Revisiting Emergency Food Reserve Policy and Practiceunder Disaster and Extreme Climate Events
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摘要
All food systems will continue to be affected by disasters and extreme climate events. Triggered by recent food crises around the world and climate change concerns,some governments have been trying to develop more robust and resilient food systems. One of the oldest options for many governments is to stockpile emergency food reserves for the purpose of food security and disaster preparedness. In the aftermath of the world food price crises in2007–2008 and 2011, some governments in Asia have been maintaining emergency food reserves to ensure greater supply and price stability. Disasters and extreme climate events help governments to justify emergency food reserves. This research examined emergency food reserve policies in Indonesia, the Philippines, and Malaysia.Emergency food reserves emerged as a practice where the shared objectives of development, disaster risk reduction,and climate change adaptation have been demonstrated by governments. The findings suggest that most governments maintain the strong view that adequate emergency food reserves can buffer national food price shocks and shocks from disasters and climate change, and soften disruptions in trade due to export bans during times of disasters and climate emergencies.Under global climate change scenarios, food security is at risk and volatile(Porter et al. 2014). The expected increase in climate extremes has generated anticipatory actions from governments, including a new push for EFR policy adoption. Triggered by recent disasters and climate change concerns, some governments have been trying to develop more robust and resilient food systems(Fan and Brzeska 2014; Porter et al. 2014). For many countries in Asia, this means the renewed adoption of EFR. Unfortunately, we argue that this is not well understood in climate change adaptation studies as well as contemporary disaster studies.The Association of Southeast Asian Nations(ASEAN)first initiated a Food Security Reserve Agreement in 1979,with the purpose of meeting emergency requirements(ASEAN 1979). Policymakers have been aware of the susceptibility of the region to natural hazards and the possibility of food shortages. But it took 30 years, until soon after the world food crisis in 2007–2008(Hadley and Fan 2010), for the association plus three additional East Asian nations(China, Japan, South Korea) to establish the ASEAN Plus Three Emergency Rice Reserve(APTERR)in 2009, as a mechanism to address potential food shortages in the region in the light of climate and market uncertainties. The final formal agreement was signed in October 2011 in Jakarta(APTERR 2017).The Association of Southeast Asian Nations also established the ASEAN Food Security Information System(AFSIS) that functions as a central information repository for five commodities—rice, maize, soybeans, sugar, and cassava. AFSIS not only monitors and analyzes production,import, export, inventory stock, price, food security ratio,and self-sufficiency ratio for these commodities but also provides data on losses from both floods and droughts in every member state(Lassa et al. 2016). In theory, AFSIS serves as an early warning mechanism for ASEAN to trigger the activation of APTERR's response mechanism(Saengbangka 2014, personal interview; AFSIS 2017).This article argues that EFR can function as a means of disaster risk reduction, including climate change adaptation, and aims to understand why governments in Asia are readopting emergency food reserves as national policies,with a focus on Indonesia, the Philippines, and Malaysia.We also explore how disasters and climate change strengthen or weaken government narratives in support of emergency food reserves.
