SPT效应的自动突显机制:来自输出监测的证据
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摘要
研究采用"对回忆的再认"范式,从输出监测的角度考察了操作效应的提取机制。实验1结果显示,被试操作任务条件下的自由回忆的系列位置成绩缺乏首因效应,却拥有扩展的近因效应;被试操作任务条件下的"对回忆的再认"成绩显著差于语词任务下的成绩,差异具体表现在组块2~9、10、11和12上,表明在上述组块,被试操作任务条件下的提取存在自动突显,即操作效应得益于这些组块在提取时的自动突显。实验2结果显示,在类别测验下,被试操作任务和语词任务的自由回忆成绩拥有相似的系列位置曲线,而"对回忆的再认"结果同实验1。研究认为自由回忆的系列位置效应与自动突显机制之间不存在直接的因果关系,而"对回忆的再认"范式则能敏感地测量出操作效应的提取机制。
It is commonly established that simple action phrases are retained better when participants were instructed to perform the actions than they learned the phrases by reading. The superior memory performance after motor learning has been called the Subject Performed Tasks effect(SPT effect). Although a great many of researches have tried to account for the SPT effect and four theories had been proposed, none of them was sufficient to explain the enactment effect. However, the processing theories are contradictory with each other. The main contradiction is whether the SPT effect benefited from the automatic retrieval. So the current research applied the "recall-recognition" paradigm to clarify the mentioned divergence. We recruited 80 college students to take part in two experiments and used between-subject design to explore the automatic retrieval mechanism by recall- recognition test. The participants were told to memorize the items for later recall by just reading them silently(VTs) or enacting them symbolically after reading(SPTs). An example of an item was given to the participants, which ensured that they were familiar with the task. After presenting the last item, a free recall test was administered which was audio recorded for later examination directly. Then the subjects were given the instructions for the recall-recognition test. Thirty-six words just learned were presented to the subjects on the computer screen. Subjects were instructed to judge whether the words had been recalled or not. The data were analyzed in terms of the serial position of items, by comparing the performance of free recall test and the recall-recognition test. With regard to the free recall performance, it displayed that the participants recalled more phrases after finishing the SPTs than the VTs. However, the effects were only appeared in triplets 10, 11 and 12. A primacy and recency effect were observed after learning of a series of items in the VT condition. Whereas, for the SPT condition, no primacy effect but an extended recency effect could be found. In terms of recall-recognition test, the performance was significant worse under the SPTs condition than that under the VTs condition. However, such differences were observed only in blocks of 2~9, 10, 11 and 12. With regard to the category recall performance, there were similar serial position curves for VTs and SPTs, however the performance of recall-recognition was the same with the results of experiment 1. The performance of free recall indicated that the SPT effect benefited from the extended recency effect which stems from an automatic pop-out mechanism. However, the recall-recognition test results demonstrated that the retrieval is automatically pop-out under the SPTs condition in blocks of 2~9, 10, 11 and 12. In conclusion, the SPT effects seem to be the result of a significant enhancement of middle and last blocks. The recall-recognition test results were different from the free recall results. It may be that "recall- recognition" paradigm is more sensitive to measure retrieval mechanism of SPT effect.
