面孔吸引力和信息正确性对幼儿选择性信任的影响
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摘要
实验1采用3×2×2的混合设计,考察4～6岁幼儿获取全新信息时基于面孔吸引力的选择性信任及其特点。结果显示:(1) 4～6岁的男孩和女孩均表现出对高面孔吸引力者的选择性信任。(2)在选择性信任程度方面:5岁比4岁高,而4岁和6岁之间、5岁和6岁之间则相同;女孩在询问任务中比男孩表现出更高的选择性信任,在赞同任务中则相同。那么,幼儿的这种选择性信任是否受到信息正确性的调节?为此,实验2采用2×3的被试间设计,探讨信息提供者提供信息的正确性对4～6岁幼儿基于面孔吸引力的选择性信任的影响。结果显示:在正确性为50%vs.50%条件下,幼儿未对信息提供者产生选择性信任;在正确性为25%vs.75%条件下,幼儿对提供较大正确性信息的低面孔吸引力者产生了选择性信任。研究结果表明:(1)在信息缺乏时, 4～6岁幼儿普遍存在有偏见的选择性信任;女孩比男孩更易受到社会偏见因素的影响。(2)在信息明确时, 4～6岁幼儿也能做出相对理性的选择性信任。
The research area on children's selective trust in testimony was initiated by Harris et al.(2014). Previous studies had found that knowledge, as a trustworthy source, is conditional. In addition, the certainty of new information that is decided by the knowledge cues can influence children's selective trust. Bascandziev and Harris(2014) found that four-to five-year-old boys in an ask task did not show biased selective trust to an informant with a high facial attractiveness when they were learning new information. However, the difference in facial attractiveness was possibly not detected by the children and the children's age was not controlled. Therefore, the aim of Experiment 1 was to find the characteristics of selective trust on the basis of facial attractiveness when children acquire new information. The goal of Experiment 2 was to examine whether information accuracy or facial attractiveness is the main factor influencing children's selective trust.Experiment 1 adopted a 3(age group: four-, five-, six-year-old children) × 2(gender: male, female) × 2(task: ask, endorse) mixed design. A total of 63 four-year-old children(Mage = 54.72 months, SD = 2.06 months, 30 girls) and 66 five-year-old children(Mage = 66.00 months, SD = 1.47 months, 33 girls) were selected from two kindergartens in Tianjin. In addition, 66 six-year-old children(Mage = 78.12 months, SD = 1.80 months, 30 girls) were selected from an elementary school in the same city. Experiment 2 adopted a 2(accuracy of information: 50% vs. 50%, 25% vs. 75%) × 3(age group: four-, five-, six-year-old children) between-subject design. A total of 62 four-year-old children(Mage = 54.72 months, SD = 3.17 months, 28 girls) and 59 five-year-old children(Mage = 66.48 months, SD = 3.59 months, 27 girls) were selected from two kindergartens in Tianjin. Moreover, 56 six-year-old children(Mage = 78.12 months, SD = 1.80 months, 27 girls) were selected from an elementary school in the same city. All children in the two experiments participated in ask and endorse tasks using a laptop computer to selectively trust one of two informants with different levels of facial attractiveness.The results of Experiment 1 revealed that four-to six-year-old girls and boys show selective trust to informants with high facial attractiveness in the ask and endorse tasks. Moreover, five-year-old children have stronger degree of selective trust to informants with high facial attractiveness than four-year-old children. No difference was found between five-and six-year-old children and between four-and five-year-old children. Girls were stronger than boys in the ask task, no difference between was found between them in the endorse task. The results of Experiment 2 revealed that four-to six-year-old children in equal-and unequal-accuracy conditions show selective trust to informants with high facial attractiveness when they completed ask task. Moreover, no difference was found among the three age groups on the degree of selective trust to informants with high facial attractiveness. However, when they completed the endorse task, children in the equal-accuracy condition did not show any preference to informants with high or low facial attractiveness. By contrast, children in the unequal-accuracy condition tended to selectively trust informants who had low facial attractiveness but mentioned more accurate names. However, no difference was found among the three age groups on the degree of selective trust to informants with low facial attractiveness.On the basis of these results, this study proposes the following:(1) Girls and boys aged four-six years show selective trust on the basis of facial attractiveness if the information is deficient. Moreover, girls aged four to six years are more venerable to social bias factors than boys of the same age range.(2) Four-to six-year-old children can make rational judgments on the reliability of the information provided by informants if the information is sufficient.
