75(8):2430-243.https://doi.org/10.2307/1940896
Stokes A,Lucas A,Jouneau L(2007)Plant biomechanical strategies in response to frequent disturbance:Uprooting of Phyllostachys nidularia(Poaceae)growing on landslide-prone slopes in Sichuan,China.American Journal of Botany 94:1129-1136.https://doi.org/10.3732/ajb.94.7.1129
Stokes A,Atger C,Bengough AG,et al.(2009)Desirable plant root traits for protecting natural and engineered slopes against landslides.Plant Soil 324:1-30.https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-009-0159-y
Tabachnick BG,Fidell LS(2007)Using Multivariate Statistics.5th ed.Pearson Education,Boston.pp 980.
Tosi M(2007)Root tensile strength relationships and their slope stability implications of three shrub species in the Northern Apennines(Italy).Geomorphology 87(4):268-283.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2006.09.019
Velázquez E,Gómez-Sal A(2009)Changes in the herbaceous communities on the landslide of the casita volcano,nicaragua,during early succession.Folia Geobotanica 44:1-18.https://doi.org/10.1007/s12224-009-9031-3
Wang W,Wu X,Hu K,et al.(2016)Understorey fine root mass and morphology in the litter and upper soil layers of three Chinese subtropical forests.Plant Soil 406:219-230.https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-016-2878-1
Woo MK,Fang G,DiCenzo PD(1997)The role of vegetation in the retardation of rill erosion.Catena 29:145-159.https://doi.org/10.1016/S0341-8162(96)00052-5
Wu TH(2007)Root reinforcement:analyses and experiments.In:Stokes A,Spanos I,Norris JE,et al.(eds)Eco-and Ground Bio-Engineering:The Use of Vegetation to Improve Slope Stability.Developments in Plant and Soil Sciences.Springer Dordrecht 103:21-30.https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-5593-5_3
Zhu H,Xu Z,Wang H,Li B(2004)Tropical rain forest fragmentation and its ecological and species diversity changes in southern Yunnan.Biodiversity and Conservation 13:1355.https://doi.org/10.1023/B:BIOC.0000019397.98407.c3
Bailey PHJ,Currey JD,Fitter AH(2002)The role of root system architecture and root hairs in promoting anchorage against uprooting forces in Allium cepa and root mutants of Arabidopsis thaliana.Journal of Experimental Botany 53:333-340.https://doi.org/10.1093/jexbot/53.367.333
Bhadra AK,Pattanayak SK(2016)Abundance or dominance:Which is more justified to calculate Importance Value Index(IVI)of plant species?.Asian Journal of Sciences and Technology 7(9):3577-3601.
Bischetti GB,Chiaradia EA,Simonato T,et al.(2005)Root strength and root area ratio of forest species in Lombardy(Northern Italy).Plant and Soil 278(1-2):11-22.https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-5593-5_4
Bonnesoeur V,Constant T,Moulia B,et al.(2016)Forest trees filter chronic wind-signals to acclimate to high winds.New Phytologist 210(3):850-860.https://doi.org/10.1111/nph.13836
Burylo M,Rey F,Roumet C,et al.(2009)Linking plant morphological traits to uprooting resistance in eroded marly lands(Southern Alps,France).Plant Soil 324:31-42.https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-009-9920-5
Charbonneau BR,Wooton LS,Wnek JP,et al.(2017)A species effect on storm erosion:Invasive sedge stabilized dunes more than native grass during Hurricane Sandy.Journal of Applied Ecology 2017(54):1385-1394.https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.12846
Coutard C,Dupraz C,Jaouen G,et al.(2008)Mechanical stimuli regulate the allocation of biomass in trees:demonstration with young Prunus avium trees.Annals of Botany 101:1421-1432.https://doi.org/10.1093/aob/mcn054
Cruz-Cárdenas G,López-Mata L,Villase?or JL,Ortiz E(2014)Potential species distribution modeling and the use of principal component analysis as predictor variables.Mexican Journal of Biodiversity 85(1):188-199.https://doi.org/10.7550/rmb.36723
Curtis JT(1959)The vegetation of Wisconsin:an ordination of plant communities.University of Wisconsin Press.
