Time scales and length scales in magma ?ow pathways and the origin ofmagmatic Ni-Cu-PGE ore deposits
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摘要
Ore forming processes involve the redistribution of heat, mass and momentum by a wide range of processes operating at different time and length scales. The fastest process at any given length scale tends to be the dominant control. Applying this principle to the array of physical processes that operate within magma flow pathways leads to some key insights into the origins of magmatic Ni-Cu-PGE sulfide ore deposits. A high proportion of mineralised systems, including those in the super-giant Noril'sk-Talnakh camp, are formed in small conduit intrusions where assimilation of country rock has played a major role. Evidence of this process is reflected in the common association of sulfides with varitextured contaminated host rocks containing xenoliths in varying stages of assimilation. Direct incorporation of S-bearing country rock xenoliths is likely to be the dominant mechanism for generating sulfide liquids in this setting. However, the processes of melting or dissolving these xenoliths is relatively slow compared with magma flow rates and, depending on xenolith lithology and the composition of the carrier magma, slow compared with settling and accumulation rates. Chemical equilibration between sulfide droplets and silicate magma is slower still, as is the process of dissolving sulfide liquid into initially undersaturated silicate magmas. Much of the transport and deposition of sulfide in the carrier magmas may occur while sulfide is still incorporated in the xenoliths, accounting for the common association of magmatic sulfide-matrix ore breccias and contaminated "taxitic" host rocks. Effective upgrading of so-formed sulfide liquids would require repetitive recycling by processes such as reentrainment, back flow or gravity flow operating over the lifetime of the magma transport system as a whole. In contrast to mafic-hosted systems, komatiite-hosted ores only rarely show an association with externally-derived xenoliths, an observation which is partially due to the predominant formation of ores in lava flows rather than deep-seated intrusions, but also to the much shorter timescales of key component systems in hotter, less viscous magmas. Nonetheless, multiple cycles of deposition and entrainment are necessary to account for the metal contents of komatiite-hosted sulfides. More generally, the time and length scale approach introduced here may be of value in understanding other igneous processes as well as non-magmatic mineral systems.
Ore forming processes involve the redistribution of heat, mass and momentum by a wide range of processes operating at different time and length scales. The fastest process at any given length scale tends to be the dominant control. Applying this principle to the array of physical processes that operate within magma flow pathways leads to some key insights into the origins of magmatic Ni-Cu-PGE sulfide ore deposits. A high proportion of mineralised systems, including those in the super-giant Noril'sk-Talnakh camp, are formed in small conduit intrusions where assimilation of country rock has played a major role. Evidence of this process is reflected in the common association of sulfides with varitextured contaminated host rocks containing xenoliths in varying stages of assimilation. Direct incorporation of S-bearing country rock xenoliths is likely to be the dominant mechanism for generating sulfide liquids in this setting. However, the processes of melting or dissolving these xenoliths is relatively slow compared with magma flow rates and, depending on xenolith lithology and the composition of the carrier magma, slow compared with settling and accumulation rates. Chemical equilibration between sulfide droplets and silicate magma is slower still, as is the process of dissolving sulfide liquid into initially undersaturated silicate magmas. Much of the transport and deposition of sulfide in the carrier magmas may occur while sulfide is still incorporated in the xenoliths, accounting for the common association of magmatic sulfide-matrix ore breccias and contaminated "taxitic" host rocks. Effective upgrading of so-formed sulfide liquids would require repetitive recycling by processes such as reentrainment, back flow or gravity flow operating over the lifetime of the magma transport system as a whole. In contrast to mafic-hosted systems, komatiite-hosted ores only rarely show an association with externally-derived xenoliths, an observation which is partially due to the predominant formation of ores in lava flows rather than deep-seated intrusions, but also to the much shorter timescales of key component systems in hotter, less viscous magmas. Nonetheless, multiple cycles of deposition and entrainment are necessary to account for the metal contents of komatiite-hosted sulfides. More generally, the time and length scale approach introduced here may be of value in understanding other igneous processes as well as non-magmatic mineral systems.
