Glacier retreat, rock weathering and the growth of lichensin the Churup Valley, Peruvian Tropical Andes
|
摘要
The most heavily glacierized tropical range in the world – the Peruvian Cordillera Blanca-has been losing ice since the end of the Little Ice Age(LIA). In this study, the decline of the Churup glacier(9°28'18 " S; 77°25'02" W) and associated processes were documented employing multi-proxy approach including the analysis of remotely sensed images(1948-2016), the Schmidt hammer rock test and lichenometric dating. It is shown that Churup glacier has lost the vast majority of its estimated LIA extent(1.05 ± 0.1 km~2; 45.0×10~6-57.4×10~6 m~3). The rate of glacier retreat is documented to vary in space(SE, SW and NW-facing slopes) and time, with the peak between 1986 and 1995. With an area of 0.045 km~2 in 2016, it is expected that the complete deglaciation of the Churup valley is inevitable in the near future. Recently(post-LIA) exposed bedrock surfaces have shown higher R-values(54.2-66.4, AVG 63.3, STDEV 2.9) compared to pre-LIA exposed surfaces(46.1-59.3, AVG 50.1, STDEV 4.9), confirming the links to the duration of rock weathering. The Lichenometric dating is applied to recently exposed areas and elevations above 4800 m a.s.l., revealing only limited reliability and agreement with the age of deglaciation estimated from remotely-sensed images in such an environment.
The most heavily glacierized tropical range in the world – the Peruvian Cordillera Blanca-has been losing ice since the end of the Little Ice Age(LIA). In this study, the decline of the Churup glacier(9°28'18 " S; 77°25'02" W) and associated processes were documented employing multi-proxy approach including the analysis of remotely sensed images(1948-2016), the Schmidt hammer rock test and lichenometric dating. It is shown that Churup glacier has lost the vast majority of its estimated LIA extent(1.05 ± 0.1 km~2; 45.0×10~6-57.4×10~6 m~3). The rate of glacier retreat is documented to vary in space(SE, SW and NW-facing slopes) and time, with the peak between 1986 and 1995. With an area of 0.045 km~2 in 2016, it is expected that the complete deglaciation of the Churup valley is inevitable in the near future. Recently(post-LIA) exposed bedrock surfaces have shown higher R-values(54.2-66.4, AVG 63.3, STDEV 2.9) compared to pre-LIA exposed surfaces(46.1-59.3, AVG 50.1, STDEV 4.9), confirming the links to the duration of rock weathering. The Lichenometric dating is applied to recently exposed areas and elevations above 4800 m a.s.l., revealing only limited reliability and agreement with the age of deglaciation estimated from remotely-sensed images in such an environment.
The most heavily glacierized tropical range in the world – the Peruvian Cordillera Blanca-has been losing ice since the end of the Little Ice Age(LIA). In this study, the decline of the Churup glacier(9°28'18 " S; 77°25'02" W) and associated processes were documented employing multi-proxy approach including the analysis of remotely sensed images(1948-2016), the Schmidt hammer rock test and lichenometric dating. It is shown that Churup glacier has lost the vast majority of its estimated LIA extent(1.05 ± 0.1 km~2; 45.0×10~6-57.4×10~6 m~3). The rate of glacier retreat is documented to vary in space(SE, SW and NW-facing slopes) and time, with the peak between 1986 and 1995. With an area of 0.045 km~2 in 2016, it is expected that the complete deglaciation of the Churup valley is inevitable in the near future. Recently(post-LIA) exposed bedrock surfaces have shown higher R-values(54.2-66.4, AVG 63.3, STDEV 2.9) compared to pre-LIA exposed surfaces(46.1-59.3, AVG 50.1, STDEV 4.9), confirming the links to the duration of rock weathering. The Lichenometric dating is applied to recently exposed areas and elevations above 4800 m a.s.l., revealing only limited reliability and agreement with the age of deglaciation estimated from remotely-sensed images in such an environment.
引文
Avian M,Kellerer-Pirklbauer A,Lieb GK(2018)Geomorphic consequences of rapid deglaciation at Pasterze Glacier,Hohe Tauern Range,Austria,between 2010 and 2013 based on repeated terrestrial laser scanning data.Geomorphology 310:1-14.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2018.02.003
Aydin A,Basu A(2005)The Schmidt hammer in rock material characterization.Engineering Geology 81(1):1-14.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2005.06.006
Baraer M,Mark BG,McKenzie JM,et al.(2012)Glacier recession and water resources in Peru's Cordillera Blanca.Journal of Glaciology 58(207):134-150.https://doi.org/10.3189/2012JoG11J186
Barnett TP,Adam JC,Lettenmaier DP(2005)Potential impacts of a warming climate on water
availability in snow-dominated regions.Nature 438:303-309.https://doi.org/10.1038/nature04141
Bradley RS,Vuille M,Diaz HF,et al.(2006)Threats to water supplies in the tropical Andes.
