传统的七股力量:论传统在美国民俗学中的多重意义
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摘要
本文(The Seven Strands of Tradition:Varieties in Its Meaning in American Folklore Studies)发表于1984年的《民俗研究学刊》(Journal of Folklore Research)21 (2-3):97-131。该期是1984年3月召开的"文化、传统、认同会议"的专刊。此后,此文受到学界的重视,并已成为民俗学经典文章之一。此文不仅梳理了美国民俗学史上对传统的不同界定,也展示了对世界民俗学史上这一重要概念的解析方法,对理解民俗学中"传统"的意义有着理论和方法上的重要意义。
引文
*本文的初稿曾在会议上宣读过,许多参会者都做了评议,我感谢他们每个人,但特别感谢琳达·戴戈(Linda Degh)建议了本文的题目,阿兰·邓迪斯(Alan Dundes)提供了许多参考书目。
(1)见“Folklore,” in Funk&Wagnalls Standard Dictionary of Folklore, Mythology and Legend,ed. Maria Leach and Jerome Fried(New York:Funk&Wagnalls,1949),Ⅰ,398-403.在有关民俗的21个定义中,只有6个没有用传统一词,而他们都是人类学家。这与人类学长期以来对文化的态度有关,见Marcel Rioux,“Folk and Folklore,”Journal of American Folklore63(1950):192-98.但是,人类学家的确在使用传统一词,并的确与民俗有关,但不是在定义的时候用的,见Martha Warren Beckwith,Folklore in America:Its Scope and Method(Poughkeepsie, N.Y.:The Folklore Foundation, Vassar College, 1931), pp. 2-6, 12, 41-44.
(1)参见, Francis Lee Utley,“Folk Literature:An Operational Definition,”Journal of American Folklore74(1961):193-206; reprinted in The Study of Folklore, ed. Alan Dundes(Englewood Cliffs, N.J.:Prentice-Hall,1965),pp. 7-24;劳里·航柯(Lauri Honko)有关传统的地位的评价对此问题较合适。他在第22届北欧民族学与民俗学者大会上说:“首先,这是有关传统之概念本身的问题。大会关注的是'传统的研究',但是,难解的是,还没有人关注到底'什么是传统'这个问题。”(“On the Analytical Value of the Concept of Tradition,”Studia Fennica 27(1983):223)
(2)A. H. Gayton,"Plan of Work and Summary of Reports,"Journal of American Folklore 60(1947):351.
(3)Stith Thompson,"Folklore at Midcentury,"Midwest FolkloreⅠ(1951):Ⅱ.
(4)Jan Harold Brunvand, The Study of American Folklore:An Introduction(New York:Norton, 1968), p.274.十年后的第二版(p. 308)保留了同样的说法。
(5)See Anya Peterson Royce,Ethnic Identity:Strategies of Diversity(Bloomington:Indiana University Press,1982), pp. 28, 147.
(6)Edward Shils, Tradition(Chicago:The University of Chicago Press, 1981), p. vii.
(7)目前各个版本都没有传统这个条目,令人惊讶的是,第十一版也没有。相反,翻译的第三版的Great Soviet Encyclopedia(New York:Macmillan, 1977),ⅩⅩⅥ, p. 283,则包含传统这个条目,提到这些人的著作:Marx, Engels, and Lenin.
(1)例如,S. N. Eisenstadt,"Some Observations on the Dynamics of Traditions,"Compimative Studies in Society and History 11(1969):451-75; idem,"Post-Traditional Societies and the Continuity and Reconstruction of Tradition."Daedalus 102:Ⅰ(Winter, 1973):1-28; idem, Tradition, Change, and Modernity(New York:John Wiley, 1973).
(2)Daniel Lerner, The Passing of Traditional Society:Modernizing the Middle East(Glencoe, Ill.:The Free Press, 1958).
(3)Stanley Edgar Hyman,"T. S. Eliot and Tradition in Criticism,"in The Armed Vision:A Study in the Methods of Modern Literary Criticism(New York:Vintage Books, 1955), pp. 54-55.
(4)Charles Seeger,"Oral Tradition in Music,"in Funk&Wagnalls Standard Dictionary of Folklore,Ⅱ, 826.感谢Lucy Long提醒我注意这个参考文献。
(5)同上。
(6)"On the Analytical Value of the Concept of Tradition,"Studia Fennica 27(1983):240.
(7)同上,p.244.
(8)See Richard M. Dorson,"The Great Team of English Folklorists,"Journal of American Folklore 64(1951):1-10; idem, The British Folklorists:A History(Chicago:The University of Chicago Press, 1968), pp. 239-48.