Ore forming processes involve the redistribution of heat, mass and momentum by a wide range of processes operating at different time and length scales. The fastest process at any given length scale tends to be the dominant control. Applying this principle to the array of physical processes that operate within magma flow pathways leads to some key insights into the origins of magmatic Ni-Cu-PGE sulfide ore deposits. A high proportion of mineralised systems, including those in the super-giant Noril'sk-Talnakh camp, are formed in small conduit intrusions where assimilation of country rock has played a major role. Evidence of this process is reflected in the common association of sulfides with varitextured contaminated host rocks containing xenoliths in varying stages of assimilation. Direct incorporation of S-bearing country rock xenoliths is likely to be the dominant mechanism for generating sulfide liquids in this setting. However, the processes of melting or dissolving these xenoliths is relatively slow compared with magma flow rates and, depending on xenolith lithology and the composition of the carrier magma, slow compared with settling and accumulation rates. Chemical equilibration between sulfide droplets and silicate magma is slower still, as is the process of dissolving sulfide liquid into initially undersaturated silicate magmas. Much of the transport and deposition of sulfide in the carrier magmas may occur while sulfide is still incorporated in the xenoliths, accounting for the common association of magmatic sulfide-matrix ore breccias and contaminated "taxitic" host rocks. Effective upgrading of so-formed sulfide liquids would require repetitive recycling by processes such as reentrainment, back flow or gravity flow operating over the lifetime of the magma transport system as a whole. In contrast to mafic-hosted systems, komatiite-hosted ores only rarely show an association with externally-derived xenoliths, an observation which is partially due to the predominant formation of ores in lava flows rather than deep-seated intrusions, but also to the much shorter timescales of key component systems in hotter, less viscous magmas. Nonetheless, multiple cycles of deposition and entrainment are necessary to account for the metal contents of komatiite-hosted sulfides. More generally, the time and length scale approach introduced here may be of value in understanding other igneous processes as well as non-magmatic mineral systems.
引文
Barnes, S.-J., Lightfoot, P.C., 2005. Formation of magmatic nickel sulfide deposits and processes affecting their copper and platinum group element contents, 100th Anniversary Volume Economic Geology 179-214.
Barnes, S.J., Cruden, A.R., Arndt, N.T., Saumur, B.M., 2016. The mineral system approach applied to magmatic Ni-Cu-PGE sulphide deposits. Ore Geology Reviews 76, 296-316.
Barnes, S.J., Le Vaillant, M., Lightfoot, P.C., 2017a. Textural development in sulfidematrix ore breccias and associated rocks in the Voisey's Bay Ni-Cu-Co deposit, Labrador, Canada. Ore Geology Reviews 90, 414-438.
Barnes, S.J., Mungall, J.E., Le Vaillant, M., Godel, B., Lesher, C.M., Holwell, D.A.,Lightfoot, P.C., Krivolutskaya, N.A, Wei, B., 2017b. Sulfide-silicate textures in magmatic Ni-Cu-PGE sulfide ore deposits:disseminated and net-textured ores.American Mineralogist 102, 473-506.
Barriere, M., 1976. Flowage differentiation:limitation of the Bagnold effect to the narrow intrusions. Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology 55,139-145.
Cawthorn, R.G., Barnes, S.J., Ballhaus, C., Malich, K.N., 2005. Platinum group element, chromium and vanadium deposits in mafic and ultramafic rocks,100th Anniversary Volume Economic Geology 215-249.
Cussler, E.L., 2009. Diffusion:Mass Transfer in Fluid Systems, third ed. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge Series in Chemical Engineering, Cambridge. 631 pp.
de Bremond d'Ars,J., Arndt, N.T.,Hallot, E., 2001. Analog experimental insights into the formation of magmatic sulfide deposits. Earth and Planetary Science Letters186, 371-381.