All food systems will continue to be affected by disasters and extreme climate events. Triggered by recent food crises around the world and climate change concerns,some governments have been trying to develop more robust and resilient food systems. One of the oldest options for many governments is to stockpile emergency food reserves for the purpose of food security and disaster preparedness. In the aftermath of the world food price crises in2007–2008 and 2011, some governments in Asia have been maintaining emergency food reserves to ensure greater supply and price stability. Disasters and extreme climate events help governments to justify emergency food reserves. This research examined emergency food reserve policies in Indonesia, the Philippines, and Malaysia.Emergency food reserves emerged as a practice where the shared objectives of development, disaster risk reduction,and climate change adaptation have been demonstrated by governments. The findings suggest that most governments maintain the strong view that adequate emergency food reserves can buffer national food price shocks and shocks from disasters and climate change, and soften disruptions in trade due to export bans during times of disasters and climate emergencies.Under global climate change scenarios, food security is at risk and volatile(Porter et al. 2014). The expected increase in climate extremes has generated anticipatory actions from governments, including a new push for EFR policy adoption. Triggered by recent disasters and climate change concerns, some governments have been trying to develop more robust and resilient food systems(Fan and Brzeska 2014; Porter et al. 2014). For many countries in Asia, this means the renewed adoption of EFR. Unfortunately, we argue that this is not well understood in climate change adaptation studies as well as contemporary disaster studies.The Association of Southeast Asian Nations(ASEAN)first initiated a Food Security Reserve Agreement in 1979,with the purpose of meeting emergency requirements(ASEAN 1979). Policymakers have been aware of the susceptibility of the region to natural hazards and the possibility of food shortages. But it took 30 years, until soon after the world food crisis in 2007–2008(Hadley and Fan 2010), for the association plus three additional East Asian nations(China, Japan, South Korea) to establish the ASEAN Plus Three Emergency Rice Reserve(APTERR)in 2009, as a mechanism to address potential food shortages in the region in the light of climate and market uncertainties. The final formal agreement was signed in October 2011 in Jakarta(APTERR 2017).The Association of Southeast Asian Nations also established the ASEAN Food Security Information System(AFSIS) that functions as a central information repository for five commodities—rice, maize, soybeans, sugar, and cassava. AFSIS not only monitors and analyzes production,import, export, inventory stock, price, food security ratio,and self-sufficiency ratio for these commodities but also provides data on losses from both floods and droughts in every member state(Lassa et al. 2016). In theory, AFSIS serves as an early warning mechanism for ASEAN to trigger the activation of APTERR's response mechanism(Saengbangka 2014, personal interview; AFSIS 2017).This article argues that EFR can function as a means of disaster risk reduction, including climate change adaptation, and aims to understand why governments in Asia are readopting emergency food reserves as national policies,with a focus on Indonesia, the Philippines, and Malaysia.We also explore how disasters and climate change strengthen or weaken government narratives in support of emergency food reserves.
All food systems will continue to be affected by disasters and extreme climate events. Triggered by recent food crises around the world and climate change concerns,some governments have been trying to develop more robust and resilient food systems. One of the oldest options for many governments is to stockpile emergency food reserves for the purpose of food security and disaster preparedness. In the aftermath of the world food price crises in2007–2008 and 2011, some governments in Asia have been maintaining emergency food reserves to ensure greater supply and price stability. Disasters and extreme climate events help governments to justify emergency food reserves. This research examined emergency food reserve policies in Indonesia, the Philippines, and Malaysia.Emergency food reserves emerged as a practice where the shared objectives of development, disaster risk reduction,and climate change adaptation have been demonstrated by governments. The findings suggest that most governments maintain the strong view that adequate emergency food reserves can buffer national food price shocks and shocks from disasters and climate change, and soften disruptions in trade due to export bans during times of disasters and climate emergencies.Under global climate change scenarios, food security is at risk and volatile(Porter et al. 2014). The expected increase in climate extremes has generated anticipatory actions from governments, including a new push for EFR policy adoption. Triggered by recent disasters and climate change concerns, some governments have been trying to develop more robust and resilient food systems(Fan and Brzeska 2014; Porter et al. 2014). For many countries in Asia, this means the renewed adoption of EFR. Unfortunately, we argue that this is not well understood in climate change adaptation studies as well as contemporary disaster studies.The Association of Southeast Asian Nations(ASEAN)first initiated a Food Security Reserve Agreement in 1979,with the purpose of meeting emergency requirements(ASEAN 1979). Policymakers have been aware of the susceptibility of the region to natural hazards and the possibility of food shortages. But it took 30 years, until soon after the world food crisis in 2007–2008(Hadley and Fan 2010), for the association plus three additional East Asian nations(China, Japan, South Korea) to establish the ASEAN Plus Three Emergency Rice Reserve(APTERR)in 2009, as a mechanism to address potential food shortages in the region in the light of climate and market uncertainties. The final formal agreement was signed in October 2011 in Jakarta(APTERR 2017).The Association of Southeast Asian Nations also established the ASEAN Food Security Information System(AFSIS) that functions as a central information repository for five commodities—rice, maize, soybeans, sugar, and cassava. AFSIS not only monitors and analyzes production,import, export, inventory stock, price, food security ratio,and self-sufficiency ratio for these commodities but also provides data on losses from both floods and droughts in every member state(Lassa et al. 2016). In theory, AFSIS serves as an early warning mechanism for ASEAN to trigger the activation of APTERR's response mechanism(Saengbangka 2014, personal interview; AFSIS 2017).This article argues that EFR can function as a means of disaster risk reduction, including climate change adaptation, and aims to understand why governments in Asia are readopting emergency food reserves as national policies,with a focus on Indonesia, the Philippines, and Malaysia.We also explore how disasters and climate change strengthen or weaken government narratives in support of emergency food reserves.