(9)E. Sidney Hartland,"The Science of Folk-Lore,"The Folk-Lore Journal 3:2(1885):120.
(1)Richard M. Dorson,"Folklore in the Modern World,"in Folklore in the Modern World,ed.Richard M.Dorson(The Hague:Mouton, 1978), p. 23.
(2)The Science of Fairy Tales:An Inquiry into Fairy Mythology(London:Walter Scott,1891),p.34.
(3)See J.B. Bury, The Idea of Progress:An Inquiry Into its Origin and Growth(1932; New York:Dover,1955); Sidney Pollard, The Idea of Progress:History and Society(Harmondsworth:Penguin, 1968);Charles Van Doren, The Idea of Progress(New York:Praeger, 1967); W. Warren Wager, Good Tidings:The Belief in Progress from Darwin to Marcuse(Bloomington:Indiana University Press, 1972).
(4)See J. W. Burrow, Evolution and Society:A Study in Victorian Social Theory(Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 1966); Guiseppe Cocchiara, The History of Folklore in Europe, trans. John N. McDaniel(Philadelphia:Institute for the Study of Human Issues, 1981), pp. 375-446; Dorson, The British Folklorists, pp. 187-201.
(5)例如,W.Edson Richmond在描述民俗理论在最近的变化时,暗示了对此前的观点和方法的批评,说道:“民俗学家不再局限于那些口头的东西,不再只考虑落后的阶层或是较进步的国家中的受教育少的人了。”Introduction,Handbook of American Folklore,ed.Richard M.Dorson(Bloomington:Indiana University Press, 1983), p. xii; S. N. Eisenstadt,"Some Observations on the Dynamics of Traditions,"above, fn. 9.
(6)Edwin Sidney Hartland,Folklore:What Is It and What Is the Good of It(1899; London:David Nutt,1904), pp. 10-11; reprinted in Peasant Customs and Savage Myths:Selections from the British Folklorists,ed. Richard M. Dorson(Chicago:The Chicago University Press, 1968), I, 233.
(7)Hartland, p. 11; reprinted in Dorson, p. 233.
(8)Hartland, p. 11; in Dorson, p. 234.
(9)Hartland, p. 11.
(1)Hartland, p. 11.
(2)Hartland, pp. 6-7; in Dorson, p. 231.
(3)H. B. Acton,"Tradition and Some Other Forms of Order,"Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, n.s.vol. 53(1953):1-28.
(4)有关这个题目的关键研究是The Modernity of Tradition,by Lloyd I. Rudolph and Susanne H. Rudolph(Chicago:The University of Chicago Press, 1967); see also Milton Singer, When a Great Tradition Modernizes:An Anthropological Appiroach to Indimn Civilization(New York:Praeger, 1972); Samuel Coleman,"Is There Reason in Tradition?"in Politics and Experience, ed. Preston King and B. C.Parekh(Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 1968), pp. 239-82; J. G. A. Pocock,"Time, Institutions and Action:An Essay of Traditions and their Understanding,"in Politics and Experience, pp. 209-38;Audrey Candie,"The Concept of Tradition,"and Susanne H. Rudolph,"Beyond Modernity and Tradition:Theoretical and Ideological Aspects of Comparative Social Sciences,"in Tradition and Politics in South Asia, ed. R. J. Moore(New Delhi:Vikas, 1979), pp. 1-31; and the essaysin Daedalus 102:I(Winter,1973), which is devoted to"Post-Traditional Societies."
(5)Stanley Diamond,"Introduction:Anthropological Traditions:The Participant Observed,"in Anthropology:Ancestors and Heirs, ed. Stanley Diamond(The Hague:Mouton, 1980), p. 11.
(6)See F. M. Barnard, Herder's Social and Political Thought:From Enlightenment to Nationalism(Oxford:Clarendon Press. 1965); Robert Reinhold Ergang, Herder and the Foundations of German Nationalism(1931; reprint ed., New York:Octagon Books, 1966).
(7)Lauri Honko,"Research Traditions in Tradition Research,"Studia Fennica 27(1983):13-22.
(1)目前,有关特定国家的研究有些重要的出版物:Inger M. Boberg,Folkemindeforskningens Historie Kobenhaven:Einar Munksgaards, 1953); Richard M. Dorson, The British Folklorists:A History; idem,ed., Folklore Research Around the World:A North American Point of View(Bloomington:Indiana University Press, 1961); Jouko Hatala,Finnish Folklore Resecarch 1828-1918(Helsinki, 1968); Michael Herzfeld, Ours Once More:Folklore, Ideology, and the Making of Modern Greece(Austin:University of Texas Press, 1982); Charles Rearick, Beyond the Enlightenment:Historians and Folklore in NineteenthCentury France(Bloomington:Indiana University Press, 1974); Dag Stromback, Leading Folklorists of the North:Biographical Studies,(Oslo:Universitetsforlaget, 1971); William A.Wilson, Folklore and Nationalism in Modern Finland(Bloomington:Indiana University Press,1976).还有相应的人类学著作,Anthropology:Ancestors and Heirs, ed. Stanley Diamond.