Delany, P.T., Fiske, R.S., Miklius, A., Okamura, A.T., Sako, M.K., 1990. Deep magma body beneath the summit and rift zones of Kilauea volcano, Hawaii. Science247,1311-1316.
Godel, B., Barnes, S.J., Barnes, S.-J., 2013. Deposition mechanisms of magmatic sulphide liquids:evidence from high-resolution X-ray computed tomography and trace element chemistry of komatiite-hosted disseminated sulphides. Journal of Petrology 54,1455-1481.
Gole, M.J., Robertson, J., Barnes, S.J., 2013. Extrusive origin and structural modification of the komatiitic mount Keith ultramafic unit. Economic Geology 108,1731-1752.
Harris, A.J.L., Flynn, L.P., Keszthelyi, L., Mouginismark, P.J., Rowland, S.K., Resing, J.A.,1998. Calculation of lava effusion rates from Landsat Tm data. Bulletin of Volcanology 60, 52-71.
Hill, R.E.T., Barnes, S.J., Gole, M.J., Dowling, S.E., 1995. The volcanology of komatiites as deduced from field relationships in the Norseman-Wiluna greenstone belt,Western Australia. Lithos 34,159-188.
Holcomb, R.T., 1987. Eruptive history and long-term behavior of Kilauea volcano.U. S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1350, 261-349.
Hon, K., Kauahikaua, J., Denlinger, R., Mackay, K., 1994. Emplacement and inflation of pahoehoe sheet flows:observations and measurements of active lava flows on Kilauea Volcano, Hawaii. The Geological Society of America Bulletin 106,351-370.
Huppert, H.E., Sparks, R.S.J., 1988a. The generation of granitic magmas by intrusion of basalt into continental crust. Journal of Petrology 29, 599-624.
Huppert, H.E., Sparks, R.S.J., 1988b. Melting the roof of a chamber containing a hot,turbulently convecting fluid. Journal of Fluid Mechanics 188,107-131.
Kauahikaua, J., Cashman, K.V., Mattox, T.N., Heliker, C.C., Hon, K.A., Mangan, M.T.,Thornber, C.R., 1998. Observations on basaltic lava streams in tubes from Kilauea volcano, Island of Hawaii. Journal of Geophysical Research-Solid Earth103, 27303-27323.
Kerr, R.C., 1994a. Dissolving driven by vigorous compositional convection. Journal of Fluid Mechanics 280, 287-302.
Kerr, R.C., 1994b. Melting driven by vigorous compositional convection. Journal of Fluid Mechanics 280, 255-285.
Kerr, R.C., 1995. Convective crystal dissolution. Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology 121(3), 237-246.
Kerr, R.C., 2001. Thermal erosion by laminar lava flows. Journal of Geophysical Research-Solid Earth 106, 26453-26465.
Komar, P.D., 1972. Mechanical interactions of phenocrysts and flow differentiation of igneous dykes and sills. The Geological Society of America Bulletin 83,973-988.
Kuo, L.-C.,Kirkpatrick, R.J., 1985. Kinetics of crystal dissolution in the system diopside-forsterite-silica. American Journal of Science 285(1), 51-90.
Latypov, R.M., 2003. The origin of basic-ultrabasic sills with S-, D-, and I-shaped compositional profiles by in situ crystallization of a single input of phenocrystpoor parental magma. Journal of Petrology 44(9), 1619-1656.
Lesher, C., 2017. Roles of residues/skarns, xenoliths, xenocrysts, xenomelts, and xenovolatiles in the genesis, transport, and localization of magmatic Fe-Ni-CuPGE sulfides and chromite. Ore Geology Reviews 90, 465-494.
Lesher, C.M., Burnham, O.M., 2001. Multicomponent elemental and isotopic mixing in Ni-Cu-(PGE)ores at Kambalda, Western Australia. The Canadian Mineralogist39, 421-446.