引文
AFSIS(ASEAN Food Security Information System).2017.The ASEAN plus three food security information system.http://www.aptfsis.org/aboutUs.Accessed 30 Nov 2017.
APTERR(ASEAN Plus Three Emergency Rice Reserve).2017.ASEAN plus three emergency rice reserve.http://www.apterr.org/what-is-apterr.Accessed 30 Nov 2018.
ASEAN(Association of Southeast Asian Nations).1979.Agreement on the ASEAN food security reserve.New York,4 October 1979.
Baum,S.D.,D.C.Dankenberger,J.M.Pearce,A.Robock,and R.Winkler.2015.Resilience to global food supply catastrophes.Environment Systems and Decisions 35(2):301-313.
Bigman,D.,and S.Reutlinger.1979.Food price and supply stabilization:National buffer stocks and trade policies.American Journal of Agricultural Economics 61(4):159-163.
Brennan,D.2003.Price dynamics in the Bangladesh rice market:Implications for public intervention.Agricultural Economics29(1):15-25.
Briones,R.M.,A.Durand-Morat,E.J.Wailes,and E.C.Chavez.2012.Climate change and price volatility:Can we count on the ASEAN plus three emergency rice reserve?ADB Sustainable development working paper series no.24.Manila:Asian Development Bank.
Brolley,M.2015.Al Schmidley:Rice security is food security for much of the world.Rice Today,6 October 2015.http://ricetoday.irri.org/al-schmidley-rice-security-is-food-security-for-much-oftheworld/.Accessed 29 Nov 2018.
BULOG(Bureau of Logistics).2009.The role of rice reserve agency in strengthening national and regional food security.In Presentation at the ASEAN regional workshop,8 May 2009,Jakarta,Indonesia.
Caballero-Anthony,M.,P.Teng,J.Lassa,T.Nair,and M.Shrestha.2016.Public stockpiling of rice in Asia Pacific.NTS report No.3,April 2016.Singapore:S.Rajaratnam School of International Studies,Nanyang Technological University.https://www.rsis.edu.sg/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/NTS-Report-No-3-11April2016.pdf.Accessed 29 Nov 2018.
Caballero-Anthony,M.,P.S.Teng,M.Shrestha,T.Nair,and J.A.Lassa.2015.Public stockpiling and food security.Policy Brief,May 2015.Singapore:S.Rajaratnam School of International Studies,Nanyang Technological University.https://www.rsis.edu.sg/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/PB150603_Public-Stockpil ing.pdf.Accessed 29 Nov 2018.
Dawe,D.1995.The Macroeconomic benefits of stabilizing food prices.The Indonesian Food Journal 5(10):43-64.
Dawe,D.,and T.Slayton.2010.The word rice market crisis of2007-2008.In The rice crisis:Markets,policies and food security,ed.D.Dawe,15-28.Rome and Washington,DC:FAOand Earthscan.
