Development of cork oak (Quercus suber L.) seedlings in response to tree shelters and mulching in northwestern Tunisia
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摘要
The need for reforestation in cork oak (Quercus suber L.) areas is challenged by difficulties. Principal among these is herbivory of young plants, vegetative competition, and slow growth rates of cork oak seedlings. We evaluated the early development of cork oak seedlings treated using tree shelters and mulching in northwestern Tunisia. We tested three tree shelter treatments (non-vented, vented, and control) to shield seedlings from animal damage and five mulch types to control competing vegetation (Italian Stone Pine, Lentisk, combination of Italian Stone Pine and Lentisk (organic mulches), gravel (inorganic mulch) and no mulch). At the end of the two-year experiment, sheltered seedlings were 89-99% taller than unshelteredseedlings and had higher numbers and lengths of shoot growth flushes. In contrast, both stem diameter growth and dry weight biomass (from samples extracted after two years) were significantly reduced inside tree shelters. Root-to-shoot ratio was not significantly different in sheltered vs. unsheltered seedlings, suggesting that tree shelters do not adversely affect this parameter. Mulching alone did not favour growth, but could be beneficial when combined with tree shelters. The combination of vented tree shelters and gravel mulch was the most effective treatment for promoting diameter, height and stem volume growth.
The need for reforestation in cork oak (Quercus suber L.) areas is challenged by difficulties. Principal among these is herbivory of young plants, vegetative competition, and slow growth rates of cork oak seedlings. We evaluated the early development of cork oak seedlings treated using tree shelters and mulching in northwestern Tunisia. We tested three tree shelter treatments (non-vented, vented, and control) to shield seedlings from animal damage and five mulch types to control competing vegetation (Italian Stone Pine, Lentisk, combination of Italian Stone Pine and Lentisk (organic mulches), gravel (inorganic mulch) and no mulch). At the end of the two-year experiment, sheltered seedlings were 89-99% taller than unshelteredseedlings and had higher numbers and lengths of shoot growth flushes. In contrast, both stem diameter growth and dry weight biomass (from samples extracted after two years) were significantly reduced inside tree shelters. Root-to-shoot ratio was not significantly different in sheltered vs. unsheltered seedlings, suggesting that tree shelters do not adversely affect this parameter. Mulching alone did not favour growth, but could be beneficial when combined with tree shelters. The combination of vented tree shelters and gravel mulch was the most effective treatment for promoting diameter, height and stem volume growth.
The need for reforestation in cork oak (Quercus suber L.) areas is challenged by difficulties. Principal among these is herbivory of young plants, vegetative competition, and slow growth rates of cork oak seedlings. We evaluated the early development of cork oak seedlings treated using tree shelters and mulching in northwestern Tunisia. We tested three tree shelter treatments (non-vented, vented, and control) to shield seedlings from animal damage and five mulch types to control competing vegetation (Italian Stone Pine, Lentisk, combination of Italian Stone Pine and Lentisk (organic mulches), gravel (inorganic mulch) and no mulch). At the end of the two-year experiment, sheltered seedlings were 89-99% taller than unshelteredseedlings and had higher numbers and lengths of shoot growth flushes. In contrast, both stem diameter growth and dry weight biomass (from samples extracted after two years) were significantly reduced inside tree shelters. Root-to-shoot ratio was not significantly different in sheltered vs. unsheltered seedlings, suggesting that tree shelters do not adversely affect this parameter. Mulching alone did not favour growth, but could be beneficial when combined with tree shelters. The combination of vented tree shelters and gravel mulch was the most effective treatment for promoting diameter, height and stem volume growth.
引文
Agresti A. 2002. Categorical Data Analysis. 2nd edn. Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., p. 710.
Alatou D.1990.Recherches sur le déterminisme de la croissance rythmiquedu chêne: Quercus pedunculata Ehrh-Quercus mirbeckii Durieu-Quercussuber L.–étude morphologique,biochimique etécophysiologique.Thèsede Doctorat d’état en Sciences Naturelles,Universitéde Constantine(Algérie) et Blaise Pascal Clermont II (France),p.109.