It is commonly established that simple action phrases are retained better when participants were instructed to perform the actions than they learned the phrases by reading. The superior memory performance after motor learning has been called the Subject Performed Tasks effect(SPT effect). Although a great many of researches have tried to account for the SPT effect and four theories had been proposed, none of them was sufficient to explain the enactment effect. However, the processing theories are contradictory with each other. The main contradiction is whether the SPT effect benefited from the automatic retrieval. So the current research applied the "recall-recognition" paradigm to clarify the mentioned divergence. We recruited 80 college students to take part in two experiments and used between-subject design to explore the automatic retrieval mechanism by recall- recognition test. The participants were told to memorize the items for later recall by just reading them silently(VTs) or enacting them symbolically after reading(SPTs). An example of an item was given to the participants, which ensured that they were familiar with the task. After presenting the last item, a free recall test was administered which was audio recorded for later examination directly. Then the subjects were given the instructions for the recall-recognition test. Thirty-six words just learned were presented to the subjects on the computer screen. Subjects were instructed to judge whether the words had been recalled or not. The data were analyzed in terms of the serial position of items, by comparing the performance of free recall test and the recall-recognition test. With regard to the free recall performance, it displayed that the participants recalled more phrases after finishing the SPTs than the VTs. However, the effects were only appeared in triplets 10, 11 and 12. A primacy and recency effect were observed after learning of a series of items in the VT condition. Whereas, for the SPT condition, no primacy effect but an extended recency effect could be found. In terms of recall-recognition test, the performance was significant worse under the SPTs condition than that under the VTs condition. However, such differences were observed only in blocks of 2~9, 10, 11 and 12. With regard to the category recall performance, there were similar serial position curves for VTs and SPTs, however the performance of recall-recognition was the same with the results of experiment 1. The performance of free recall indicated that the SPT effect benefited from the extended recency effect which stems from an automatic pop-out mechanism. However, the recall-recognition test results demonstrated that the retrieval is automatically pop-out under the SPTs condition in blocks of 2~9, 10, 11 and 12. In conclusion, the SPT effects seem to be the result of a significant enhancement of middle and last blocks. The recall-recognition test results were different from the free recall results. It may be that "recall- recognition" paradigm is more sensitive to measure retrieval mechanism of SPT effect.
引文
Baddeley,A.D.(1986).Working memory.Oxford:Oxford University Press.
Baker-Ward,L.,Hess,T.M.,&Flannagan,D.A.(1990).The effects of involvement on children's memory for events.Cognitive Development,5(1),55-69.
Cohen,R.L.(1981).On the generality of some memory laws.Scandinavian Journal of Psychology,22(1),267-281.
Cohen,R.L.(1983).The effect of encoding variables on the free recall of words and action events.Memory&Cognition,11(6),575-582.
Cohen,R.L.(1989).The effects of interference tasks on recency in the free recall of action events.Psychological Research,51(4),176-180.
Cook,S.W.,Yip,T.K.,&Goldin-Meadow,S.(2010).Gesturing makes memories that last.Journal of Memory and Language,63(4),465-475.
Earles,J.L.,&Kersten,A.W.(2002).Directed forgetting of actions by younger and older adults.Psychonomic Bulletin&Review,9(2),383-388.
Engelkamp,J.(1995).Visual imagery and enactment of actions in memory.British Journal of Psychology,86(2),227-240.
Engelkamp,J.,&Zimmer,H.D.(1989).Memory for action events:A new field of research.Psychological Research,51(4),153-157.
Feyereisen,P.(2009).Enactment effects and integration processes in younger and older adults’memory for actions.Memory,17(4),374-385.
Foley,M.A.,&Johnson,M.K.(1985).Confusions between memories for performed and imagined actions:Adevelopmental comparison.Child Development,56(5),1145-1155.
Gardiner,J.M.,&Klee,H.(1976).Memory for remembered events:An assessment of output monitoring in free recall.Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior,15(2),227-233.
Gardiner,J.M.,Passmore,C.,Herriot,P.,&Klee,H.(1977).Memory for remembered events:Effects of response mode and response-produced feedback.Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior,16(1),45-54.
Glover,S.,&Dixon,P.(2013).Context and vision effects on real and imagined actions:Support for the common representation hypothesis of motor imagery.Journal of Experimental Psychology:Human Perception and Performance,39(5),1352-1364.
Goldin-Meadow,S.,&Alibali,M.W.(2013).Gesture's role in speaking,learning,and creating language.Annual Review of Psychology,64,257-283.
Goodwin,C.J.(1976).Changes in primacy and recency with practice in single-trial free recall.Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior,15(1),119-132.
Hainselin,M.,Quinette,P.,Juskenaite,A.,Desgranges,B.,Martinaud,O.,De La Sayette,V.,...Eustache,F.(2014).Just do it!How performing an action enhances remembering in transient global amnesia.Cortex,50,192-199.
Helstrup,T.(1987).One,two,or three memories?A problemsolving approach to memory for performed acts.Acta Psychologica,66(1),37-68.