Dorosh,P.A.2009.Price stabilization,international trade and national cereal stocks:World price shocks and policy response in South Asia.Food Security 1(2):137-149.
Fan,S.,and J.Brzeska.2014.Building a resilient global food system by lowering food price spikes and volatility.In Conference Brief16.Building resilience for food and nutrition security 2020,17-19 May 2014,Addis Ababa,Ethiopia.https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/2020resilienceconfbr16.pdf.Accessed 30 Nov 2017.
FAO(Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations).2003.Trade reforms and food security:Conceptualizing the linkages.Rome:FAO.
Federal Civil Defense Administrator.1952.Home food reserves for emergency use.The American Journal of Nursing 52(1):54.
Gardner,B.L.1979.Optimal stockpiling of grain.Toronto:Lexington.
Gilbert,C.L.2011.Food reserves in developing countries:Trade policy options for improved food security.Issue paper no.37.Geneva:International Centre for Trade and Sustainable Development.
Hadley,D.D.,and S.Fan.2010.Reflections on the global food crisis:How did it happen?How has it hurt?And how can we prevent the next one?Washington,DC:International Food Policy Research Institute.
Hawkes,N.1974.World food conference:Amid politicking,some progress.Science 186(4167):905-908.
Hossain,M.,and U.Deb.2010.Volatility in rice prices and policy responses in Bangladesh.In The rice crisis:Markets,policies and food security,ed.D.Dawe,92-108.Rome and Washington,DC:FAO and Earthscan.
Lassa,J.A.,and M.Shrestha.2014.WTO breakthrough on stockpiles:Sustaining food security.Commentary No.245.Singapore:S.Rajaratnam School of International Studies,Nanyang Technological University.https://www.rsis.edu.sg/rsis-publication/nts/co14245-wto-breakthrough-on-stockpiles-sustaining-food-security/#.W_XDnWzQZPY.Accessed 29 Nov 2018.
Lassa,J.,A.Lai,and T.Goh.2016.Climate extremes:An observation and projection of its impacts on food production in ASEAN.Natural Hazard 84(S1):19-33.
Massell,B.F.1969.Price stabilization and welfare.Quarterly Journal of Economics 83(2):284-298.
Nakuja,T.,and W.A.Kerr.2018a.Do WTO commitments restrict the policy space of countries wishing to provide food security through stockholding programs?Journal of World Trade 52(6):967-993.
Nakuja,T.,and W.A.Kerr.2018b.Food security though public stockholdings and trade distortions.British Food Journal 120(5):1089-1105.
Nozue,M.,K.Ishikawa-Takata,N.Sarukura,K.Sako,and N.Tsuboyama-Kasaoka.2014.Stockpiles and food availability in feeding facilities after the Great East Japan Earthquake.Asia Pacific Journal of Clinical Nutrition 23(2):321-330.
Orford,A.2015.Food security,free trade and the battle for the state.Journal of International Law and International Relations 11(2):1-67.
Porter,R.S.1950.Buffer stocks and economic stability.Oxford Economic Papers,New Series 2(1):95-118.
Porter,J.R.,L.Xie,A.J.Challinor,K.Cochrane,S.M.Howden,M.M.Iqbal,D.B.Lobell,and M.I.Travasso.2014.Food security and food production systems.In Climate change 2014:Impacts,adaptation,and vulnerability.Part A:Global and sectoral aspects.Contribution of working group II to the fifth assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change,ed.CB.Field,V.R.Barros,D.J.Dokken,K.J.Mach,M.D.Mastrandrea,T.E.Bilir,M.Chatterjee,K.L.Ebi,et al.,485-533.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
Saifulah,A.2010.Indonesia’s rice policy and price stabilization
Vu,T.2003.Of rice and revolution:The politics of provisioning and state-society relations on Java,1945-49.South East Asia Research 11(3):237-267.