Science 312:1755-1756.
https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1128087
Burns P,Nolin A(2014)Using atmospherically-corrected Landsat imagery to measure glacier area change in the Cordillera Blanca,Peru from 1987 to 2010.Remote Sensing of Environment 140:165-178.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2013.08.026
Byers AC(2000)Contemporary landscape change in the Huascaran National Park and buffer zone,Cordillera Blanca,Peru.Mountain Research and Development 20(1):52-63.https://doi.org/10.1659/0276-4741(2000)020[0052:CLCITH]2.0.CO;2
?ernáB,Engel Z(2011)Surface and sub-surface Schmidt hammer rebound value variation for a granite outcrop.Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 36(2):170-179.https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.2029
Chen J,Ohmura A(1990)Estimation of Alpine glacier water resources and their change since the 1870s.Hydrology in mountainous regions.I-Hydrological measurements;the water cycle.Proceedings of two Lausanne Symposia,August1990.International Association of Hydrological Sciences Publication 193:127-135.
Coldwell B,Clemens J,Petford N(2011)Deep crustal melting in the Peruvian Andes:Felsic magma generation during delamination and uplift.Lithos 125(1-2):272-286.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lithos.2011.02.011
Cossart E,Braucher R,Fort M,et al.(2008)Slope instability in relation to glacial debuttressing in alpine areas(Upper Durance catchment,southeastern France):Evidence from field data and(10)Be cosmic ray exposure ages.Geomorphology 95(1-2):3-26.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2006.12.022
Drenkhan F,Huggel C,Guardamino L,et al.(2019)Managing risks and future options from new lakes in the deglaciating Andes of Peru:The example of the Vilcanota-Urubamba basin.Science of the Total Environment 665:465-483.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.02.070
Durán-Alarcón C,Gevaert CM,Mattar C,et al.(2015)Recent trends on glacier area retreat over the group of Nevados Caullaraju-Pastoruri(Cordillera Blanca,Peru)using Landsat imagery.Journal of South American Earth Sciences 59:19-16.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsames.2015.01.006
Emmer A,Loarte EC,Klime?J,et al.(2015)Recent evolution and degradation of the bent Jatunraju glacier(Cordillera Blanca,Peru).Geomorphology 228:345-355.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2014.09.018
Emmer A,Klime?J,Mergili M,et al.(2016)882 lakes of the Cordillera Blanca:an inventory,classification,evolution and assessment of susceptibility to outburst floods.Catena 147:269-279.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2016.07.032
Emmer A(2017)Geomorphologically effective floods from moraine-dammed lakes in the Cordillera Blanca,Peru.Quaternary Science Reviews 177:220-234.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2017.10.028
Farber DL,Hancock GS,Finkel RC,et al.(2005)The age and extent of tropical alpine glaciation in the Cordillera Blanca,Peru.Journal of Quaternary Science 20(7-8):759-776.https://doi.org/10.1002/jqs.994
Garreaud RD,Vuille M,Compagnucci R,et al.(2009)Presentday South American climate.Palaeogeography Palaeoclimatology Palaeoecology 281(3-4):180-195.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2007.10.032
Guglielmin M,Worland MR,Convey P,et al.(2012)Schmidt Hammer studies in the maritime Antarctic:Application to dating Holocene deglaciation and estimating the effects of macrolichens on rock weathering.Geomorphology 155-156:34-44.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2011.12.015
Guittard A,Baraer M,McKenzie JM,et al.(2017)Trace-metal contamination in the glacierized Rio Santa watershed,Peru.Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 189(12):649.https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-017-6353-0
Haeberli W(2013)Mountain permafrost-research frontiers and a special long-term challenge.Cold Regions Science and Technology 96:71-76.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coldregions.2013.02.004
Haeberli W,Brandova D,Burga C,et al.(2003)Methods for absolute and relative age dating of rock-glacier surfaces in alpine permafrost.In:Phillips M.et al.(Eds.):Permafrost,Vols 1 and 2,pp.343-348.