(2)L.Wittgenstein,Philosophical Investigations, trans. G. E. M. Anscombe(New York:MacMillan, 1953), p. 80.Garth Halbett, Wittgenstein's Definition of Meaning as Use(New York:Fordham University Press, 1967).
(3)William Newell,"On the Field and Work of a Journal of American Folk-Lore,"Journal of American FolkLore,1(1888):3-7.
(1)William Newell,"On the Field and Work of a Journal of American Folk-Lore,"Journal of American FolkLore,1(1888):3-7.
(2)同上。
(3)同上,p. 5.
(4)同上。
(5)William Newell,"Folk-Lore Study and Folk-Lore Societies."Journal of Americal Folk-Lore 8(1895):231.
(6)同上,pp. 232-33.
(7)William Newell,"Necessity of Collecting the Traditions of Native Races,"Journal of American Folk-Lore1(1888):162-63.
(8)Newell,"Folklore Study and Folklore Societies,"p. 233.
(9)同上,p.235.
(10)Newell,"Folklore Study and Folklore Societies,"p. 233.
(1)Newell."Folklore Study and Folklore Societies,"pp. 235-36.
(2)参见,书评"Our Living Traditions:An Introduction to American Folklore"(New York:Basic Books,1968)by Ken Periman in the Journal of American Folklore 82(1969):83-84.书评者希望这本书“包括更多的有关西南地区的材料,即有关当地的西班牙裔和印第安人的遗产”(p. 83),但是注意到这个希望与该书的宗旨是不符的。
(3)Americo Paredes,"Tributaries to the Mainstream:The Ethnic Groups,"in Our Living Traditions, pp. 70-80.
(4)同上,p.71.
(1)有关话题的最新研究,特别是有关文学的,见特刊,Critical Inquiry 10(1983)and(1984).
(2)See Robert Redfield,Peasant Society and Culture(Chicago:The University of Chicago Press,1956).
(3)这个词常用来对比流行文化。See Jeffrey L. Sammons,Literary Sociology and Practical Criticism(Bloomington:Indiana University Press,1977),pp. 114-34;目前对流行文化和文学的兴趣逐渐提高,见Peter Burke,Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe(New York:Harper and Row,1978); C. W. E.Bigsby,ed., Approaches to Popular Culture(London:Edward Arnold, 1976); Victor E. Neuberg, Popular Literature:A History and Guide(Harmondsworth:Penguin, 1977).
(4)Barbara H. Smith,"Contingencies of Value,"Critical Inquiry 10(1983):8-9.
(5)同上,p. 31.
(6)Edward D. Ives."The Study of Regional Songs and Ballads,"in Handbook of American Folklore, p. 210.
(7)See in particular Larry Gorman:The Man Who Made the Songs(Blooming ton:Indiana University Press, 1964); Lawrence Doyle:The Farmer-Poet of Prince Edward Island, Maine Studies, No. 92(Orono;University of Maine Press, 1971); Joe Scott:The Woodsman-Songmaker(Urbana:University of Illinois Press, 1978).
(1)Ives,Joe Scott,pp.371-72.
(2)See Hans Vaihinger, The Philosophy of"As If,"trans. C. K. Ogden(London:Routledge&Kegan Paul,1952).
(3)Tristram P. Coffin,The British Traditional Ballad in North America(Philadelphia:The American Folklore Society, 1963). Barre Toelken discerns the oral ballads in Child's collection, attempting to establish"An Oral Canon for Child Ballads:Construction and Appliation,"Journal of the Folklore Institute 4(1967):75-101.
(4)这个说法出现在他1958年2月6日在加州的行为研究高级中心的演讲中。See Milton Singer,Preface, to Traditional India:Structure and Change(Philadelphia:American Folklore Society, 1959),p. xxii. The paper was published in The Human Nature and the Study of Society:The Papers of Robert Redfield, ed. Margaret Park Redfield(Chicago:The University of Chicago Press, 1962), I, 392-414.
(1)Redfield,Peasant Society and Culture,pp. 41-42.
(2)Richard M. Dorson,"A Theory for American Folklore,"Journal of American Folklore 72(1959):212.
(3)同上,p.203.
(4)See General Ethnological Concepts, pp. 229-31.