Bellot J,Ortiz de Urbina JM,Bonet A,Sanchez JR.2002.The effects of treeshelters on the growth of Quercus coccifera L.seedlings in a semiarid envi-ronment.Forestry,75: 89 106.
Bergez J-E,Dupraz C.2000.Effect of ventilation on growth of Prunus aviumseedlings grown in tree shelters.Agric For Meteorol,104: 199 214.
Burger DW,vihra P,Harris R.1992.Tree shelter use in producing container-grown trees.HortScience,27: 30 32.
Burger DW,Forister GW,Kiehl PA.1996.Height,caliper growth,andbiomass response of ten shade tree species to tree shelters.J Arboricult,22:161 166.
Chaar H,Colin F,Collet C.1997.Effects of environmental factors on theshoot development of Quercus petraea seedlings: A methodological ap-proach.For Ecol Manage,97: 119 131.
Chaar H,Colin F.1999.Développement en hauteur des régénérations dechêne sessile.Rev For Fr,51: 341 354.
Chaar H,Mechergui T,Khouaja A,Abid H.2008.Effects of tree shelters andpolyethylene mulch sheets on survival and growth of cork oak (Quercussuber L.) seedlings planted in North-western Tunisia.For Ecol Manage,256: 722 731.
Champagnat P,Payan E,Champagnat M,Barnola P,Lavarenne S,BertholonC.1986.La croissance rythmique de jeunes chênes pédonculés cultivés enconditions contr lées et uniformes.Naturalia Monspelensia HS,303–337.
Costello LR,Peters A,Giusti GA.1996.An evaluation of treeshelter effectson plant survival and growth in a Mediterranean climate.Journal of Ar-boriculture,22: 1 9.
Davies RJ.1988a.Sheet mulching as an aid to broadleaved tree establishment:I.The effectiveness of various synthetic sheets compared.Forestry,61:89 105.
Davies RJ.1988b.Sheet mulching as an aid to broadleaved tree establishmentII.Comparison of various sizes of black polyethylene mulch and herbicidetreated spot.Forestry,61: 107 124.
Dubois MR,Chappelka AH,Robbins E,Somers G,Baker K.2000.Treeshelters and weed control: effects on protection,survival and growth ofcherrybark oak seedlings planted on a cutover site.New Forests,20:105 118.
Duryea ML,English RJ,Hermansen LA.1999.A comparison of landscapemulches: chemical,allelopathic,and decomposition properties.J Arboricult,25: 88 97.
Famiani F,Proietti P,Micheli M,Boco M,Standardi A.2007.Effects of treeshelters on young olive (Oleaeuropaea) tree growth and physiology.NewZealand J Crop Horticult,35: 303 312.
Fang SZ,Li HY,Xie BD.2008.Decomposition and nutrient release of fourpotential mulching materials for poplar plantations on upland sites.Agro-forest Syst,74: 27-35.doi: 10.1007/s10457 008 9155 0.
Green DS,Kruger EL,Stanosz GR.2003.Effects of polyethylene mulch in ashort-rotation,poplar plantation vary with weed-control strategies,sitequality and clone.For Ecol Manage,173: 251 260.
Greenly KM,Rakow DA.1995.The effect of wood mulch type and depth onweed and tree growth and certain soil parameters.J Arboricult,21:225 232.
Hall AE.2001.Crop Responses to the Environment.Boca Raton,FL: CRCPress,p.232.
Harmer R.1990.Relation of shoot growth phases in seedling oak to develop-ment of the tap root,lateral roots and fine root tips.New Phytologist,115:23 27.
Harris RW.1983.Arboriculture: Care of Trees,Shrubs,and Vines in theLandscape.Englewood Cliffs,NJ: Prentice Hall,p.674.
Hasnaoui B.1992.Chênaies du Nord de la Tunisie.écologie et régénération.Thèse de doctorat d’état es Sciences Naturelles,Universitéde Provence,Aix-Marseille I,p.202.
Haywood JD.2000.Mulch and hexazinone herbicide shorten the time long-leaf pine seedlings are in the grass stage and increase height growth.NewForests,19: 279 290.
Haywood JD,Youngquist JA.1991.Mulching effects of plant fiber and plantfiberpolyester mats combined with fertilizer on loblolly pine seedlings.Tree Plant Notes,42:32 35.