Huggel C,Clague JJ,Korup O(2012)Is climate change responsible for changing landslide activity in high mountains?.Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 37(1):77-91.https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.2223
Hughes PD(2009)Twenty-first Century Glaciers and Climate in the Prokletije Mountains,Albania.Arctic,Antarctic,and Alpine Research 41(4):455-459.https://doi.org/10.1657/1938-4246-41.4.455
Huh KI,Mark BG,Ahn Y,et al.(2017)Volume change of tropical Peruvian glaciers from multi-temporal digital elevation models and volume-surface area scaling.Geografiska Annaler Series A-Physical Geography 99(3):222-239.https://doi.org/10.1080/04353676.2017.1313095
Huss M,Bookhagen B,Huggel C,et al.(2017)Toward mountains without permanent snow and ice.Earths Future5(5):418-435.https://doi.org/10.1002/2016EF000514
Jomelli V,Favier V,Rabatel A,et al.(2009)Fluctuations of glaciers in the tropical Andes over the last millennium and palaeoclimatic implications:A review.Palaeogeography,Palaeoclimatology,Palaeoecology 281(3-4):269-282.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2008.10.033
Jomelli V,Grancher D,Brunstein D,et al.(2008)Recalibration of the yellow Rhizocarpon growth curve in the Cordillera Blanca(Peru)and implications for LIA chronology.Geomorphology 93(3-4):201-212.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2007.02.021
Kaser G,Juen I,Georges C,et al.(2003)The impact of glaciers on the runoff and reconstruction of mass balance history from hydrological data in the tropical Cordillera Blanca,Peru.Journal of Hydrology 282(1-4):130-144.https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-1694(03)00259-2
Kaser G,Osmaston H(2002)Tropical Glaciers.Cambridge University Press,Cambridge.Pp.228
Klime?J(2012)Geomorphology and natural hazards of the selected glacial valleys,Cordillera Blanca,Peru.Acta Universitatis Carolinae Geographica 47(2):25-31.
Klime?J,Vilímek V,Omelka M(2009)Implications of geomorphological research for recent and prehistoric avalanches and related hazards at Huascaran,Peru.Natural Hazards 50(1):193-209.https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-008-9330-7
Klime?J,NovotnyJ,NovotnáI,et al.(2016)Landslides in moraines as triggers of glacial lake outburst floods:example from Palcacocha Lake(Cordillera Blanca,Peru).Landslides13(6):1461-1477.https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-016-0724-4
Lopez-Moreno JI,Valero-Garces B,Mark B,et al.(2017)Hydrological and depositional processes associated with recent glacier recession in Yanamarey catchment,Cordillera Blanca(Peru).Science of the Total Environment 579:272-282.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.11.107
Margirier A,Audin L,Robertm X,et al.(2016)Time and mode of exhumation of the Cordillera Blanca batholith(Peruvian Andes).Journal of Geophysical Research-Solid Earth 121(8):6235-6249.https://doi.org/10.1002/2016JB013055
Mark BG,Seltzer GO(2003)Tropical glacier meltwater contribution to stream discharge:a case study in the Cordillera Blanca,Peru.Journal of Glaciology 49(165):271-282.https://doi.org/10.3189/172756503781830746
Mark BG,French A,Baraer M,et al.(2017)Glacier loss and hydro-social risks in the Peruvian Andes.Global and Planetary Change 159:61-76.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloplacha.2017.10.003
Matsuoka N(2008)Frost weathering and rockwall erosion in the southeastern Swiss Alps:Long-term(1994-2006)observations.Geomorphology 99(1-4):353-368.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2007.11.013
Matthews JA,Owen G,Winkler S,et al.(2016)A rock-surface microweathering index from Schmidt hammer R-values and its preliminary application to some common rock types in southern Norway.Catena 143:35-44.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2016.03.018
Moon BP(1984)Refinement of a technique for determining rock mass strength for geomorphological purposes.Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 9(2):189-193.https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.3290090210
Morales BA(1967)Reconocimiento geologico de las quebradas de shallap y churup al este de Huaraz(Geological inspection of the creeks of Shallap and Churup in the east of Huaraz).Corporacion Peruana del Santa,Huaraz,pp.30.
Morales BA(1969)Estudios de Ablación en la Cordillera Blanca(Ablation Studies in the Cordillera Blanca).Boletin oficial del Instituto nacional de glaciologia(Official Bulletin of the National Institute of Glaciology)1:52-57.