Li, C., Naldrett, 2000. Melting reactions of gneissic inclusions with enclosing magma at Voisey's Bay, Labrador, Canada; implications with respect to ore genesis.Economic Geology and the Bulletin of the Society of Economic Geologists 95(4),801-814.
Li, C., Ripley, E.M., 2009. Sulfur contents at sulfide-liquid or anhydrite saturation in silicate melts:empirical equations and example applications. Economic Geology 104, 405-412.
Li, C., Ripley, E.M., 2011. The giant Jinchuan Ni-Cu-(PGE)deposit; tectonic setting,magma evolution, ore genesis, and exploration implications. Reviews in Economic Geology 17,163-180.
Li, C., Ripley, E.M., Naldrett, A.J., Schmitt, A.K., Moore, C.H., 2009. Magmatic anhydrite-sulfide assemblages in the plumbing system of the Siberian Traps.Geology(Boulder)37(3), 259-262.
Li, C.S., Zhang, M.J., Fu, P., Qian, Z.Z., Hu, P.Q., Ripley, E.M., 2012. The Kalatongke magmatic Ni-Cu deposits in the Central Asian Orogenic Belt, NW China:product of slab window magmatism? Mineralium Deposita 47(1-2), 51-67.
Lightfoot, P.C., Evans-Lamswood, D.M., 2015. Structural controls on the primary distribution of mafic-ultramafic intrusions containing Ni-Cu-Co-(PGE)sulfide mineralization in the roots of large igneous provinces. Ore Geology Reviews64, 354-386.
Lightfoot, P.C., Zotov, I.A., 2014. Geological relationships between the intrusions,country rocks and Ni-Cu-PGE sulfides of the Kharealakh Intrusion, Noril'sk region:implications for the role of sulfide differentiation and metasomatism in their genesis. Northwestern Geology 47,1-35.
Lightfoot, P.C., Keays, R.R., Evans-Lamswood, D., Wheeler, R., 2012. S saturation history of Nain plutonic suite mafic intrusions; origin of the Voisey's Bay Ni-CuCo sulfide deposit, Labrador, Canada. Mineralium Deposita 47(1-2), 23-50.
Lister, J.R., Kerr, R.C., 1991. Fluid-mechanical models of crack propagation and their application to magma transport in dykes. Journal of Geophysical Research 96(B6),10049-10077.
Mariga, J., Ripley, E.M., Li, C., 2006. Petrologic evolution of gneissic xenoliths in the Voisey's Bay Intrusion, Labrador, Canada:mineralogy, reactions, partial melting, and mechanisms of mass transfer. Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems 7.
McLeod, P., Sparks, R.S.J., 1998. The dynamics of xenolith assimilation. Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology 132, 21-33.
Melnik, O., 2017. Flow rate estimation in a lava tube based on surface temperature measurements. Geophysical Journal International 208(3), 1716-1723.
Mungall, J.E., 2002. Kinetic controls on the partitioning of trace elements between silicate and sulfide liquids. Journal of Petrology 43, 749-768.
Mungall,J.E., Brenan, J.M., 2014. Partitioning of platinum-group elements and Au between sulfide liquid and basalt and the origins of mantle-crust fractionation of the chalcophile elements. Geochimica et Cosmichimica Acta 125,265-289.
Naldrett, A.J., 1999. World-class Ni-Cu-PGE deposits:key factors in their genesis.Mineralium Deposita 34, 227-240.
Naldrett, A.J., 2004. Magmatic Sulfide Deposits:Geology, Geochemistry and Exploration. Springer, Heidelberg, 727 pp.