Heuret P,Guédon Y,Guérard N,Barthélémy D.2003.Analysing branchingpattern in plantations of Young Red Oak Trees (Quercus rubra L.,Fa-gaceae).Ann Bot,91: 479 492.doi: 10.1093/aob/mcg046.
Hou Y,Qu JT,Luo ZK,Zhang C,Wang KY.2011.Morphological mecha-nism of growth response in treeline species Minjiang fir to elevated CO2and temperature.Silva Fennica,45: 181 195.
Huang Z,Xu Z,Blumfield TJ,Bubb K.2008.Effects of mulching on growth,foliar photosynthetic nitrogen and water use efficiency of hardwood planta-tions in subtropical Australia.For Ecol Manage,25: 3447 3454.
Jacobs DF.2011.Reforestation of a salvage-logged high-elevationclearcut:Engelmann spruce seedling response to tree shelters after eleven growingseasons.West J Appl For,26: 53 56.
Jiménez MN,Navarro FB,Ripoll MA,Bocio I,De Simon E.2005.Effect ofshelter tubes on establishment and growth of Juniperus thurifera L.(Cu-pressaceae) seedlings in Mediterranean semi-arid environment.Ann ForSci 62: 717 725.
Leroy C,Caraglio Y.2003.Effect of tube shelters on the growth of youngTurkish pines (Pinus brutia Ten.,Pinaceae).Ann For Sci,60: 539 547.
Littell RA,Milliken GA,Stroup WW,Wolfinger RD,Schabenberger O.2006.SAS for mixed models,Cary,NC.2nd edn.SAS Institute Inc,USA.p.813.
L f M,Dey DC,Navarro RM,Jacobs DF.2012.Mechanical site preparationfor forest restoration.New Forests,43: 825 848.
Mayhead GJ.1992.Some alternatives to herbicides in British forestry.Q JForest,86: 105 112.
Mayhead GJ,Boothman IR.1997.The effect of tree shelter height on theearly growth of sessile oak (Quercus petraea (Matt.) Liebl.).Forestry,70:151 155.
McCreary DD,Tecklin J.1997.Effects of seedling protectors and weedcontrol on blue oak growth and survival.USDA For Serv Ge TechnicalReport,PSWGTR,160: 243 249.
Nachtergaele J,Poesen J,van Wesemael B.1998.Gravel mulching in vine-yards of Southern Switzerland.Soil and Tillage Research,35: 51 59.
Navarro Cerrillo RM,Fragueiro B,Ceaceros C,del Campo A,de Prado R.2005.Establishment of Quercus ilex L.subsp.Ballota [Desf.] Samp.usingdifferent weed control strategies in southern Spain.Ecol Engin,25:332 342.
Neel PL,Harris RW.1971.Motion-induced inhibition of elongation andinduction of dormancy in Liquidamber.Science,173: 58 59.
Nsibi R,Souayah N,Khouja LM,Khaldi A,Bouzid S.2006.Impacts desfacteurs biotiques et abiotiques sur la dégradation de subéraie tunisienne.GeoEcoTrop,30: 25 34.
Oelbermann M,Voroney RP,Schl nvoigt AM,Kass DCL.2004.Decomposi-tion of Erythrina poeppigiana leaves in 3-,9-,and 18-year-old alleycrop-ping systems in Costa Rica.Agrofor Syst,63: 27 32.
Oliet J,Jacobs DF.2007.Microclimatic conditions and plant morph-physiological development within a tree shelter environment during estab-lishment of Quercus ilex seedlings.Agric For Metereol,144:58 72.
Oliet JA,Planelles R,Artero F,Jacobs DF.2005.Nursery fertilization andtree shelters affect long-term field response of Acacia salicina Lindl.planted in Mediterranean semiarid conditions.For Ecol Manage,215:339 351.
Puértolas J,Oliet JA,Jacobs DF,Benito LF,and Pe uelas JL.2010.Is lightthe key factor for success of tube shelters in forest restoration plantingsunder Mediterranean climates?For Ecol Manage,260: 610 617.