Hornstein,S.L.,&Mulligan,N.W.(2004).Memory for actions:Enactment and source memory.Psychonomic Bulletin&Review,11(2),367-372.
Kausler,D.H.(1989).Impairment in normal memory aging:Implications of laboratory evidence.In G.C.Gilmore,P.J.Whitehouse,&M.L.Wykle(Eds.),Memory and aging(pp.4-40).New York:Springer.
Kinoshita,S.(1989).Generation enhances semantic processing?The role of distinctiveness in the generation effect.Memory&Cognition,17(5),563-571.
Klee,H.,&Legge,D.(1980).Remembering the recall of words.Canadian Journal of Psychology,34(1),86-90.
Kormi-Nouri,R.(1995).The nature of memory for action events:An episodic integration view.European Journal of Cognitive Psychology,7(4),337-363.
Koriat,A.,Ben-Zur,H.,&Sheffer,D.(1988).Telling the same story twice:Output monitoring and age.Journal of Memory and Language,27(1),23-39.
Mangels,J.A.,&Heinberg,A.(2006).Improved episodic integration through enactment:Implications for aging.The Journal of General Psychology,133(1),37-65.
Mecklenbr?uker,S.,Steffens,M.C.,Jelenec,P.,&Goergens,N.K.(2011).Interactive context integration in children?Evidence from an action memory study.Journal Experimental Child Psychology,108(4),747-761.
Mimura,M.,Komatsu,S.I.,Kato,M.,Yashimasu,H.,Wakamatsu,N.,&Kashima,H.(1998).Memory for subject performed tasks in patients with Korsakoff syndrome.Cortex,34(2),297-303.
Nilsson,L.-G.(2000).Remembering actions and words.In F.I.M.Craik&E.Tulving(Eds.),The Oxford handbook of memory(pp.137-148).Oxford:Oxford University Press.
Nilsson,L.G.,&B?ckman,L.(1989).Implicit memory and the enactment of verbal instructions.In S.Lewandowsky,J.C.Dunn,&K.Kirsner(Eds.),Implicit memory:Theoretical issues(pp.173-183).Hillsdale,NJ:Erlbaum.
Quinlan,C.K.,Taylor,T.L.,&Fawcett,J.M.(2010).Directed forgetting:Comparing pictures and words.Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology,64(1),41-46.
Roediger,H.L.,&Zaromb,F.M.(2010).Memory for actions:How different?In L.B?ckman&L.Nyberg(Eds.),Aging,memory and the brain:Essays in honour of Lars-G?ran Nilsson(pp.24-52).New York:Psychology Press.
Sahakyan,L.(2010).Environmental context change affects memory for performed actions.The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology,63(3),425-433.
Schatz,T.R.,Spranger,T.,&Knopf,M.(2010).Is there a memory profit after repeated learning of subject-performed actions?Comparing direct and long-term memory performance level as a function of age.Scandinavian Journal of Psychology,51(6),465-472.
Schatz,T.,Spranger,T.,Kubik,V.,&Knopf,M.(2011).Exploring the enactment effect from an information processing view:What can we learn from serial position analyses?Scandinavian Journal of Psychology,52(6),509-515.
Seiler,K.H.,&Engelkamp,J.(2003).The role of item-specific information for the serial position curve in free recall.Journal of Experimental Psychology:Learning,Memory,and Cognition,29(5),954-964.
Sinigaglia,C.(2010).Mirroring and making sense of others.Nature Reviews Neuroscience,11(6),449.
Spranger,T.,Schatz,T.R.,&Knopf,M.(2008).Does action make you faster?A retrieval-based approach to investigating the origins of the enactment effect.Scandinavian Journal of Psychology,49(6),487-495.
Wang,L.J.,&Li,G.Z.(2014).A review on the theories of subject performed task effect in action memory.Journal of Psychological Science,37(4),998-1001.[王丽娟,李广政.(2014).动作记忆SPT效应的理论探讨.心理科学,37(4),998-1001.]