Dalling JW,Tanner EVJ(1995)An Experimental Study of Regeneration on Landslides in Montane Rain Forest in Jamaica.Journal of Ecology 83:55-64.https://doi.org/10.2307/2261150
Danjon F,Fourcaud T,Bert D(2005).Root architecture and wind-firmness of mature Pinus pinaster.New Phytologist168(2):387-400.https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8137.2005.01497.x
Danjon F,Khuder H,Stokes A(2013)Deep Phenotyping of Coarse Root Architecture in R.pseudoacacia Reveals That Tree Root System Plasticity Is Confined within Its Architectural Model.Plos One 8(12):e83548.https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0083548
De Baets S,Poesen J,Reubens B,et al.(2008)Root tensile strength and root distribution of typical Mediterranean plant species and their contribution to soil shear strength.Plant and Soil 305(1-2):207-226.https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-008-9553-0
Devkota BD,Omura H,Kubota T,et al.(2006)Revegetation condition and morphological characteristics of grass species observed in landslide scars,Shintategawa watershed,Fukuoka,Japan.Journal of Applied Sciences 6-10:2238-2244.https://doi.org/10.3923/jas.2006.2238.2244
Di Lorio A,Lasserre B,Scippa GS,et al.(2005)Root System Architecture of Quercus pubescens Trees Growing on Different Sloping Conditions.Annals of Botany 95(2):351-361.https://doi.org/10.1093/aob/mci033
Dolidon N,Hofer T,Jansky L,Sidle R(2009)Watershed and forest management for landslide risk reduction.In:Landslides-Disaster Risk Reduction.Springer,Berlin,Heidelberg.pp 633-649.
Dupuy L,Fourcaud T,Stokes A(2005)A numerical investigation into factors affecting the anchorage of roots in tension.European Journal of Soil Science 53(3):319-327.https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2389.2004.00666.x
Garwood NC(1985)Earthquake-caused landslides in Panama:recovery of the vegetation.National Geographic Society Research Reports 21:181-184
Gomi T,Sidle RC,Ueno M,et al.(2008)Characteristics of overland flow generation on steep forested hillslopes of central Japan.Journal of Hydrology 361:275-290.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2008.07.045
Gonzalez-Ollauri A,Mickovski SB(2017)Shallow landslides as drivers for slope ecosystem evolution and biophysical diversity.Landslides 14(5):1699-1714.https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-017-0822-y
Grace JB(1999)The factors controlling species density in herbaceous plant communities:an assessment.Perspectives in Plant Ecology,Evolution and Systematics 2:1-28.https://doi.org/10.1078/1433-8319-00063
Gray DH,Sotir RB(1996)Biotechnical and Soil Bioengineering Slope Stabilization.John Wiley and Son,INC.
Guariguata MR(1990).Landslide disturbance and forest regeneration in the Upper Luquillo Mountains of Puerto Rico.Journal of Ecology 78:814-832.https://doi.org/10.2307/2260901
Hiraoka M,Onda Y(2012)Factors affecting the infiltration capacity in bamboo groves.Journal of Forest Research 17:403-412.https://doi.org/10.1007/s10310-011-0311-4
Hiraoka M,Onda Y,Kato H,et al.(2010)Effects of understory vegetation on infiltration capacity in Japanese cypress plantation.Journal of the Japan Forest Society 92:145-150.(In Japanese)https://doi.org/10.4005/jjfs.92.145
Hou GC,Blancaflor EB(2010)Fern root development.In:Beeckman T(ed.),Annual plant reviews,root development.Wiley-Blackwell,Oxford.pp 192-208.
Karizumi N(1979)Illustration of tree roots.Seibundo Shinkosha,Tokyo.(In Japanese)
Kubo T(1982)Classification of Forest Soils in Japan.Japan Agricultural Research Quarterly 16(3):212-217.
Lee J,Tsai S,Lee M(2017)Uprooting resistance of two tropical tree species for sand dune stabilization.African Journal of Agricultural Research 12(45):3214-3220.https://doi.org/10.5897/AJAR2017.12715
Magurran A(2004)Measuring Biological Diversity.Blackwell Science Ltd.Blackwell Publishing Company.Oxford,UK.pp.256.