Pemán J,Peguero-Pina JJ,Valladares F,Gil-Pelegrín E.2010.Evaluation ofunventilated tree shelters in the context of Mediterranean climate: Insightsfrom a study on Quercus faginea seedlings assessed with a 3D architecturalplant model.Ecol Engin,36: 517 526.
Ponder F.1994.Tree shelters: Central hardwood notes.North Central ForestExperiment Station,3(11): 1 4.
Potter MJ.1991.Tree shelters.Forestry Commission Handbook 7.London:HMSO Publications,p.89.
QuilhóT,Lopes F,Pereira H.2003.The effect of tree shelter on the stemanatomy of cork oak (Quercus suber) plants.IAWA J,24: 385 395.
Reich PB,Teskey RO,Johnson PS,Hinckley TM.1980.Periodic root andshoot growth in oak.Forest Science,26: 590 598.
Sharpe WE,Swistock BR,Mecum KA,Demchik MC.1999.Greenhouse andfield growth of northern red oak seedlings inside different types of treeshelters.J Arboricult,25: 249 257.
Siipilehto J.2001.Effect of weed control with fibre mulches and herbicideson the initial development of spruce,birch and aspen seedlings on aban-doned farmland.Silva Fennica,35: 403 414.
Taylor TS,Loewenstein EF,Chappelka AH.2006.Effect of animal browseprotection and fertilizer application on the establishment of planted Nuttalloak seedlings.New Forests,32: 133 143.
Truax B,Gagnon D.1993.Effects of straw and black plastic mulching on theinitial growth and nutrition of butternut,white ash and bur oak.For EcolManage,57: 17 27.
Tuley G.1985.The growth of young oak trees in shelters.Forestry,58:181 195.
West DH,Chappelka AH,Tilt KM,Ponder HG,Williams JD.1999.Effect oftree shelters on survival,growth,and wood quality of 11 tree species com-monly planted in the southeastern United States.J Arboricult,25: 69 75.
Alatou D.1990.Recherches sur le déterminisme de la croissance rythmiquedu chêne: Quercus pedunculata Ehrh-Quercus mirbeckii Durieu-Quercussuber L.–étude morphologique,biochimique etécophysiologique.Thèsede Doctorat d’état en Sciences Naturelles,Universitéde Constantine(Algérie) et Blaise Pascal Clermont II (France),p.109.
Bellot J,Ortiz de Urbina JM,Bonet A,Sanchez JR.2002.The effects of treeshelters on the growth of Quercus coccifera L.seedlings in a semiarid envi-ronment.Forestry,75: 89 106.
Bergez J-E,Dupraz C.2000.Effect of ventilation on growth of Prunus aviumseedlings grown in tree shelters.Agric For Meteorol,104: 199 214.
Burger DW,vihra P,Harris R.1992.Tree shelter use in producing container-grown trees.HortScience,27: 30 32.
Burger DW,Forister GW,Kiehl PA.1996.Height,caliper growth,andbiomass response of ten shade tree species to tree shelters.J Arboricult,22:161 166.
Chaar H,Colin F,Collet C.1997.Effects of environmental factors on theshoot development of Quercus petraea seedlings: A methodological ap-proach.For Ecol Manage,97: 119 131.
Chaar H,Colin F.1999.Développement en hauteur des régénérations dechêne sessile.Rev For Fr,51: 341 354.
Chaar H,Mechergui T,Khouaja A,Abid H.2008.Effects of tree shelters andpolyethylene mulch sheets on survival and growth of cork oak (Quercussuber L.) seedlings planted in North-western Tunisia.For Ecol Manage,256: 722 731.
Champagnat P,Payan E,Champagnat M,Barnola P,Lavarenne S,BertholonC.1986.La croissance rythmique de jeunes chênes pédonculés cultivés enconditions contr lées et uniformes.Naturalia Monspelensia HS,303–337.
Costello LR,Peters A,Giusti GA.1996.An evaluation of treeshelter effectson plant survival and growth in a Mediterranean climate.Journal of Ar-boriculture,22: 1 9.
Davies RJ.1988a.Sheet mulching as an aid to broadleaved tree establishment:I.The effectiveness of various synthetic sheets compared.Forestry,61:89 105.