(5)见特刊,Journal of American Folklore 71(1958).
(6)Singer, Traditional India, pp. x, xxii.
(7)同上,p. x.
(8)同上,pp. 141-82.
(9)Francis Lee Utley,"Folk Literature:An Operational Definition,"Journal of American Folklore 74(1961):193-206.
(10)Francis Lee Utley,"Folk Literature:An Operational Definition,"Journal of American Folklore 74(1961):193-206, pp. 195, 196,203,205.
(11) Samuel Bayard,"The Materials of Folklore,"Journal of American Folklore 66(1953):1-17.
(1)Utley,"Folk Literature,"p. 195.
(2)Redfield, Peasant Society and Culture,p.42.
(3)同上,p.58.
(4)Hans Naumann,Grundzuge der deutschen Volkskunde,2nd ed.(1922; Leipzig:Quell 8c Meyer,1929).
(5)Herbert Freudenthal,"Die Wissenschaftstheorie der deutschen Volkskunde,"Schriften des niedersachsischen Heimatbundes, Neue Folge Bd. 25(Hannover, 1955); Hermann Bausinger,"Folklore und gesunkenes Kulturgut,"Deutsche Jahrbuch fur VolkskundeⅠ(1966):15-25.
(6)Dorson,"Folklore in the Modern World,"p. 37.
(7)Richard M. Dorson,"Folklore and Fake Lore,"American Mercury 70(1950):335-43.
(8)Dorson,"Folklore in the Modern World"p. 42.
(1)Dwight MacDonald,"A Theory of Mass Culture,"in Mass Culture:The Popular Arts in America,ed.Bernard Rosenberg and David Manning White(New York:The Free Press, 1957), p. 60.
(2)Martin Jay, The Dialectical Imagination:A History of the Frankfurt School and the Institute of Social Research 1923-1950(Boston:Little Brown, 1973), p. 215.
(3)Leo Lowenthal,"Historical Perspectives of Popular Culture,"in Mass Culture, p. 55.
(4)Margaret Redfield,"The Expressive Utterance, Folk and Popular,"Journal of American Folklore 69(1956):361.认为大众媒体对口头传统有负面影响的观点比是美国独有的。例如,巴西的民俗学认为:“大众媒体与民间创作是对立的,坚持认为媒体有破坏作用,最好听的说法是它对文学等艺术形式有统一格式化的影响”,见Candace Slater,"The Hairy Leg Strikes:The Individual Artist and the Brazilian Literatura de Cordel,"Journal of American Folklore 95(1982):51.该作者特别指Gustavo Barroso的说法,后者坚持认为,“传统在死亡的门口,因为无线电广播将致其于死地。”类似的有Loring M. Danforth认为,希腊的民俗学家认为大众和流行文化对希腊的影偶传统有负面影响,见"Tradition and Change in Greek Shadow Theater,"Journal of American Folklore 96(1983):281-309.
(1)Roger Abrahams and Susan Kalcik,"Folklore and Cultural Pluralism"in Folklore in the Modern World, p.228.
(2)Archie Green,"Sound Recordings, Use and Challenge,"in Handbook of American Folklore, p. 434.
(3)Henry Glassie,"Folkloristic Study of the American Artifact:Objects and Objectives,"in Handbook of American Folklore, p. 379.
(4)Bertrand Harris Bronson, The Ballad as Song(Berkeley:University of California Press, 1969), p. 61.
(1)Kenneth S. Goldstein,"Riddling Traditions in Northeastern Scotland,"Journal of American Folklore 76(1963):333.
(2)Daniel J. Crowley,"I Could Talk Old-Story Good:Creativity in Bahamian Folklore".Folklore Studies I 7(Berkeley and Los Angeles:University of California Press, 1966), pp. 1-7.
(3)Stith Thompson,"Advances in Folklore Studies,"in Anthropology Today:An Encyclopedic Inventory, ed.A. L. Kroeber(Chicago:The University of Chicago Press, 1953), p. 592.
(4)See Stith Thompson,The Folktale(New York:Holt,Rinehart and Winston, 1946),p. 437.
(5)William Bascom,"Verbal Art,"Journal of American Folklore 68(1955):248; idem,"Folklore and Anthropology,"Journal of American Folklore 66(1953):267.
(6)Crowley,I Could Talk Old-Story Good,p.137.
(7)Eric Hobsbawm and Terence Ranger, eds. The Invention of Tradition(Cambridge University Press, 1983).
(1)Raymond Williams,The Long Revolution(London:Chatto&Windus,1961),pp. 50-52.
(2)Dell Hymes,"Folklore's Nature and the Sun's Myth,"Journal of American Folklore 88(1975):353.