The research area on children's selective trust in testimony was initiated by Harris et al.(2014). Previous studies had found that knowledge, as a trustworthy source, is conditional. In addition, the certainty of new information that is decided by the knowledge cues can influence children's selective trust. Bascandziev and Harris(2014) found that four-to five-year-old boys in an ask task did not show biased selective trust to an informant with a high facial attractiveness when they were learning new information. However, the difference in facial attractiveness was possibly not detected by the children and the children's age was not controlled. Therefore, the aim of Experiment 1 was to find the characteristics of selective trust on the basis of facial attractiveness when children acquire new information. The goal of Experiment 2 was to examine whether information accuracy or facial attractiveness is the main factor influencing children's selective trust.Experiment 1 adopted a 3(age group: four-, five-, six-year-old children) × 2(gender: male, female) × 2(task: ask, endorse) mixed design. A total of 63 four-year-old children(Mage = 54.72 months, SD = 2.06 months, 30 girls) and 66 five-year-old children(Mage = 66.00 months, SD = 1.47 months, 33 girls) were selected from two kindergartens in Tianjin. In addition, 66 six-year-old children(Mage = 78.12 months, SD = 1.80 months, 30 girls) were selected from an elementary school in the same city. Experiment 2 adopted a 2(accuracy of information: 50% vs. 50%, 25% vs. 75%) × 3(age group: four-, five-, six-year-old children) between-subject design. A total of 62 four-year-old children(Mage = 54.72 months, SD = 3.17 months, 28 girls) and 59 five-year-old children(Mage = 66.48 months, SD = 3.59 months, 27 girls) were selected from two kindergartens in Tianjin. Moreover, 56 six-year-old children(Mage = 78.12 months, SD = 1.80 months, 27 girls) were selected from an elementary school in the same city. All children in the two experiments participated in ask and endorse tasks using a laptop computer to selectively trust one of two informants with different levels of facial attractiveness.The results of Experiment 1 revealed that four-to six-year-old girls and boys show selective trust to informants with high facial attractiveness in the ask and endorse tasks. Moreover, five-year-old children have stronger degree of selective trust to informants with high facial attractiveness than four-year-old children. No difference was found between five-and six-year-old children and between four-and five-year-old children. Girls were stronger than boys in the ask task, no difference between was found between them in the endorse task. The results of Experiment 2 revealed that four-to six-year-old children in equal-and unequal-accuracy conditions show selective trust to informants with high facial attractiveness when they completed ask task. Moreover, no difference was found among the three age groups on the degree of selective trust to informants with high facial attractiveness. However, when they completed the endorse task, children in the equal-accuracy condition did not show any preference to informants with high or low facial attractiveness. By contrast, children in the unequal-accuracy condition tended to selectively trust informants who had low facial attractiveness but mentioned more accurate names. However, no difference was found among the three age groups on the degree of selective trust to informants with low facial attractiveness.On the basis of these results, this study proposes the following:(1) Girls and boys aged four-six years show selective trust on the basis of facial attractiveness if the information is deficient. Moreover, girls aged four to six years are more venerable to social bias factors than boys of the same age range.(2) Four-to six-year-old children can make rational judgments on the reliability of the information provided by informants if the information is sufficient.
引文
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Bernard,S.,Harris,P.,Terrier,N.,&Clément,F.(2015).Children weigh the number of informants and perceptual uncertainty when identifying objects.Journal of Experimental Child Psychology,136,70-81.
Birch,S.A.J.,Vauthier,S.A.,&Bloom,P.(2008).Three-and four-year-olds spontaneously use others’past performance to guide their learning.Cognition,107(3),1018-1034.
Boothroyd,L.G.,Meins,E.,Vukovic,J.,&Burt,D.M.(2014).Developmental changes in children's facial preferences.Evolution and Human Behavior,35(5),376-383.
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Chan,C.C.Y.,&Tardif,T.(2013).Knowing better:The role of prior knowledge and culture in trust in testimony.Developmental Psychology,49(3),591-601.
Che,H.B.(2014).The developmental characteristics of 4-to5-year-old children’s selective trust judgment based on pro-social traits(Unpublished master’s thesis).Liaoning Normal University,China.[车翰博.(2014).基于亲社会特质的4-5岁幼儿选择性信任判断的发展特点(硕士论文).辽宁师范大学.]