Orr, T.R., Poland, M.P., Patrick, M.R., Thelen, W.A., Sutton, A.J., Elias, T., Thornber, C.R.,Parcheta, C., Wooten, K.M., 2015. Kilauea's 5-9 march 2011 Kamoamoa fissure eruption and its relation to 30+years of activity from Pu'u'O'o. In:Carey, R.J.,Cayol Poland, M., Weis, D.(Eds.), Hawaiian Volcanoes:From Source to Surface,Geophysical Monograph, vol. 208. American Geophysical Union, John Wiley and Sons, pp. 393-420.
Ortega, L., Lunar, R., Garcia-Palomero, F., Moreno, T., Martin-Estrevez, J.R.,Prichard, H.M., Fisher, P.C., 2004. The Aguablanca Ni-Cu-Pge deposit, southwestern Iberia:magmatic ore-forming processes and retrograde evolution. The Canadian Mineralogist 42, 325-350.
Pina, R., Lunar, R., Ortega, L., Gervilla, F., Alapieti, T., Martinez, C., 2006. Petrology and geochemistry of mafic-ultramafic fragments from the Aguablanca Ni-Cu ore breccia, southwest Spain. Economic Geology 101(4), 865-881.
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Saumur, B.M., Cruden, A.R., Evans-Lamswood, D.M., Lightfoot, P.C., 2015b. Wall-rock structural controls on the genesis of the Voisey's Bay intrusion and its Ni-Cu-Co magmatic sulfide mineralization(Labrador, Canada). Economic Geology 110,691-711.
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Staude, S., Barnes, S.J., Le Vaillant, M., 2017. Thermomechanical excavation of orehosting embayments beneath komatiite lava channels:textural evidence from the Moran deposit, Kambalda, Western Australia. Ore Geology Reviews 90,446-464.
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Barnes, S.J., Cruden, A.R., Arndt, N.T., Saumur, B.M., 2016. The mineral system approach applied to magmatic Ni-Cu-PGE sulphide deposits. Ore Geology Reviews 76, 296-316.
Barnes, S.J., Le Vaillant, M., Lightfoot, P.C., 2017a. Textural development in sulfidematrix ore breccias and associated rocks in the Voisey's Bay Ni-Cu-Co deposit, Labrador, Canada. Ore Geology Reviews 90, 414-438.
Barnes, S.J., Mungall, J.E., Le Vaillant, M., Godel, B., Lesher, C.M., Holwell, D.A.,Lightfoot, P.C., Krivolutskaya, N.A, Wei, B., 2017b. Sulfide-silicate textures in magmatic Ni-Cu-PGE sulfide ore deposits:disseminated and net-textured ores.American Mineralogist 102, 473-506.
Barriere, M., 1976. Flowage differentiation:limitation of the Bagnold effect to the narrow intrusions. Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology 55,139-145.
Cawthorn, R.G., Barnes, S.J., Ballhaus, C., Malich, K.N., 2005. Platinum group element, chromium and vanadium deposits in mafic and ultramafic rocks,100th Anniversary Volume Economic Geology 215-249.
Cussler, E.L., 2009. Diffusion:Mass Transfer in Fluid Systems, third ed. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge Series in Chemical Engineering, Cambridge. 631 pp.
de Bremond d'Ars,J., Arndt, N.T.,Hallot, E., 2001. Analog experimental insights into the formation of magmatic sulfide deposits. Earth and Planetary Science Letters186, 371-381.
Delany, P.T., Fiske, R.S., Miklius, A., Okamura, A.T., Sako, M.K., 1990. Deep magma body beneath the summit and rift zones of Kilauea volcano, Hawaii. Science247,1311-1316.
Godel, B., Barnes, S.J., Barnes, S.-J., 2013. Deposition mechanisms of magmatic sulphide liquids:evidence from high-resolution X-ray computed tomography and trace element chemistry of komatiite-hosted disseminated sulphides. Journal of Petrology 54,1455-1481.
Gole, M.J., Robertson, J., Barnes, S.J., 2013. Extrusive origin and structural modification of the komatiitic mount Keith ultramafic unit. Economic Geology 108,1731-1752.