Zimmer,H.D.,Cohen,R.L.,Guynn,M.J.,Engelkamp,J.,Kormi-Nouri,R.,&Foley,M.A.(2001).Memory for action:A distinct form of episodic memory?New York:Oxford University Press.
Zimmer,H.D.,&Engelkamp,J.(1999).Levels-of-processing effects in subject-performed tasks.Memory&Cognition,27(5),907-914.
Zimmer,H.D.,&Engelkamp,J.(2003).Signing enhances memory like performing actions.Psychonomic Bulletin&Review,10(2),450-454.
Zimmer,H.D.,Helstrup,T.,&Engelkamp,J.(2000).Pop-out into memory:A retrieval mechanism that is enhanced with the recall of subject-performed tasks.Journal of Experimental Psychology:Learning,Memory,and Cognition,26(3),658-670.
Baker-Ward,L.,Hess,T.M.,&Flannagan,D.A.(1990).The effects of involvement on children's memory for events.Cognitive Development,5(1),55-69.
Cohen,R.L.(1981).On the generality of some memory laws.Scandinavian Journal of Psychology,22(1),267-281.
Cohen,R.L.(1983).The effect of encoding variables on the free recall of words and action events.Memory&Cognition,11(6),575-582.
Cohen,R.L.(1989).The effects of interference tasks on recency in the free recall of action events.Psychological Research,51(4),176-180.
Cook,S.W.,Yip,T.K.,&Goldin-Meadow,S.(2010).Gesturing makes memories that last.Journal of Memory and Language,63(4),465-475.
Earles,J.L.,&Kersten,A.W.(2002).Directed forgetting of actions by younger and older adults.Psychonomic Bulletin&Review,9(2),383-388.
Engelkamp,J.(1995).Visual imagery and enactment of actions in memory.British Journal of Psychology,86(2),227-240.
Engelkamp,J.,&Zimmer,H.D.(1989).Memory for action events:A new field of research.Psychological Research,51(4),153-157.
Feyereisen,P.(2009).Enactment effects and integration processes in younger and older adults’memory for actions.Memory,17(4),374-385.
Foley,M.A.,&Johnson,M.K.(1985).Confusions between memories for performed and imagined actions:Adevelopmental comparison.Child Development,56(5),1145-1155.
Gardiner,J.M.,&Klee,H.(1976).Memory for remembered events:An assessment of output monitoring in free recall.Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior,15(2),227-233.
Gardiner,J.M.,Passmore,C.,Herriot,P.,&Klee,H.(1977).Memory for remembered events:Effects of response mode and response-produced feedback.Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior,16(1),45-54.
Glover,S.,&Dixon,P.(2013).Context and vision effects on real and imagined actions:Support for the common representation hypothesis of motor imagery.Journal of Experimental Psychology:Human Perception and Performance,39(5),1352-1364.
Goldin-Meadow,S.,&Alibali,M.W.(2013).Gesture's role in speaking,learning,and creating language.Annual Review of Psychology,64,257-283.
Goodwin,C.J.(1976).Changes in primacy and recency with practice in single-trial free recall.Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior,15(1),119-132.
Hainselin,M.,Quinette,P.,Juskenaite,A.,Desgranges,B.,Martinaud,O.,De La Sayette,V.,...Eustache,F.(2014).Just do it!How performing an action enhances remembering in transient global amnesia.Cortex,50,192-199.
Helstrup,T.(1987).One,two,or three memories?A problemsolving approach to memory for performed acts.Acta Psychologica,66(1),37-68.
Hornstein,S.L.,&Mulligan,N.W.(2004).Memory for actions:Enactment and source memory.Psychonomic Bulletin&Review,11(2),367-372.
Kausler,D.H.(1989).Impairment in normal memory aging:Implications of laboratory evidence.In G.C.Gilmore,P.J.Whitehouse,&M.L.Wykle(Eds.),Memory and aging(pp.4-40).New York:Springer.
Kinoshita,S.(1989).Generation enhances semantic processing?The role of distinctiveness in the generation effect.Memory&Cognition,17(5),563-571.
Klee,H.,&Legge,D.(1980).Remembering the recall of words.Canadian Journal of Psychology,34(1),86-90.