Nicholas JW,Butler DR(1996)Application of relative-age dating techniques on rock glaciers of the La Sal mountains,Utah:An interpretation of holocene paleoclimates.Geografiska Annaler Series A-Physical Geography 78(1):1-18.https://doi.org/10.1080/04353676.1996.11880448
Osborn G,McCarthy D,LaBrie A,et al.(2015)Lichenometric dating:Science or pseudo-science?Quaternary Research83(1):1-12.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yqres.2014.09.006
Palomo I(2017)Climate Change Impacts on Ecosystem Services in High Mountain Areas:A Literature Review.Mountain Research and Development 37(2):179-187.https://doi.org/10.1659/MRD-JOURNAL-D-16-00110.1
Polk MH,Young KR,Baraer M,et al.(2017)Exploring hydrologic connections between tropical mountain wetlands and glacier recession in Peru's Cordillera Blanca.Applied Geography 78:94-103.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeog.2016.11.004
Portes RD,Spinola DN,Reis JS,et al.(2016)Pedogenesis across a climatic gradient in tropical high mountains,Cordillera Blanca-Peruvian Andes.Catena 147:441-452.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2016.07.027
Rabatel A,Francou B,Soruco A,et al.(2013)Current state of glaciers in the tropical Andes:a multi-century perspective on glacier evolution and climate change.The Cryosphere 7(1):81-102.https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-7-81-2013
Racoviteanu AR,Arnaud Y,Williams M,et al.(2008)Decadal changes in glacier parameters in the Cordillera Blanca,Peru,derived from remote sensing.Journal of Glaciology 54(186):499-510.https://doi.org/10.3189/002214308785836922
Rodbell DT(1992)Lichenometric and radiocarbon dating of Holocene glaciation,Cordillera Blanca,Peru.Holocene 2(1):19-29.https://doi.org/10.1177/095968369200200103
Rodbell DT,Frey HM,Manon MRF,et al.(2012)Development of unusual rock weathering features in the Cordillera Blanca,Peru.Quaternary Research 77(1):149-158.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yqres.2011.09.004
Rosenwinkel S,Korup O,Landgraf A,et al.(2015)Limits to lichenometry.Quaternary Science Reviews 129:229-238.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2015.10.031
Sagredo EA,Lowell TV(2012)Climatology of Andean glaciers:Aframework to understand glacier response to climate change.Global and Planetary Change 86-87:101-109.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloplacha.2012.02.010
Santofimia E,Lopez-Pamo E,Palomino EJ,et al.(2017)Acid rock drainage in Nevado Pastoruri glacier area(Huascaran National Park,Peru):hydrochemical and mineralogical characterization and associated environmental implications.Environmental Science and Pollution Research 24(32):25243-25259.https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-017-0093-0
Schauwecker S,Rohrer M,Acu?a D,et al.(2014)Climate trends and glacier retreat in the Cordillera Blanca,Peru,revisited.Global and Planetary Change 119:85-97.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloplacha.2014.05.005
Shakesby RA,Matthews JA,Owen G(2006)The Schmidt hammer as a relative-age dating tool and its potential for calibrated-age dating in Holocene glaciated environments.Quaternary Science Reviews 25(21-22):2846-2867.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2006.07.011
Shukla T,Mehta M,Kumar V,et al.(2017)Application of the Schmidt-hammer with relative-age dating of moraine boulders-a case study from Mandakini River valley,central Himalaya,India.Himalayan Geology 38(2):184-192.
Silverio W,Jaquet JM(2005)Glacial cover mapping(1987-1996)of the Cordillera Blanca(Peru)using satellite imagery.Remote Sensing of Environment 95(3):342-350.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2004.12.012
Smith JA,Seltzer GO,Rodbell DT,et al.(2005)Regional synthesis of last glacial maximum snowlines in the tropical Andes,South America.Quaternary International 138-139:145-167.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2005.02.011
Solomina O,Jomelli V,Kaser G,et al.(2007)Lichenometry in the Cordillera Blanca,Peru:‘‘Little Ice Age’’moraine chronology.Global and Planetary Change 59(1-4):225-235.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloplacha.2006.11.016
Stewart JW,Evernden JF,Snelling NJ(1974)Age Determinations from Andean Peru-Reconnaissance Survey.Geological Society of America Bulletin 85(7):1107-1116.https://doi.org/10.1130/0016-7606(1974)85<1107:ADFAPA>2.0.CO;2
Thompson Davis P,Menounos B,Osborn G(2009)Holocene and latest Pleistocene alpine glacier fluctuations:a global perspective.Quaternary Science Reviews 28(21-22):2021-2023.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2009.05.020
Thompson L,Mosley-Thompson E,Henderson K(2000)Icecore paleoclimate records in tropical South America since the last glacial maximum.Journal of Quaternary Science 15(4):107-115.https://doi.org/10.1002/1099-1417(200005)15:4<377::AID-JQS542>3.0.CO;2-L
Vega RM,Gamarra JM(1973)Observaciones geologicas generalizadas en las quebradas Llaca y Churup(Generalized geological observations in the creeks of Llaca and Churup),ELECTROPERU,Huaraz(Peru),4p.