(3)Jocelyn Linnekin,"Defining Tradition:Variations on the Hawaiian Identity,"American Ethnologist 10(1983):241.
(4)同上。
(1)Richard Handler and Jocelyn Linnekin."Tradition, Genuine or Spurious,"Journal of American Folklore97(1984):276.
(2)Archer Taylor,"The Problems of Folklore,"Journal of American Folklore 59(1946):101-107.
(3)F[anny] H. E[ckstrom] and P[hillips] B[arry],"What is Tradition?"Bulletin of the Folksong Society of the Northeast I(1930):2.
(4)有关的文献极多,几个例子如下:Jaroslav Pelikan,The Vindication of Tradition(New Haven:Yale University Press,1984); Yves M. J. Congar,Tradition and Traditions(New York:MacMillan,1967); Eduard Nielsen, Oral Tradition(London:SCM Press, 1954); Birger Gerhardsson, Memory and Manuscript:Oral Tradition and Written Transmission in Rabbinic Judaism and Early Christianity(Uppsala, 1961).
(5)See Adam Parry, ed., The Making of Homeric Verse:The Collected Papers of Milman Parry(Oxford:Clarendon Press, 1971), pp. 1-190. Originally published in 1928.
(6)同上,pp. 365-75.
(1)See Adam Parry, ed., The Making of Homeric Verse:The Collected Papers of Milman Parry(Oxford:Clarendon Press, 1971), p. 339.
(2)Richard Bauman."Differential Identity and the Social Base of Folklore,"in Toward New Perspectives in Folklore, eds. Americo Paredes and Richard Bauman(Austin:University of Texas Press, 1 972), p. 33.
(3)Carl W. von Sydow,Selected Papers on Folklore(Copenhagen:Rosenkilde and Baggar, 1948), p. 12.
(4)Carl W. von Sydow, Selected Papers on Folklore(Copenhagen:Rosenkilde and Baggar, 1948), p. 12.
(5)同上。
(6)See Christine Goldberg,"The Historic-Geographic Method:Past and Future,"Journal of Folklore Research 21(1984):1-18. In the United States, under the influence of Stith Thompson, a greater effort was made toward the classification of motifs and types. Actual diffusion studies are rather few in number.
(1)See Thompson's review of von Sydow's Selected Papers in the Journal of American Folklore 64(1951):332-33.
(2)See,for example, pp. 157-59, 292-93,The Dynamics of Folklore(Boston:Houghton Mifflin, 1979).
(3)In Toward New Perspectives in Folklore, pp. 62-67.
(4)Melville Herskovits,Man and his Works:The Science of Cultural Anthropology(New York:Knopf,1948), p. 17.
(5)Paredes and Stekert, The Urban Experience and Folk Tradition, p. 11.
(1)Alan Dundes,The Study of Folklore(Englewood Cliffs, N.J.:Prentice-Hall, 1965),p. 2.
(2)Alfred L. Kroeber and Clyde Kluckhohn, Culture:Critical Review of Concepts and Definitions(Cambridge,Mass.:Peabody Museum, 1952).
(3)See A. L. Kroeber,"The Superorganic,"American Anthropologist 19(1917),163-213; E. Sapir,"Do We Need a'Superorganic'?"American Anthropologist 19(1917), 441-47.
(4)Dan Ben-Amos,"Toward a Definition of Folklore in Context,"in Toward New Perspectives in Folklore,pp. 13-14.
(5)Kay Cothran,"Participation in Tradition,"Keystone Folklore 18(1973):7-13; reprinted in Jan H.Brunvand, ed., Readings in American Folklore(New York:Norton, 1979), pp. 444-48.
(6)同上,p. 445.
(7)Roger D. Abrahams."Personal Power and Social Restraint,"in Toward New Perspectives in Folklore, p. 29.
(1)Reprinted in Brunvand, Readings in American Folklore, p. 394.
(2)Roger D. Abrahams,"Introductory Remarks to a Rhetorical Theory of Folklore,"Journal of American Folklore 81(1968):145.
(3)同上。
(4)Roger D. Abrahams,"Toward an Enactment-Centered Theory of Folklore,"in Frontiers of Folklore, ed.William Bascom(Colorado:Westview Press, 1977), p. 79.
(1)Robert A. Georges,"Toward an Understanding of Storytelling Events,"Journal of American Folklore82(1969):313-28.
(2)Toelken. The Dynamics of Folklore,p. 10.
(3)同上,p.32.
(4)Toelken. The Dynamics of Folklore, p. 10.