Kormi-Nouri,R.(1995).The nature of memory for action events:An episodic integration view.European Journal of Cognitive Psychology,7(4),337-363.
Koriat,A.,Ben-Zur,H.,&Sheffer,D.(1988).Telling the same story twice:Output monitoring and age.Journal of Memory and Language,27(1),23-39.
Mangels,J.A.,&Heinberg,A.(2006).Improved episodic integration through enactment:Implications for aging.The Journal of General Psychology,133(1),37-65.
Mecklenbr?uker,S.,Steffens,M.C.,Jelenec,P.,&Goergens,N.K.(2011).Interactive context integration in children?Evidence from an action memory study.Journal Experimental Child Psychology,108(4),747-761.
Mimura,M.,Komatsu,S.I.,Kato,M.,Yashimasu,H.,Wakamatsu,N.,&Kashima,H.(1998).Memory for subject performed tasks in patients with Korsakoff syndrome.Cortex,34(2),297-303.
Nilsson,L.-G.(2000).Remembering actions and words.In F.I.M.Craik&E.Tulving(Eds.),The Oxford handbook of memory(pp.137-148).Oxford:Oxford University Press.
Nilsson,L.G.,&B?ckman,L.(1989).Implicit memory and the enactment of verbal instructions.In S.Lewandowsky,J.C.Dunn,&K.Kirsner(Eds.),Implicit memory:Theoretical issues(pp.173-183).Hillsdale,NJ:Erlbaum.
Quinlan,C.K.,Taylor,T.L.,&Fawcett,J.M.(2010).Directed forgetting:Comparing pictures and words.Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology,64(1),41-46.
Roediger,H.L.,&Zaromb,F.M.(2010).Memory for actions:How different?In L.B?ckman&L.Nyberg(Eds.),Aging,memory and the brain:Essays in honour of Lars-G?ran Nilsson(pp.24-52).New York:Psychology Press.
Sahakyan,L.(2010).Environmental context change affects memory for performed actions.The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology,63(3),425-433.
Schatz,T.R.,Spranger,T.,&Knopf,M.(2010).Is there a memory profit after repeated learning of subject-performed actions?Comparing direct and long-term memory performance level as a function of age.Scandinavian Journal of Psychology,51(6),465-472.
Schatz,T.,Spranger,T.,Kubik,V.,&Knopf,M.(2011).Exploring the enactment effect from an information processing view:What can we learn from serial position analyses?Scandinavian Journal of Psychology,52(6),509-515.
Seiler,K.H.,&Engelkamp,J.(2003).The role of item-specific information for the serial position curve in free recall.Journal of Experimental Psychology:Learning,Memory,and Cognition,29(5),954-964.
Sinigaglia,C.(2010).Mirroring and making sense of others.Nature Reviews Neuroscience,11(6),449.
Spranger,T.,Schatz,T.R.,&Knopf,M.(2008).Does action make you faster?A retrieval-based approach to investigating the origins of the enactment effect.Scandinavian Journal of Psychology,49(6),487-495.
Wang,L.J.,&Li,G.Z.(2014).A review on the theories of subject performed task effect in action memory.Journal of Psychological Science,37(4),998-1001.[王丽娟,李广政.(2014).动作记忆SPT效应的理论探讨.心理科学,37(4),998-1001.]
Zimmer,H.D.,Cohen,R.L.,Guynn,M.J.,Engelkamp,J.,Kormi-Nouri,R.,&Foley,M.A.(2001).Memory for action:A distinct form of episodic memory?New York:Oxford University Press.
Zimmer,H.D.,&Engelkamp,J.(1999).Levels-of-processing effects in subject-performed tasks.Memory&Cognition,27(5),907-914.
Zimmer,H.D.,&Engelkamp,J.(2003).Signing enhances memory like performing actions.Psychonomic Bulletin&Review,10(2),450-454.
Zimmer,H.D.,Helstrup,T.,&Engelkamp,J.(2000).Pop-out into memory:A retrieval mechanism that is enhanced with the recall of subject-performed tasks.Journal of Experimental Psychology:Learning,Memory,and Cognition,26(3),658-670.