Welton,G.2011.The impact of Russia’s 2011 grain export ban.Oxfam research report 28 June 2011.https://www.oxfam.org/sites/www.oxfam.org/files/rr-impact-russias-grain-export-ban-280611-en.pdf.Accessed 30 Apr 2018.
World Bank.2012.Using public food grain stocks to enhance food security.Washington,DC:World Bank.
WFP(World Food Program).2018.UN humanitarian response depot.http://www1.wfp.org/unhrd.Accessed 29 Nov 2018.
Wright,B.,and C.Cafiero.2011.Grain reserves and food security in the Middle East and North Africa.Food Security 3(1):S61-S71.programme:Managing domestic prices during the 2008 crisis.In The rice crisis:Markets,policies and food security,ed.D.Dawe,109-122.Rome and Washington,DC:FAO and Earthscan.
Saini,S.,and A.Gulati.2016.India’s food security policies in the wake of global food price volatility.In Food price volatility and its implications for food security and policy,ed.M.Kalkuhl,J.von Braun,and M.Torero,331-352.Berlin:Springer.
Sen,A.1981.Poverty and famines:An essay of entitlement and deprivation.Oxford:Clarendon Press.
Sombilla,M.A.,F.A.Lantican,and J.C.Beltran.2006.Marketing and distribution in Balisacan.In Securing rice,reducing poverty:Challenges and policy directions,ed.M.A.Balisacan and Associates,213-238.Southeast Asian Regional Center for Graduate Study and Resarch in Agriculture,Los Banos,Laguna,Philippines.
Teng,P.,M.Caballero-Anthony,and J.A.Lassa.2016.The future of rice security under climate change.NTS report No.4,July 2016.Singapore:S.Rajaratnam School of International Studies,Nanyang Technological University.https://www.rsis.edu.sg/wpcontent/uploads/2016/10/NTS-Report4-July2016-ClimateChange AndRice.pdf.Accessed 29 Nov 2018.
Timmer,P.C.1975.The political economy of rice in Asia:Indonesia.Food Research Institute Studies 14(3):197-231.
Timmer,P.C.2010.Reflections on food crises past.Food Policy35(1):1-11.
TN2PK(National Team for the Acceleration of Poverty Reduction).2015.RASKIN:The challenge of improving programme effectiveness.Office of the Vice President of the Republic of Indonesia.http://www.tnp2k.go.id/images/uploads/downloads/TNP2K%20Report%20Raskin%20the%20challenge%20of%20improving%20programme%20effectiveness.pdf.Accessed 29Nov 2018.
von Braun,J.2009.Addressing the food crisis:Governance,market functioning,and investment in public goods.Food Security 1(1):9-15.
Arshad,F.M.(Director).2014.Personal interview with M.Shrestha,Institute of Agricultural and Food Policy Studies,University Putra Malaysia(UPM),Malaysia,23 September 2014.
Dillon,H.S.,and M.Rantetana(Chief and advisor).2014.Personal discussion with J.A.Lassa and M.Shrestha,Office of the Presidential Special Envoy for Poverty Reduction,Jakarta,Indonesia,8 September 2014.
Ghazali(Lecturer).2014.Personal interview with M.Shrestha,Institute for Environment and Development(LESTARI),National University of Malaysia(UKM),Malaysia,22 September2014.
Jeamchareon,M.(Director).2014.Personal interview with J.A.Lassa,ASEAN Food Security Information System(AFSIS)Office,Bangkok,Thailand,13 August 2014.
Lantican,F.A.(Professor).2014.Personal interview with J.A.Lassa and M.Shrestha,University of the Philippines Los Banos,the Philippines,18 September 2014.
Panglinan,F.(Chairperson).2014.Personal interview with J.A.Lassa and M.Shrestha,National Food Authority,Quezon City,Manila,14 November 2014.
Saifulah,A.(Senior staff).2014.Personal interview with J.A.Lassa and M.Shrestha,Bureau of Logistics(BULOG)Office,Jakarta,Indonesia,10 September 2014.