Davies RJ.1988b.Sheet mulching as an aid to broadleaved tree establishmentII.Comparison of various sizes of black polyethylene mulch and herbicidetreated spot.Forestry,61: 107 124.
Dubois MR,Chappelka AH,Robbins E,Somers G,Baker K.2000.Treeshelters and weed control: effects on protection,survival and growth ofcherrybark oak seedlings planted on a cutover site.New Forests,20:105 118.
Duryea ML,English RJ,Hermansen LA.1999.A comparison of landscapemulches: chemical,allelopathic,and decomposition properties.J Arboricult,25: 88 97.
Famiani F,Proietti P,Micheli M,Boco M,Standardi A.2007.Effects of treeshelters on young olive (Oleaeuropaea) tree growth and physiology.NewZealand J Crop Horticult,35: 303 312.
Fang SZ,Li HY,Xie BD.2008.Decomposition and nutrient release of fourpotential mulching materials for poplar plantations on upland sites.Agro-forest Syst,74: 27-35.doi: 10.1007/s10457 008 9155 0.
Green DS,Kruger EL,Stanosz GR.2003.Effects of polyethylene mulch in ashort-rotation,poplar plantation vary with weed-control strategies,sitequality and clone.For Ecol Manage,173: 251 260.
Greenly KM,Rakow DA.1995.The effect of wood mulch type and depth onweed and tree growth and certain soil parameters.J Arboricult,21:225 232.
Hall AE.2001.Crop Responses to the Environment.Boca Raton,FL: CRCPress,p.232.
Harmer R.1990.Relation of shoot growth phases in seedling oak to develop-ment of the tap root,lateral roots and fine root tips.New Phytologist,115:23 27.
Harris RW.1983.Arboriculture: Care of Trees,Shrubs,and Vines in theLandscape.Englewood Cliffs,NJ: Prentice Hall,p.674.
Hasnaoui B.1992.Chênaies du Nord de la Tunisie.écologie et régénération.Thèse de doctorat d’état es Sciences Naturelles,Universitéde Provence,Aix-Marseille I,p.202.
Haywood JD.2000.Mulch and hexazinone herbicide shorten the time long-leaf pine seedlings are in the grass stage and increase height growth.NewForests,19: 279 290.
Haywood JD,Youngquist JA.1991.Mulching effects of plant fiber and plantfiberpolyester mats combined with fertilizer on loblolly pine seedlings.Tree Plant Notes,42:32 35.
Heuret P,Guédon Y,Guérard N,Barthélémy D.2003.Analysing branchingpattern in plantations of Young Red Oak Trees (Quercus rubra L.,Fa-gaceae).Ann Bot,91: 479 492.doi: 10.1093/aob/mcg046.
Hou Y,Qu JT,Luo ZK,Zhang C,Wang KY.2011.Morphological mecha-nism of growth response in treeline species Minjiang fir to elevated CO2and temperature.Silva Fennica,45: 181 195.
Huang Z,Xu Z,Blumfield TJ,Bubb K.2008.Effects of mulching on growth,foliar photosynthetic nitrogen and water use efficiency of hardwood planta-tions in subtropical Australia.For Ecol Manage,25: 3447 3454.
Jacobs DF.2011.Reforestation of a salvage-logged high-elevationclearcut:Engelmann spruce seedling response to tree shelters after eleven growingseasons.West J Appl For,26: 53 56.
Jiménez MN,Navarro FB,Ripoll MA,Bocio I,De Simon E.2005.Effect ofshelter tubes on establishment and growth of Juniperus thurifera L.(Cu-pressaceae) seedlings in Mediterranean semi-arid environment.Ann ForSci 62: 717 725.
Leroy C,Caraglio Y.2003.Effect of tube shelters on the growth of youngTurkish pines (Pinus brutia Ten.,Pinaceae).Ann For Sci,60: 539 547.
Littell RA,Milliken GA,Stroup WW,Wolfinger RD,Schabenberger O.2006.SAS for mixed models,Cary,NC.2nd edn.SAS Institute Inc,USA.p.813.
L f M,Dey DC,Navarro RM,Jacobs DF.2012.Mechanical site preparationfor forest restoration.New Forests,43: 825 848.