Clément,F.,Koenig,M.,&Harris,P.(2004).The ontogenesis of trust.Mind and Language,19(4),360-379.
Cong H.Q.&Xu X.J.(2003).How was Testimony defended.Philosophical Researches(10),67-76.[丛杭青,徐献军.(2003).Testimony是如何得到辩护的.哲学研究(10),69-76.]
Corriveau,K.H.,Harris,P.L.,Meins,E.,Fernyhough,C.,Arnott,B.,Elliott,L.,...De Rosnay,M.(2009).Young children’s trust in their mother’s claims:Longitudinal links with attachment security in infancy.Child Development,80(3),750-761.
Corriveau,K.H.,Kinzler,K.D.,&Harris,P.L.(2012).Accuracy trumps accent in children's endorsement of object labels.Developmental Psychology,49(3),470-479.
Ding,X.C.(2016).Preschoolers’selective trust in informants(Unpublished doctoral dissertation).East China Normal University,Shang Hai.[丁雪辰.(2016).幼儿对信息提供者的选择性信任研究(博士学位论文).华东师范大学,上海.]
Dion,K.K.(1973).Young children's stereotyping of facial attractiveness.Developmental Psychology,9(2),183-188.
Doebel,S.,&Koenig,M.A.(2013).Children's use of moral behavior in selective trust:Discrimination versus learning.Developmental Psychology,49(3),462-469.
Eagly,A.H.,Ashmore,R.D.,Makhijani,M.G.,&Longo,L.C.(1991).What is beautiful is good,but…:A meta-analytic review of research on the physical attractiveness stereotype.Psychological Bulletin,110(1),109-128.
Ellsberg,D.(1961).Risk,ambiguity,and the savage axioms.Quarterly Journal of Economics,75(4),643-669.
Feingold,A.(1992).Good-looking people are not what we think.Psychological Bulletin,111(2),304-341.
Harris,P.L.,Corriveau,K.H.,Pasquini,E.S.,Koenig,M.,Fusaro,M.,&Clément,F.(2012).Credulity and the development of selective trust in early childhood.Foundations of Metacognition,193-210.
Hertz-Lazarowitz,R.,Feitelson,D.,Zahavi,S.,&Hartup,W.W.(1981).Social interaction and social organization of Israeli five to seven-year-olds.International Journal of Behavioral Development,4(2),143-155.
Horst,J.S.,&Hout,M.C.(2016).The novel object and unusual name(NOUN)database:A collection of novel images for use in experimental research.Behavior Research Methods.48(4),1393-1409.
Jackson,L.A.,Hunter,J.E.,&Hodge,C.N.(1995).Physical attractiveness and intellectual competence:A meta-analytic review.Social Psychology Quarterly,58(2),108-122.
Jaffer,S.,&Ma,L.(2015).Preschoolers show less trust in physically disabled or obese informants.Frontiers in Psychology,5(10),1524.
Jaswal,V.K.(2004).Don't believe everything you hear:Preschoolers'sensitivity to speaker intent in category induction.Child Development,75(6),1871-1885.
Jaswal,V.K.(2006).Preschoolers favor the creator's label when reasoning about an artifact's function.Cognition,99(3),B83-B92.
Jaswal,V.K.,&Markman,E.M.(2007).Looks aren't everything:24-month-olds'willingness to accept unexpected labels.Journal of Cognition and Development,8(1),93-111.
Jaswal,V.K.,&Neely,L.A.(2006).Adults don't always know best preschoolers use past reliability over age when learning new words.Psychological Science,17(9),757-758.
Kinzler,K.D.,Corriveau,K.H.,&Harris,P.L.(2011).Children’s selective trust in native-accented speakers.Developmental Science,14(1),106-111.
Koenig,M.A.,Clément,F.,&Harris,P.L.(2004).Trust in testimony:Children's use of true and false statements.Psychological Science,15(10),694-698.
Koenig,M.A.,&Harris,P.L.(2005).Preschoolers mistrust ignorant and inaccurate speakers.Child Development,76(6),1261-1277.
Koenig,M.A.,&Jaswal,V.K.(2011).Characterizing children’s expectations about expertise and incompetence:Halo or pitchfork effects?Child Development,82(5),1634-1647.
Koenig,M.A.,&Woodward,A.L.(2010).Sensitivity of 24-month-olds to the prior inaccuracy of the source:Possible mechanisms.Developmental Psychology,46(4),815-26.
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