(1)见“Folklore,” in Funk&Wagnalls Standard Dictionary of Folklore, Mythology and Legend,ed. Maria Leach and Jerome Fried(New York:Funk&Wagnalls,1949),Ⅰ,398-403.在有关民俗的21个定义中,只有6个没有用传统一词,而他们都是人类学家。这与人类学长期以来对文化的态度有关,见Marcel Rioux,“Folk and Folklore,”Journal of American Folklore63(1950):192-98.但是,人类学家的确在使用传统一词,并的确与民俗有关,但不是在定义的时候用的,见Martha Warren Beckwith,Folklore in America:Its Scope and Method(Poughkeepsie, N.Y.:The Folklore Foundation, Vassar College, 1931), pp. 2-6, 12, 41-44.
(1)参见, Francis Lee Utley,“Folk Literature:An Operational Definition,”Journal of American Folklore74(1961):193-206; reprinted in The Study of Folklore, ed. Alan Dundes(Englewood Cliffs, N.J.:Prentice-Hall,1965),pp. 7-24;劳里·航柯(Lauri Honko)有关传统的地位的评价对此问题较合适。他在第22届北欧民族学与民俗学者大会上说:“首先,这是有关传统之概念本身的问题。大会关注的是'传统的研究',但是,难解的是,还没有人关注到底'什么是传统'这个问题。”(“On the Analytical Value of the Concept of Tradition,”Studia Fennica 27(1983):223)
(2)A. H. Gayton,"Plan of Work and Summary of Reports,"Journal of American Folklore 60(1947):351.
(3)Stith Thompson,"Folklore at Midcentury,"Midwest FolkloreⅠ(1951):Ⅱ.
(4)Jan Harold Brunvand, The Study of American Folklore:An Introduction(New York:Norton, 1968), p.274.十年后的第二版(p. 308)保留了同样的说法。
(5)See Anya Peterson Royce,Ethnic Identity:Strategies of Diversity(Bloomington:Indiana University Press,1982), pp. 28, 147.
(6)Edward Shils, Tradition(Chicago:The University of Chicago Press, 1981), p. vii.
(7)目前各个版本都没有传统这个条目,令人惊讶的是,第十一版也没有。相反,翻译的第三版的Great Soviet Encyclopedia(New York:Macmillan, 1977),ⅩⅩⅥ, p. 283,则包含传统这个条目,提到这些人的著作:Marx, Engels, and Lenin.
(1)例如,S. N. Eisenstadt,"Some Observations on the Dynamics of Traditions,"Compimative Studies in Society and History 11(1969):451-75; idem,"Post-Traditional Societies and the Continuity and Reconstruction of Tradition."Daedalus 102:Ⅰ(Winter, 1973):1-28; idem, Tradition, Change, and Modernity(New York:John Wiley, 1973).
(2)Daniel Lerner, The Passing of Traditional Society:Modernizing the Middle East(Glencoe, Ill.:The Free Press, 1958).
(3)Stanley Edgar Hyman,"T. S. Eliot and Tradition in Criticism,"in The Armed Vision:A Study in the Methods of Modern Literary Criticism(New York:Vintage Books, 1955), pp. 54-55.
(4)Charles Seeger,"Oral Tradition in Music,"in Funk&Wagnalls Standard Dictionary of Folklore,Ⅱ, 826.感谢Lucy Long提醒我注意这个参考文献。
(5)同上。
(6)"On the Analytical Value of the Concept of Tradition,"Studia Fennica 27(1983):240.
(7)同上,p.244.
(8)See Richard M. Dorson,"The Great Team of English Folklorists,"Journal of American Folklore 64(1951):1-10; idem, The British Folklorists:A History(Chicago:The University of Chicago Press, 1968), pp. 239-48.
(9)E. Sidney Hartland,"The Science of Folk-Lore,"The Folk-Lore Journal 3:2(1885):120.
(1)Richard M. Dorson,"Folklore in the Modern World,"in Folklore in the Modern World,ed.Richard M.Dorson(The Hague:Mouton, 1978), p. 23.
(2)The Science of Fairy Tales:An Inquiry into Fairy Mythology(London:Walter Scott,1891),p.34.
(3)See J.B. Bury, The Idea of Progress:An Inquiry Into its Origin and Growth(1932; New York:Dover,1955); Sidney Pollard, The Idea of Progress:History and Society(Harmondsworth:Penguin, 1968);Charles Van Doren, The Idea of Progress(New York:Praeger, 1967); W. Warren Wager, Good Tidings:The Belief in Progress from Darwin to Marcuse(Bloomington:Indiana University Press, 1972).
(4)See J. W. Burrow, Evolution and Society:A Study in Victorian Social Theory(Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 1966); Guiseppe Cocchiara, The History of Folklore in Europe, trans. John N. McDaniel(Philadelphia:Institute for the Study of Human Issues, 1981), pp. 375-446; Dorson, The British Folklorists, pp. 187-201.