Salimi,M.B.S.(Senior staff).2014.Personal interview with M.Shrestha,Strategic Planning and International Division,Ministry of Agriculture,Kuala Lumpur,Malaysia,24 September 2014.
Saengbangka,W.(Executive director).2014.Personal interview with J.A.Lassa,ASEAN Plus Three Emergency Rice Reserve(APTERR)Secretariat,Bangkok,Thailand,13 September 2014.
Suryana,A.(Senior researcher).2014.Personal interview with J.A.Lassa and M.Shrestha,Minister of Agriculture,Bogor Office,Indonesia,11 September 2014.
APTERR(ASEAN Plus Three Emergency Rice Reserve).2017.ASEAN plus three emergency rice reserve.http://www.apterr.org/what-is-apterr.Accessed 30 Nov 2018.
ASEAN(Association of Southeast Asian Nations).1979.Agreement on the ASEAN food security reserve.New York,4 October 1979.
Baum,S.D.,D.C.Dankenberger,J.M.Pearce,A.Robock,and R.Winkler.2015.Resilience to global food supply catastrophes.Environment Systems and Decisions 35(2):301-313.
Bigman,D.,and S.Reutlinger.1979.Food price and supply stabilization:National buffer stocks and trade policies.American Journal of Agricultural Economics 61(4):159-163.
Brennan,D.2003.Price dynamics in the Bangladesh rice market:Implications for public intervention.Agricultural Economics29(1):15-25.
Briones,R.M.,A.Durand-Morat,E.J.Wailes,and E.C.Chavez.2012.Climate change and price volatility:Can we count on the ASEAN plus three emergency rice reserve?ADB Sustainable development working paper series no.24.Manila:Asian Development Bank.
Brolley,M.2015.Al Schmidley:Rice security is food security for much of the world.Rice Today,6 October 2015.http://ricetoday.irri.org/al-schmidley-rice-security-is-food-security-for-much-oftheworld/.Accessed 29 Nov 2018.
BULOG(Bureau of Logistics).2009.The role of rice reserve agency in strengthening national and regional food security.In Presentation at the ASEAN regional workshop,8 May 2009,Jakarta,Indonesia.
Caballero-Anthony,M.,P.Teng,J.Lassa,T.Nair,and M.Shrestha.2016.Public stockpiling of rice in Asia Pacific.NTS report No.3,April 2016.Singapore:S.Rajaratnam School of International Studies,Nanyang Technological University.https://www.rsis.edu.sg/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/NTS-Report-No-3-11April2016.pdf.Accessed 29 Nov 2018.
Caballero-Anthony,M.,P.S.Teng,M.Shrestha,T.Nair,and J.A.Lassa.2015.Public stockpiling and food security.Policy Brief,May 2015.Singapore:S.Rajaratnam School of International Studies,Nanyang Technological University.https://www.rsis.edu.sg/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/PB150603_Public-Stockpil ing.pdf.Accessed 29 Nov 2018.
Dawe,D.1995.The Macroeconomic benefits of stabilizing food prices.The Indonesian Food Journal 5(10):43-64.
Dawe,D.,and T.Slayton.2010.The word rice market crisis of2007-2008.In The rice crisis:Markets,policies and food security,ed.D.Dawe,15-28.Rome and Washington,DC:FAOand Earthscan.
Dorosh,P.A.2009.Price stabilization,international trade and national cereal stocks:World price shocks and policy response in South Asia.Food Security 1(2):137-149.
Fan,S.,and J.Brzeska.2014.Building a resilient global food system by lowering food price spikes and volatility.In Conference Brief16.Building resilience for food and nutrition security 2020,17-19 May 2014,Addis Ababa,Ethiopia.https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/2020resilienceconfbr16.pdf.Accessed 30 Nov 2017.
FAO(Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations).2003.Trade reforms and food security:Conceptualizing the linkages.Rome:FAO.