Veettil BK,Kamp U(2017)Remote sensing of glaciers in the tropical Andes:a review.International Journal of Remote Sensing 38(23):7101-7137.https://doi.org/10.1080/01431161.2017.1371868
Veettil BK,Wang S,Souza SF,et al.(2017a)Glacier monitoring and glacier-climate interactions in the tropical Andes:Areview.Journal of South American Earth Sciences 77:218-246.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsames.2017.04.009
Veettil BK,Wang S,Bremer UF,et al.(2017b)Recent trends in annual snowline variations in the northern wet outer tropics:case studies from southern Cordillera Blanca,Peru.Theoretical and Applied Climatology 129(1-2):213-227.https://doi.org/10.1007/s00704-016-1775-0
Veettil BK,Maier ELB,Bremer UF,et al.(2014)Combined influence of PDO and ENSO on northern Andean glaciers:a case study on the Cotopaxi ice-covered volcano,Ecuador.Climate Dynamics 43(12):3439-3448.https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-014-2114-8
Verzijl A,Quispe SG(2013)The System Nobody Sees:Irrigated Wetland Management and Alpaca Herding in the Peruvian Andes.Mountain Research and Development 33(3):280-293.https://doi.org/10.1659/MRD-JOURNAL-D-12-00123.1
Vuille M,Carey M,Huggel C,et al.(2018)Rapid decline of snow and ice in the tropical Andes-impacts,uncertainties and challenges ahead.Earth-Science Reviews 176:195-213.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2017.09.019
Vuille M,Carey M,Huggel C,et al.(2018)Rapid decline of snow and ice in the tropical Andes-Impacts,uncertainties and challenges ahead.Earth-Science Reviews 176:195-213.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2017.09.019
Vuille M,Francou B,Wagnon P,et al.(2008)Climate change and tropical Andean glaciers:Past,present and future.EarthScience Reviews 89(3-4):79-96.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2008.04.002
Wigmore O,Mark B(2017)Monitoring tropical debris-covered glacier dynamics from high-resolution unmanned aerial vehicle photogrammetry,Cordillera Blanca,Peru.Cryosphere11(6):2463-2480.https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-11-2463-2017
Wilson J,Reyes L,Garayar J(1995)Geología de los cuadrángulos de Pallasca,Tayabamba,Corongo,Pomabamba,Carhuaz y Huari(Geology of the quadrangles of Pallasca,Tayabamba,Corongo,Pomabamba,Carhuaz and Huari).Boletín No.16-1967 Actualizado por la Dirección de la Carta Geológica Nacional a 1995,Boletín No.60,Serie A Carta Geológica Nacional(Bulletin No.16-1967 Updated by the Directorate of the National Geological Charter to 1995,Bulletin No.60,Series A-National Geological Letter),Geological,Mining,and Metallurgical Institute(INGEMET),Lima,Peru.
Woronoko B,Pisarska-Jamorzy M(2016)Micro-Scale Frost Weathering of Sand-Sized Quartz Grains.Permafrost and Periglacial Processes 27(1):109-122.https://doi.org/10.1002/ppp.1855
Young KR,Ponette-Gonzalez AG,Polk MH,et al.(2017)Snowlines and Treelines in the Tropical Andes.Annals of the American Association of Geographers 107(2):429-440.https://doi.org/10.1080/24694452.2016.1235479
Aydin A,Basu A(2005)The Schmidt hammer in rock material characterization.Engineering Geology 81(1):1-14.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2005.06.006
Baraer M,Mark BG,McKenzie JM,et al.(2012)Glacier recession and water resources in Peru's Cordillera Blanca.Journal of Glaciology 58(207):134-150.https://doi.org/10.3189/2012JoG11J186
Barnett TP,Adam JC,Lettenmaier DP(2005)Potential impacts of a warming climate on water
availability in snow-dominated regions.Nature 438:303-309.https://doi.org/10.1038/nature04141
Bradley RS,Vuille M,Diaz HF,et al.(2006)Threats to water supplies in the tropical Andes.
Science 312:1755-1756.
https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1128087
Burns P,Nolin A(2014)Using atmospherically-corrected Landsat imagery to measure glacier area change in the Cordillera Blanca,Peru from 1987 to 2010.Remote Sensing of Environment 140:165-178.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2013.08.026
Byers AC(2000)Contemporary landscape change in the Huascaran National Park and buffer zone,Cordillera Blanca,Peru.Mountain Research and Development 20(1):52-63.https://doi.org/10.1659/0276-4741(2000)020[0052:CLCITH]2.0.CO;2
?ernáB,Engel Z(2011)Surface and sub-surface Schmidt hammer rebound value variation for a granite outcrop.Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 36(2):170-179.https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.2029
Chen J,Ohmura A(1990)Estimation of Alpine glacier water resources and their change since the 1870s.Hydrology in mountainous regions.I-Hydrological measurements;the water cycle.Proceedings of two Lausanne Symposia,August1990.International Association of Hydrological Sciences Publication 193:127-135.