(5)例如,W.Edson Richmond在描述民俗理论在最近的变化时,暗示了对此前的观点和方法的批评,说道:“民俗学家不再局限于那些口头的东西,不再只考虑落后的阶层或是较进步的国家中的受教育少的人了。”Introduction,Handbook of American Folklore,ed.Richard M.Dorson(Bloomington:Indiana University Press, 1983), p. xii; S. N. Eisenstadt,"Some Observations on the Dynamics of Traditions,"above, fn. 9.
(6)Edwin Sidney Hartland,Folklore:What Is It and What Is the Good of It(1899; London:David Nutt,1904), pp. 10-11; reprinted in Peasant Customs and Savage Myths:Selections from the British Folklorists,ed. Richard M. Dorson(Chicago:The Chicago University Press, 1968), I, 233.
(7)Hartland, p. 11; reprinted in Dorson, p. 233.
(8)Hartland, p. 11; in Dorson, p. 234.
(9)Hartland, p. 11.
(1)Hartland, p. 11.
(2)Hartland, pp. 6-7; in Dorson, p. 231.
(3)H. B. Acton,"Tradition and Some Other Forms of Order,"Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, n.s.vol. 53(1953):1-28.
(4)有关这个题目的关键研究是The Modernity of Tradition,by Lloyd I. Rudolph and Susanne H. Rudolph(Chicago:The University of Chicago Press, 1967); see also Milton Singer, When a Great Tradition Modernizes:An Anthropological Appiroach to Indimn Civilization(New York:Praeger, 1972); Samuel Coleman,"Is There Reason in Tradition?"in Politics and Experience, ed. Preston King and B. C.Parekh(Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 1968), pp. 239-82; J. G. A. Pocock,"Time, Institutions and Action:An Essay of Traditions and their Understanding,"in Politics and Experience, pp. 209-38;Audrey Candie,"The Concept of Tradition,"and Susanne H. Rudolph,"Beyond Modernity and Tradition:Theoretical and Ideological Aspects of Comparative Social Sciences,"in Tradition and Politics in South Asia, ed. R. J. Moore(New Delhi:Vikas, 1979), pp. 1-31; and the essaysin Daedalus 102:I(Winter,1973), which is devoted to"Post-Traditional Societies."
(5)Stanley Diamond,"Introduction:Anthropological Traditions:The Participant Observed,"in Anthropology:Ancestors and Heirs, ed. Stanley Diamond(The Hague:Mouton, 1980), p. 11.
(6)See F. M. Barnard, Herder's Social and Political Thought:From Enlightenment to Nationalism(Oxford:Clarendon Press. 1965); Robert Reinhold Ergang, Herder and the Foundations of German Nationalism(1931; reprint ed., New York:Octagon Books, 1966).
(7)Lauri Honko,"Research Traditions in Tradition Research,"Studia Fennica 27(1983):13-22.
(1)目前,有关特定国家的研究有些重要的出版物:Inger M. Boberg,Folkemindeforskningens Historie Kobenhaven:Einar Munksgaards, 1953); Richard M. Dorson, The British Folklorists:A History; idem,ed., Folklore Research Around the World:A North American Point of View(Bloomington:Indiana University Press, 1961); Jouko Hatala,Finnish Folklore Resecarch 1828-1918(Helsinki, 1968); Michael Herzfeld, Ours Once More:Folklore, Ideology, and the Making of Modern Greece(Austin:University of Texas Press, 1982); Charles Rearick, Beyond the Enlightenment:Historians and Folklore in NineteenthCentury France(Bloomington:Indiana University Press, 1974); Dag Stromback, Leading Folklorists of the North:Biographical Studies,(Oslo:Universitetsforlaget, 1971); William A.Wilson, Folklore and Nationalism in Modern Finland(Bloomington:Indiana University Press,1976).还有相应的人类学著作,Anthropology:Ancestors and Heirs, ed. Stanley Diamond.
(2)L.Wittgenstein,Philosophical Investigations, trans. G. E. M. Anscombe(New York:MacMillan, 1953), p. 80.Garth Halbett, Wittgenstein's Definition of Meaning as Use(New York:Fordham University Press, 1967).
(3)William Newell,"On the Field and Work of a Journal of American Folk-Lore,"Journal of American FolkLore,1(1888):3-7.
(1)William Newell,"On the Field and Work of a Journal of American Folk-Lore,"Journal of American FolkLore,1(1888):3-7.
(2)同上。
(3)同上,p. 5.