Federal Civil Defense Administrator.1952.Home food reserves for emergency use.The American Journal of Nursing 52(1):54.
Gardner,B.L.1979.Optimal stockpiling of grain.Toronto:Lexington.
Gilbert,C.L.2011.Food reserves in developing countries:Trade policy options for improved food security.Issue paper no.37.Geneva:International Centre for Trade and Sustainable Development.
Hadley,D.D.,and S.Fan.2010.Reflections on the global food crisis:How did it happen?How has it hurt?And how can we prevent the next one?Washington,DC:International Food Policy Research Institute.
Hawkes,N.1974.World food conference:Amid politicking,some progress.Science 186(4167):905-908.
Hossain,M.,and U.Deb.2010.Volatility in rice prices and policy responses in Bangladesh.In The rice crisis:Markets,policies and food security,ed.D.Dawe,92-108.Rome and Washington,DC:FAO and Earthscan.
Lassa,J.A.,and M.Shrestha.2014.WTO breakthrough on stockpiles:Sustaining food security.Commentary No.245.Singapore:S.Rajaratnam School of International Studies,Nanyang Technological University.https://www.rsis.edu.sg/rsis-publication/nts/co14245-wto-breakthrough-on-stockpiles-sustaining-food-security/#.W_XDnWzQZPY.Accessed 29 Nov 2018.
Lassa,J.,A.Lai,and T.Goh.2016.Climate extremes:An observation and projection of its impacts on food production in ASEAN.Natural Hazard 84(S1):19-33.
Massell,B.F.1969.Price stabilization and welfare.Quarterly Journal of Economics 83(2):284-298.
Nakuja,T.,and W.A.Kerr.2018a.Do WTO commitments restrict the policy space of countries wishing to provide food security through stockholding programs?Journal of World Trade 52(6):967-993.
Nakuja,T.,and W.A.Kerr.2018b.Food security though public stockholdings and trade distortions.British Food Journal 120(5):1089-1105.
Nozue,M.,K.Ishikawa-Takata,N.Sarukura,K.Sako,and N.Tsuboyama-Kasaoka.2014.Stockpiles and food availability in feeding facilities after the Great East Japan Earthquake.Asia Pacific Journal of Clinical Nutrition 23(2):321-330.
Orford,A.2015.Food security,free trade and the battle for the state.Journal of International Law and International Relations 11(2):1-67.
Porter,R.S.1950.Buffer stocks and economic stability.Oxford Economic Papers,New Series 2(1):95-118.
Porter,J.R.,L.Xie,A.J.Challinor,K.Cochrane,S.M.Howden,M.M.Iqbal,D.B.Lobell,and M.I.Travasso.2014.Food security and food production systems.In Climate change 2014:Impacts,adaptation,and vulnerability.Part A:Global and sectoral aspects.Contribution of working group II to the fifth assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change,ed.CB.Field,V.R.Barros,D.J.Dokken,K.J.Mach,M.D.Mastrandrea,T.E.Bilir,M.Chatterjee,K.L.Ebi,et al.,485-533.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
Saifulah,A.2010.Indonesia’s rice policy and price stabilization
Vu,T.2003.Of rice and revolution:The politics of provisioning and state-society relations on Java,1945-49.South East Asia Research 11(3):237-267.
Welton,G.2011.The impact of Russia’s 2011 grain export ban.Oxfam research report 28 June 2011.https://www.oxfam.org/sites/www.oxfam.org/files/rr-impact-russias-grain-export-ban-280611-en.pdf.Accessed 30 Apr 2018.
World Bank.2012.Using public food grain stocks to enhance food security.Washington,DC:World Bank.
WFP(World Food Program).2018.UN humanitarian response depot.http://www1.wfp.org/unhrd.Accessed 29 Nov 2018.
Wright,B.,and C.Cafiero.2011.Grain reserves and food security in the Middle East and North Africa.Food Security 3(1):S61-S71.programme:Managing domestic prices during the 2008 crisis.In The rice crisis:Markets,policies and food security,ed.D.Dawe,109-122.Rome and Washington,DC:FAO and Earthscan.