Harris, A.J.L., Flynn, L.P., Keszthelyi, L., Mouginismark, P.J., Rowland, S.K., Resing, J.A.,1998. Calculation of lava effusion rates from Landsat Tm data. Bulletin of Volcanology 60, 52-71.
Hill, R.E.T., Barnes, S.J., Gole, M.J., Dowling, S.E., 1995. The volcanology of komatiites as deduced from field relationships in the Norseman-Wiluna greenstone belt,Western Australia. Lithos 34,159-188.
Holcomb, R.T., 1987. Eruptive history and long-term behavior of Kilauea volcano.U. S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1350, 261-349.
Hon, K., Kauahikaua, J., Denlinger, R., Mackay, K., 1994. Emplacement and inflation of pahoehoe sheet flows:observations and measurements of active lava flows on Kilauea Volcano, Hawaii. The Geological Society of America Bulletin 106,351-370.
Huppert, H.E., Sparks, R.S.J., 1988a. The generation of granitic magmas by intrusion of basalt into continental crust. Journal of Petrology 29, 599-624.
Huppert, H.E., Sparks, R.S.J., 1988b. Melting the roof of a chamber containing a hot,turbulently convecting fluid. Journal of Fluid Mechanics 188,107-131.
Kauahikaua, J., Cashman, K.V., Mattox, T.N., Heliker, C.C., Hon, K.A., Mangan, M.T.,Thornber, C.R., 1998. Observations on basaltic lava streams in tubes from Kilauea volcano, Island of Hawaii. Journal of Geophysical Research-Solid Earth103, 27303-27323.
Kerr, R.C., 1994a. Dissolving driven by vigorous compositional convection. Journal of Fluid Mechanics 280, 287-302.
Kerr, R.C., 1994b. Melting driven by vigorous compositional convection. Journal of Fluid Mechanics 280, 255-285.
Kerr, R.C., 1995. Convective crystal dissolution. Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology 121(3), 237-246.
Kerr, R.C., 2001. Thermal erosion by laminar lava flows. Journal of Geophysical Research-Solid Earth 106, 26453-26465.
Komar, P.D., 1972. Mechanical interactions of phenocrysts and flow differentiation of igneous dykes and sills. The Geological Society of America Bulletin 83,973-988.
Kuo, L.-C.,Kirkpatrick, R.J., 1985. Kinetics of crystal dissolution in the system diopside-forsterite-silica. American Journal of Science 285(1), 51-90.
Latypov, R.M., 2003. The origin of basic-ultrabasic sills with S-, D-, and I-shaped compositional profiles by in situ crystallization of a single input of phenocrystpoor parental magma. Journal of Petrology 44(9), 1619-1656.
Lesher, C., 2017. Roles of residues/skarns, xenoliths, xenocrysts, xenomelts, and xenovolatiles in the genesis, transport, and localization of magmatic Fe-Ni-CuPGE sulfides and chromite. Ore Geology Reviews 90, 465-494.
Lesher, C.M., Burnham, O.M., 2001. Multicomponent elemental and isotopic mixing in Ni-Cu-(PGE)ores at Kambalda, Western Australia. The Canadian Mineralogist39, 421-446.
Li, C., Naldrett, 2000. Melting reactions of gneissic inclusions with enclosing magma at Voisey's Bay, Labrador, Canada; implications with respect to ore genesis.Economic Geology and the Bulletin of the Society of Economic Geologists 95(4),801-814.
Li, C., Ripley, E.M., 2009. Sulfur contents at sulfide-liquid or anhydrite saturation in silicate melts:empirical equations and example applications. Economic Geology 104, 405-412.
Li, C., Ripley, E.M., 2011. The giant Jinchuan Ni-Cu-(PGE)deposit; tectonic setting,magma evolution, ore genesis, and exploration implications. Reviews in Economic Geology 17,163-180.