Coldwell B,Clemens J,Petford N(2011)Deep crustal melting in the Peruvian Andes:Felsic magma generation during delamination and uplift.Lithos 125(1-2):272-286.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lithos.2011.02.011
Cossart E,Braucher R,Fort M,et al.(2008)Slope instability in relation to glacial debuttressing in alpine areas(Upper Durance catchment,southeastern France):Evidence from field data and(10)Be cosmic ray exposure ages.Geomorphology 95(1-2):3-26.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2006.12.022
Drenkhan F,Huggel C,Guardamino L,et al.(2019)Managing risks and future options from new lakes in the deglaciating Andes of Peru:The example of the Vilcanota-Urubamba basin.Science of the Total Environment 665:465-483.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.02.070
Durán-Alarcón C,Gevaert CM,Mattar C,et al.(2015)Recent trends on glacier area retreat over the group of Nevados Caullaraju-Pastoruri(Cordillera Blanca,Peru)using Landsat imagery.Journal of South American Earth Sciences 59:19-16.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsames.2015.01.006
Emmer A,Loarte EC,Klime?J,et al.(2015)Recent evolution and degradation of the bent Jatunraju glacier(Cordillera Blanca,Peru).Geomorphology 228:345-355.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2014.09.018
Emmer A,Klime?J,Mergili M,et al.(2016)882 lakes of the Cordillera Blanca:an inventory,classification,evolution and assessment of susceptibility to outburst floods.Catena 147:269-279.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2016.07.032
Emmer A(2017)Geomorphologically effective floods from moraine-dammed lakes in the Cordillera Blanca,Peru.Quaternary Science Reviews 177:220-234.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2017.10.028
Farber DL,Hancock GS,Finkel RC,et al.(2005)The age and extent of tropical alpine glaciation in the Cordillera Blanca,Peru.Journal of Quaternary Science 20(7-8):759-776.https://doi.org/10.1002/jqs.994
Garreaud RD,Vuille M,Compagnucci R,et al.(2009)Presentday South American climate.Palaeogeography Palaeoclimatology Palaeoecology 281(3-4):180-195.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2007.10.032
Guglielmin M,Worland MR,Convey P,et al.(2012)Schmidt Hammer studies in the maritime Antarctic:Application to dating Holocene deglaciation and estimating the effects of macrolichens on rock weathering.Geomorphology 155-156:34-44.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2011.12.015
Guittard A,Baraer M,McKenzie JM,et al.(2017)Trace-metal contamination in the glacierized Rio Santa watershed,Peru.Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 189(12):649.https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-017-6353-0
Haeberli W(2013)Mountain permafrost-research frontiers and a special long-term challenge.Cold Regions Science and Technology 96:71-76.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coldregions.2013.02.004
Haeberli W,Brandova D,Burga C,et al.(2003)Methods for absolute and relative age dating of rock-glacier surfaces in alpine permafrost.In:Phillips M.et al.(Eds.):Permafrost,Vols 1 and 2,pp.343-348.
Huggel C,Clague JJ,Korup O(2012)Is climate change responsible for changing landslide activity in high mountains?.Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 37(1):77-91.https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.2223
Hughes PD(2009)Twenty-first Century Glaciers and Climate in the Prokletije Mountains,Albania.Arctic,Antarctic,and Alpine Research 41(4):455-459.https://doi.org/10.1657/1938-4246-41.4.455
Huh KI,Mark BG,Ahn Y,et al.(2017)Volume change of tropical Peruvian glaciers from multi-temporal digital elevation models and volume-surface area scaling.Geografiska Annaler Series A-Physical Geography 99(3):222-239.https://doi.org/10.1080/04353676.2017.1313095
Huss M,Bookhagen B,Huggel C,et al.(2017)Toward mountains without permanent snow and ice.Earths Future5(5):418-435.https://doi.org/10.1002/2016EF000514
Jomelli V,Favier V,Rabatel A,et al.(2009)Fluctuations of glaciers in the tropical Andes over the last millennium and palaeoclimatic implications:A review.Palaeogeography,Palaeoclimatology,Palaeoecology 281(3-4):269-282.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2008.10.033
Jomelli V,Grancher D,Brunstein D,et al.(2008)Recalibration of the yellow Rhizocarpon growth curve in the Cordillera Blanca(Peru)and implications for LIA chronology.Geomorphology 93(3-4):201-212.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2007.02.021
Kaser G,Juen I,Georges C,et al.(2003)The impact of glaciers on the runoff and reconstruction of mass balance history from hydrological data in the tropical Cordillera Blanca,Peru.Journal of Hydrology 282(1-4):130-144.https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-1694(03)00259-2
Kaser G,Osmaston H(2002)Tropical Glaciers.Cambridge University Press,Cambridge.Pp.228
Klime?J(2012)Geomorphology and natural hazards of the selected glacial valleys,Cordillera Blanca,Peru.Acta Universitatis Carolinae Geographica 47(2):25-31.