Saini,S.,and A.Gulati.2016.India’s food security policies in the wake of global food price volatility.In Food price volatility and its implications for food security and policy,ed.M.Kalkuhl,J.von Braun,and M.Torero,331-352.Berlin:Springer.
Sen,A.1981.Poverty and famines:An essay of entitlement and deprivation.Oxford:Clarendon Press.
Sombilla,M.A.,F.A.Lantican,and J.C.Beltran.2006.Marketing and distribution in Balisacan.In Securing rice,reducing poverty:Challenges and policy directions,ed.M.A.Balisacan and Associates,213-238.Southeast Asian Regional Center for Graduate Study and Resarch in Agriculture,Los Banos,Laguna,Philippines.
Teng,P.,M.Caballero-Anthony,and J.A.Lassa.2016.The future of rice security under climate change.NTS report No.4,July 2016.Singapore:S.Rajaratnam School of International Studies,Nanyang Technological University.https://www.rsis.edu.sg/wpcontent/uploads/2016/10/NTS-Report4-July2016-ClimateChange AndRice.pdf.Accessed 29 Nov 2018.
Timmer,P.C.1975.The political economy of rice in Asia:Indonesia.Food Research Institute Studies 14(3):197-231.
Timmer,P.C.2010.Reflections on food crises past.Food Policy35(1):1-11.
TN2PK(National Team for the Acceleration of Poverty Reduction).2015.RASKIN:The challenge of improving programme effectiveness.Office of the Vice President of the Republic of Indonesia.http://www.tnp2k.go.id/images/uploads/downloads/TNP2K%20Report%20Raskin%20the%20challenge%20of%20improving%20programme%20effectiveness.pdf.Accessed 29Nov 2018.
von Braun,J.2009.Addressing the food crisis:Governance,market functioning,and investment in public goods.Food Security 1(1):9-15.
Arshad,F.M.(Director).2014.Personal interview with M.Shrestha,Institute of Agricultural and Food Policy Studies,University Putra Malaysia(UPM),Malaysia,23 September 2014.
Dillon,H.S.,and M.Rantetana(Chief and advisor).2014.Personal discussion with J.A.Lassa and M.Shrestha,Office of the Presidential Special Envoy for Poverty Reduction,Jakarta,Indonesia,8 September 2014.
Ghazali(Lecturer).2014.Personal interview with M.Shrestha,Institute for Environment and Development(LESTARI),National University of Malaysia(UKM),Malaysia,22 September2014.
Jeamchareon,M.(Director).2014.Personal interview with J.A.Lassa,ASEAN Food Security Information System(AFSIS)Office,Bangkok,Thailand,13 August 2014.
Lantican,F.A.(Professor).2014.Personal interview with J.A.Lassa and M.Shrestha,University of the Philippines Los Banos,the Philippines,18 September 2014.
Panglinan,F.(Chairperson).2014.Personal interview with J.A.Lassa and M.Shrestha,National Food Authority,Quezon City,Manila,14 November 2014.
Saifulah,A.(Senior staff).2014.Personal interview with J.A.Lassa and M.Shrestha,Bureau of Logistics(BULOG)Office,Jakarta,Indonesia,10 September 2014.
Salimi,M.B.S.(Senior staff).2014.Personal interview with M.Shrestha,Strategic Planning and International Division,Ministry of Agriculture,Kuala Lumpur,Malaysia,24 September 2014.
Saengbangka,W.(Executive director).2014.Personal interview with J.A.Lassa,ASEAN Plus Three Emergency Rice Reserve(APTERR)Secretariat,Bangkok,Thailand,13 September 2014.
Suryana,A.(Senior researcher).2014.Personal interview with J.A.Lassa and M.Shrestha,Minister of Agriculture,Bogor Office,Indonesia,11 September 2014.