Mickovski SB,Van Beek LPH,Salin F(2005)Uprooting of vetiver uprooting resistance of vetiver grass(Vetiveria zizanioides).Plant Soil 278:33-41.https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-005-2379-0
Miyata S,Kosugi K,Gomi T,et al.(2007)Surface runoff as affected by soil water repellency in a Japanese cypress forest.Hydrological Processes 21:2365-2376.https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.6749
Obara H,Maejima Y,Kohyama K,et al.(2015)Outline of the Comprehensive Soil Classification System of Japan-First Approximation.Japan Agricultural Research Quarterly 49(3):217-226.
Peque?o-Ledezma MA,Alanis-Rodriguez E,Jimenez-Perez J,et al.(2012)Analysis of the livestock passive forest restoration in the Tamaulipan Thornscrub in northeast México.Science UAT 7(1):48-53.https://doi.org/10.29059/cienciauat.v7i1.39
Pollen N,Simon A(2005)Estimating the mechanical effects of riparian vegetation on stream bank stability using a fiber bundle model.Water Resources Research 41:1-11.https://doi.org/10.1029/2004WR003801
Rauchecker M,Wriessnig K,Wu W(2019)Measuring the Tensile Strength of Phleum pratense L.Roots.In:Wu W.(eds)Recent Advances in Geotechnical Research.Springer Series in Geomechanics and Geoengineering.Springer,Cham.https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-89671-7_14
Reubens B,Poesen J,Danjon F,et al.(2007)The role of fine and coarse roots in shallow slope stability and soil erosion control with a focus on root system architecture:A review.Trees 21:385-402.https://doi.org/10.1007/s00468-007-0132-4
Roberts MR(2004)Response of the herbaceous layer to natural disturbance in North American forests.Canadian Journal of Botany 82:1273-1283.https://doi.org/10.1139/b04-091
Sadeghi SHR,Mizuyama T,Miyata S,et al.(2008)Development,evaluation and interpretation of sediment rating curves for a Japanese small mountainous reforested watershed.Geoderma 144:198-211.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2007.11.008
Schutten J,Dainty J,Davy AJ(2005)Root anchorage and its significance for submerged plants in shallow lakes.Journal of Ecology 93(3):556-571.https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2745.2005.00980.x
Silvertown J,Dodd ME,Mcconway K,et al.(1994)Rainfall,Biomass Variation,and Community Composition in the Park Grass Experiment.Ecology 75(8):2430-243.https://doi.org/10.2307/1940896
Stokes A,Lucas A,Jouneau L(2007)Plant biomechanical strategies in response to frequent disturbance:Uprooting of Phyllostachys nidularia(Poaceae)growing on landslide-prone slopes in Sichuan,China.American Journal of Botany 94:1129-1136.https://doi.org/10.3732/ajb.94.7.1129
Stokes A,Atger C,Bengough AG,et al.(2009)Desirable plant root traits for protecting natural and engineered slopes against landslides.Plant Soil 324:1-30.https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-009-0159-y
Tabachnick BG,Fidell LS(2007)Using Multivariate Statistics.5th ed.Pearson Education,Boston.pp 980.
Tosi M(2007)Root tensile strength relationships and their slope stability implications of three shrub species in the Northern Apennines(Italy).Geomorphology 87(4):268-283.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2006.09.019
Velázquez E,Gómez-Sal A(2009)Changes in the herbaceous communities on the landslide of the casita volcano,nicaragua,during early succession.Folia Geobotanica 44:1-18.https://doi.org/10.1007/s12224-009-9031-3
Wang W,Wu X,Hu K,et al.(2016)Understorey fine root mass and morphology in the litter and upper soil layers of three Chinese subtropical forests.Plant Soil 406:219-230.https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-016-2878-1
Woo MK,Fang G,DiCenzo PD(1997)The role of vegetation in the retardation of rill erosion.Catena 29:145-159.https://doi.org/10.1016/S0341-8162(96)00052-5
Wu TH(2007)Root reinforcement:analyses and experiments.In:Stokes A,Spanos I,Norris JE,et al.(eds)Eco-and Ground Bio-Engineering:The Use of Vegetation to Improve Slope Stability.Developments in Plant and Soil Sciences.Springer Dordrecht 103:21-30.https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-5593-5_3
Zhu H,Xu Z,Wang H,Li B(2004)Tropical rain forest fragmentation and its ecological and species diversity changes in southern Yunnan.Biodiversity and Conservation 13:1355.https://doi.org/10.1023/B:BIOC.0000019397.98407.c3