Mayhead GJ.1992.Some alternatives to herbicides in British forestry.Q JForest,86: 105 112.
Mayhead GJ,Boothman IR.1997.The effect of tree shelter height on theearly growth of sessile oak (Quercus petraea (Matt.) Liebl.).Forestry,70:151 155.
McCreary DD,Tecklin J.1997.Effects of seedling protectors and weedcontrol on blue oak growth and survival.USDA For Serv Ge TechnicalReport,PSWGTR,160: 243 249.
Nachtergaele J,Poesen J,van Wesemael B.1998.Gravel mulching in vine-yards of Southern Switzerland.Soil and Tillage Research,35: 51 59.
Navarro Cerrillo RM,Fragueiro B,Ceaceros C,del Campo A,de Prado R.2005.Establishment of Quercus ilex L.subsp.Ballota [Desf.] Samp.usingdifferent weed control strategies in southern Spain.Ecol Engin,25:332 342.
Neel PL,Harris RW.1971.Motion-induced inhibition of elongation andinduction of dormancy in Liquidamber.Science,173: 58 59.
Nsibi R,Souayah N,Khouja LM,Khaldi A,Bouzid S.2006.Impacts desfacteurs biotiques et abiotiques sur la dégradation de subéraie tunisienne.GeoEcoTrop,30: 25 34.
Oelbermann M,Voroney RP,Schl nvoigt AM,Kass DCL.2004.Decomposi-tion of Erythrina poeppigiana leaves in 3-,9-,and 18-year-old alleycrop-ping systems in Costa Rica.Agrofor Syst,63: 27 32.
Oliet J,Jacobs DF.2007.Microclimatic conditions and plant morph-physiological development within a tree shelter environment during estab-lishment of Quercus ilex seedlings.Agric For Metereol,144:58 72.
Oliet JA,Planelles R,Artero F,Jacobs DF.2005.Nursery fertilization andtree shelters affect long-term field response of Acacia salicina Lindl.planted in Mediterranean semiarid conditions.For Ecol Manage,215:339 351.
Puértolas J,Oliet JA,Jacobs DF,Benito LF,and Pe uelas JL.2010.Is lightthe key factor for success of tube shelters in forest restoration plantingsunder Mediterranean climates?For Ecol Manage,260: 610 617.
Pemán J,Peguero-Pina JJ,Valladares F,Gil-Pelegrín E.2010.Evaluation ofunventilated tree shelters in the context of Mediterranean climate: Insightsfrom a study on Quercus faginea seedlings assessed with a 3D architecturalplant model.Ecol Engin,36: 517 526.
Ponder F.1994.Tree shelters: Central hardwood notes.North Central ForestExperiment Station,3(11): 1 4.
Potter MJ.1991.Tree shelters.Forestry Commission Handbook 7.London:HMSO Publications,p.89.
QuilhóT,Lopes F,Pereira H.2003.The effect of tree shelter on the stemanatomy of cork oak (Quercus suber) plants.IAWA J,24: 385 395.
Reich PB,Teskey RO,Johnson PS,Hinckley TM.1980.Periodic root andshoot growth in oak.Forest Science,26: 590 598.
Sharpe WE,Swistock BR,Mecum KA,Demchik MC.1999.Greenhouse andfield growth of northern red oak seedlings inside different types of treeshelters.J Arboricult,25: 249 257.
Siipilehto J.2001.Effect of weed control with fibre mulches and herbicideson the initial development of spruce,birch and aspen seedlings on aban-doned farmland.Silva Fennica,35: 403 414.
Taylor TS,Loewenstein EF,Chappelka AH.2006.Effect of animal browseprotection and fertilizer application on the establishment of planted Nuttalloak seedlings.New Forests,32: 133 143.
Truax B,Gagnon D.1993.Effects of straw and black plastic mulching on theinitial growth and nutrition of butternut,white ash and bur oak.For EcolManage,57: 17 27.
Tuley G.1985.The growth of young oak trees in shelters.Forestry,58:181 195.
West DH,Chappelka AH,Tilt KM,Ponder HG,Williams JD.1999.Effect oftree shelters on survival,growth,and wood quality of 11 tree species com-monly planted in the southeastern United States.J Arboricult,25: 69 75.