Klime?J,Vilímek V,Omelka M(2009)Implications of geomorphological research for recent and prehistoric avalanches and related hazards at Huascaran,Peru.Natural Hazards 50(1):193-209.https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-008-9330-7
Klime?J,NovotnyJ,NovotnáI,et al.(2016)Landslides in moraines as triggers of glacial lake outburst floods:example from Palcacocha Lake(Cordillera Blanca,Peru).Landslides13(6):1461-1477.https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-016-0724-4
Lopez-Moreno JI,Valero-Garces B,Mark B,et al.(2017)Hydrological and depositional processes associated with recent glacier recession in Yanamarey catchment,Cordillera Blanca(Peru).Science of the Total Environment 579:272-282.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.11.107
Margirier A,Audin L,Robertm X,et al.(2016)Time and mode of exhumation of the Cordillera Blanca batholith(Peruvian Andes).Journal of Geophysical Research-Solid Earth 121(8):6235-6249.https://doi.org/10.1002/2016JB013055
Mark BG,Seltzer GO(2003)Tropical glacier meltwater contribution to stream discharge:a case study in the Cordillera Blanca,Peru.Journal of Glaciology 49(165):271-282.https://doi.org/10.3189/172756503781830746
Mark BG,French A,Baraer M,et al.(2017)Glacier loss and hydro-social risks in the Peruvian Andes.Global and Planetary Change 159:61-76.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloplacha.2017.10.003
Matsuoka N(2008)Frost weathering and rockwall erosion in the southeastern Swiss Alps:Long-term(1994-2006)observations.Geomorphology 99(1-4):353-368.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2007.11.013
Matthews JA,Owen G,Winkler S,et al.(2016)A rock-surface microweathering index from Schmidt hammer R-values and its preliminary application to some common rock types in southern Norway.Catena 143:35-44.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2016.03.018
Moon BP(1984)Refinement of a technique for determining rock mass strength for geomorphological purposes.Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 9(2):189-193.https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.3290090210
Morales BA(1967)Reconocimiento geologico de las quebradas de shallap y churup al este de Huaraz(Geological inspection of the creeks of Shallap and Churup in the east of Huaraz).Corporacion Peruana del Santa,Huaraz,pp.30.
Morales BA(1969)Estudios de Ablación en la Cordillera Blanca(Ablation Studies in the Cordillera Blanca).Boletin oficial del Instituto nacional de glaciologia(Official Bulletin of the National Institute of Glaciology)1:52-57.
Nicholas JW,Butler DR(1996)Application of relative-age dating techniques on rock glaciers of the La Sal mountains,Utah:An interpretation of holocene paleoclimates.Geografiska Annaler Series A-Physical Geography 78(1):1-18.https://doi.org/10.1080/04353676.1996.11880448
Osborn G,McCarthy D,LaBrie A,et al.(2015)Lichenometric dating:Science or pseudo-science?Quaternary Research83(1):1-12.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yqres.2014.09.006
Palomo I(2017)Climate Change Impacts on Ecosystem Services in High Mountain Areas:A Literature Review.Mountain Research and Development 37(2):179-187.https://doi.org/10.1659/MRD-JOURNAL-D-16-00110.1
Polk MH,Young KR,Baraer M,et al.(2017)Exploring hydrologic connections between tropical mountain wetlands and glacier recession in Peru's Cordillera Blanca.Applied Geography 78:94-103.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeog.2016.11.004
Portes RD,Spinola DN,Reis JS,et al.(2016)Pedogenesis across a climatic gradient in tropical high mountains,Cordillera Blanca-Peruvian Andes.Catena 147:441-452.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2016.07.027
Rabatel A,Francou B,Soruco A,et al.(2013)Current state of glaciers in the tropical Andes:a multi-century perspective on glacier evolution and climate change.The Cryosphere 7(1):81-102.https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-7-81-2013
Racoviteanu AR,Arnaud Y,Williams M,et al.(2008)Decadal changes in glacier parameters in the Cordillera Blanca,Peru,derived from remote sensing.Journal of Glaciology 54(186):499-510.https://doi.org/10.3189/002214308785836922
Rodbell DT(1992)Lichenometric and radiocarbon dating of Holocene glaciation,Cordillera Blanca,Peru.Holocene 2(1):19-29.https://doi.org/10.1177/095968369200200103
Rodbell DT,Frey HM,Manon MRF,et al.(2012)Development of unusual rock weathering features in the Cordillera Blanca,Peru.Quaternary Research 77(1):149-158.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yqres.2011.09.004
Rosenwinkel S,Korup O,Landgraf A,et al.(2015)Limits to lichenometry.Quaternary Science Reviews 129:229-238.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2015.10.031
Sagredo EA,Lowell TV(2012)Climatology of Andean glaciers:Aframework to understand glacier response to climate change.Global and Planetary Change 86-87:101-109.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloplacha.2012.02.010
Santofimia E,Lopez-Pamo E,Palomino EJ,et al.(2017)Acid rock drainage in Nevado Pastoruri glacier area(Huascaran National Park,Peru):hydrochemical and mineralogical characterization and associated environmental implications.Environmental Science and Pollution Research 24(32):25243-25259.https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-017-0093-0
Schauwecker S,Rohrer M,Acu?a D,et al.(2014)Climate trends and glacier retreat in the Cordillera Blanca,Peru,revisited.Global and Planetary Change 119:85-97.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloplacha.2014.05.005
Shakesby RA,Matthews JA,Owen G(2006)The Schmidt hammer as a relative-age dating tool and its potential for calibrated-age dating in Holocene glaciated environments.Quaternary Science Reviews 25(21-22):2846-2867.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2006.07.011
Shukla T,Mehta M,Kumar V,et al.(2017)Application of the Schmidt-hammer with relative-age dating of moraine boulders-a case study from Mandakini River valley,central Himalaya,India.Himalayan Geology 38(2):184-192.