Li, C., Ripley, E.M., Naldrett, A.J., Schmitt, A.K., Moore, C.H., 2009. Magmatic anhydrite-sulfide assemblages in the plumbing system of the Siberian Traps.Geology(Boulder)37(3), 259-262.
Li, C.S., Zhang, M.J., Fu, P., Qian, Z.Z., Hu, P.Q., Ripley, E.M., 2012. The Kalatongke magmatic Ni-Cu deposits in the Central Asian Orogenic Belt, NW China:product of slab window magmatism? Mineralium Deposita 47(1-2), 51-67.
Lightfoot, P.C., Evans-Lamswood, D.M., 2015. Structural controls on the primary distribution of mafic-ultramafic intrusions containing Ni-Cu-Co-(PGE)sulfide mineralization in the roots of large igneous provinces. Ore Geology Reviews64, 354-386.
Lightfoot, P.C., Zotov, I.A., 2014. Geological relationships between the intrusions,country rocks and Ni-Cu-PGE sulfides of the Kharealakh Intrusion, Noril'sk region:implications for the role of sulfide differentiation and metasomatism in their genesis. Northwestern Geology 47,1-35.
Lightfoot, P.C., Keays, R.R., Evans-Lamswood, D., Wheeler, R., 2012. S saturation history of Nain plutonic suite mafic intrusions; origin of the Voisey's Bay Ni-CuCo sulfide deposit, Labrador, Canada. Mineralium Deposita 47(1-2), 23-50.
Lister, J.R., Kerr, R.C., 1991. Fluid-mechanical models of crack propagation and their application to magma transport in dykes. Journal of Geophysical Research 96(B6),10049-10077.
Mariga, J., Ripley, E.M., Li, C., 2006. Petrologic evolution of gneissic xenoliths in the Voisey's Bay Intrusion, Labrador, Canada:mineralogy, reactions, partial melting, and mechanisms of mass transfer. Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems 7.
McLeod, P., Sparks, R.S.J., 1998. The dynamics of xenolith assimilation. Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology 132, 21-33.
Melnik, O., 2017. Flow rate estimation in a lava tube based on surface temperature measurements. Geophysical Journal International 208(3), 1716-1723.
Mungall, J.E., 2002. Kinetic controls on the partitioning of trace elements between silicate and sulfide liquids. Journal of Petrology 43, 749-768.
Mungall,J.E., Brenan, J.M., 2014. Partitioning of platinum-group elements and Au between sulfide liquid and basalt and the origins of mantle-crust fractionation of the chalcophile elements. Geochimica et Cosmichimica Acta 125,265-289.
Naldrett, A.J., 1999. World-class Ni-Cu-PGE deposits:key factors in their genesis.Mineralium Deposita 34, 227-240.
Naldrett, A.J., 2004. Magmatic Sulfide Deposits:Geology, Geochemistry and Exploration. Springer, Heidelberg, 727 pp.
Orr, T.R., Poland, M.P., Patrick, M.R., Thelen, W.A., Sutton, A.J., Elias, T., Thornber, C.R.,Parcheta, C., Wooten, K.M., 2015. Kilauea's 5-9 march 2011 Kamoamoa fissure eruption and its relation to 30+years of activity from Pu'u'O'o. In:Carey, R.J.,Cayol Poland, M., Weis, D.(Eds.), Hawaiian Volcanoes:From Source to Surface,Geophysical Monograph, vol. 208. American Geophysical Union, John Wiley and Sons, pp. 393-420.
Ortega, L., Lunar, R., Garcia-Palomero, F., Moreno, T., Martin-Estrevez, J.R.,Prichard, H.M., Fisher, P.C., 2004. The Aguablanca Ni-Cu-Pge deposit, southwestern Iberia:magmatic ore-forming processes and retrograde evolution. The Canadian Mineralogist 42, 325-350.
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