Silverio W,Jaquet JM(2005)Glacial cover mapping(1987-1996)of the Cordillera Blanca(Peru)using satellite imagery.Remote Sensing of Environment 95(3):342-350.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2004.12.012
Smith JA,Seltzer GO,Rodbell DT,et al.(2005)Regional synthesis of last glacial maximum snowlines in the tropical Andes,South America.Quaternary International 138-139:145-167.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2005.02.011
Solomina O,Jomelli V,Kaser G,et al.(2007)Lichenometry in the Cordillera Blanca,Peru:‘‘Little Ice Age’’moraine chronology.Global and Planetary Change 59(1-4):225-235.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloplacha.2006.11.016
Stewart JW,Evernden JF,Snelling NJ(1974)Age Determinations from Andean Peru-Reconnaissance Survey.Geological Society of America Bulletin 85(7):1107-1116.https://doi.org/10.1130/0016-7606(1974)85<1107:ADFAPA>2.0.CO;2
Thompson Davis P,Menounos B,Osborn G(2009)Holocene and latest Pleistocene alpine glacier fluctuations:a global perspective.Quaternary Science Reviews 28(21-22):2021-2023.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2009.05.020
Thompson L,Mosley-Thompson E,Henderson K(2000)Icecore paleoclimate records in tropical South America since the last glacial maximum.Journal of Quaternary Science 15(4):107-115.https://doi.org/10.1002/1099-1417(200005)15:4<377::AID-JQS542>3.0.CO;2-L
Vega RM,Gamarra JM(1973)Observaciones geologicas generalizadas en las quebradas Llaca y Churup(Generalized geological observations in the creeks of Llaca and Churup),ELECTROPERU,Huaraz(Peru),4p.
Veettil BK,Kamp U(2017)Remote sensing of glaciers in the tropical Andes:a review.International Journal of Remote Sensing 38(23):7101-7137.https://doi.org/10.1080/01431161.2017.1371868
Veettil BK,Wang S,Souza SF,et al.(2017a)Glacier monitoring and glacier-climate interactions in the tropical Andes:Areview.Journal of South American Earth Sciences 77:218-246.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsames.2017.04.009
Veettil BK,Wang S,Bremer UF,et al.(2017b)Recent trends in annual snowline variations in the northern wet outer tropics:case studies from southern Cordillera Blanca,Peru.Theoretical and Applied Climatology 129(1-2):213-227.https://doi.org/10.1007/s00704-016-1775-0
Veettil BK,Maier ELB,Bremer UF,et al.(2014)Combined influence of PDO and ENSO on northern Andean glaciers:a case study on the Cotopaxi ice-covered volcano,Ecuador.Climate Dynamics 43(12):3439-3448.https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-014-2114-8
Verzijl A,Quispe SG(2013)The System Nobody Sees:Irrigated Wetland Management and Alpaca Herding in the Peruvian Andes.Mountain Research and Development 33(3):280-293.https://doi.org/10.1659/MRD-JOURNAL-D-12-00123.1
Vuille M,Carey M,Huggel C,et al.(2018)Rapid decline of snow and ice in the tropical Andes-impacts,uncertainties and challenges ahead.Earth-Science Reviews 176:195-213.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2017.09.019
Vuille M,Carey M,Huggel C,et al.(2018)Rapid decline of snow and ice in the tropical Andes-Impacts,uncertainties and challenges ahead.Earth-Science Reviews 176:195-213.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2017.09.019
Vuille M,Francou B,Wagnon P,et al.(2008)Climate change and tropical Andean glaciers:Past,present and future.EarthScience Reviews 89(3-4):79-96.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2008.04.002
Wigmore O,Mark B(2017)Monitoring tropical debris-covered glacier dynamics from high-resolution unmanned aerial vehicle photogrammetry,Cordillera Blanca,Peru.Cryosphere11(6):2463-2480.https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-11-2463-2017
Wilson J,Reyes L,Garayar J(1995)Geología de los cuadrángulos de Pallasca,Tayabamba,Corongo,Pomabamba,Carhuaz y Huari(Geology of the quadrangles of Pallasca,Tayabamba,Corongo,Pomabamba,Carhuaz and Huari).Boletín No.16-1967 Actualizado por la Dirección de la Carta Geológica Nacional a 1995,Boletín No.60,Serie A Carta Geológica Nacional(Bulletin No.16-1967 Updated by the Directorate of the National Geological Charter to 1995,Bulletin No.60,Series A-National Geological Letter),Geological,Mining,and Metallurgical Institute(INGEMET),Lima,Peru.
Woronoko B,Pisarska-Jamorzy M(2016)Micro-Scale Frost Weathering of Sand-Sized Quartz Grains.Permafrost and Periglacial Processes 27(1):109-122.https://doi.org/10.1002/ppp.1855
Young KR,Ponette-Gonzalez AG,Polk MH,et al.(2017)Snowlines and Treelines in the Tropical Andes.Annals of the American Association of Geographers 107(2):429-440.https://doi.org/10.1080/24694452.2016.1235479