(4)同上。
(5)William Newell,"Folk-Lore Study and Folk-Lore Societies."Journal of Americal Folk-Lore 8(1895):231.
(6)同上,pp. 232-33.
(7)William Newell,"Necessity of Collecting the Traditions of Native Races,"Journal of American Folk-Lore1(1888):162-63.
(8)Newell,"Folklore Study and Folklore Societies,"p. 233.
(9)同上,p.235.
(10)Newell,"Folklore Study and Folklore Societies,"p. 233.
(1)Newell."Folklore Study and Folklore Societies,"pp. 235-36.
(2)参见,书评"Our Living Traditions:An Introduction to American Folklore"(New York:Basic Books,1968)by Ken Periman in the Journal of American Folklore 82(1969):83-84.书评者希望这本书“包括更多的有关西南地区的材料,即有关当地的西班牙裔和印第安人的遗产”(p. 83),但是注意到这个希望与该书的宗旨是不符的。
(3)Americo Paredes,"Tributaries to the Mainstream:The Ethnic Groups,"in Our Living Traditions, pp. 70-80.
(4)同上,p.71.
(1)有关话题的最新研究,特别是有关文学的,见特刊,Critical Inquiry 10(1983)and(1984).
(2)See Robert Redfield,Peasant Society and Culture(Chicago:The University of Chicago Press,1956).
(3)这个词常用来对比流行文化。See Jeffrey L. Sammons,Literary Sociology and Practical Criticism(Bloomington:Indiana University Press,1977),pp. 114-34;目前对流行文化和文学的兴趣逐渐提高,见Peter Burke,Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe(New York:Harper and Row,1978); C. W. E.Bigsby,ed., Approaches to Popular Culture(London:Edward Arnold, 1976); Victor E. Neuberg, Popular Literature:A History and Guide(Harmondsworth:Penguin, 1977).
(4)Barbara H. Smith,"Contingencies of Value,"Critical Inquiry 10(1983):8-9.
(5)同上,p. 31.
(6)Edward D. Ives."The Study of Regional Songs and Ballads,"in Handbook of American Folklore, p. 210.
(7)See in particular Larry Gorman:The Man Who Made the Songs(Blooming ton:Indiana University Press, 1964); Lawrence Doyle:The Farmer-Poet of Prince Edward Island, Maine Studies, No. 92(Orono;University of Maine Press, 1971); Joe Scott:The Woodsman-Songmaker(Urbana:University of Illinois Press, 1978).
(1)Ives,Joe Scott,pp.371-72.
(2)See Hans Vaihinger, The Philosophy of"As If,"trans. C. K. Ogden(London:Routledge&Kegan Paul,1952).
(3)Tristram P. Coffin,The British Traditional Ballad in North America(Philadelphia:The American Folklore Society, 1963). Barre Toelken discerns the oral ballads in Child's collection, attempting to establish"An Oral Canon for Child Ballads:Construction and Appliation,"Journal of the Folklore Institute 4(1967):75-101.
(4)这个说法出现在他1958年2月6日在加州的行为研究高级中心的演讲中。See Milton Singer,Preface, to Traditional India:Structure and Change(Philadelphia:American Folklore Society, 1959),p. xxii. The paper was published in The Human Nature and the Study of Society:The Papers of Robert Redfield, ed. Margaret Park Redfield(Chicago:The University of Chicago Press, 1962), I, 392-414.
(1)Redfield,Peasant Society and Culture,pp. 41-42.
(2)Richard M. Dorson,"A Theory for American Folklore,"Journal of American Folklore 72(1959):212.
(3)同上,p.203.
(4)See General Ethnological Concepts, pp. 229-31.
(5)见特刊,Journal of American Folklore 71(1958).
(6)Singer, Traditional India, pp. x, xxii.
(7)同上,p. x.
(8)同上,pp. 141-82.
(9)Francis Lee Utley,"Folk Literature:An Operational Definition,"Journal of American Folklore 74(1961):193-206.
(10)Francis Lee Utley,"Folk Literature:An Operational Definition,"Journal of American Folklore 74(1961):193-206, pp. 195, 196,203,205.
(11) Samuel Bayard,"The Materials of Folklore,"Journal of American Folklore 66(1953):1-17.
(1)Utley,"Folk Literature,"p. 195.
(2)Redfield, Peasant Society and Culture,p.42.
(3)同上,p.58.
(4)Hans Naumann,Grundzuge der deutschen Volkskunde,2nd ed.(1922; Leipzig:Quell 8c Meyer,1929).
(5)Herbert Freudenthal,"Die Wissenschaftstheorie der deutschen Volkskunde,"Schriften des niedersachsischen Heimatbundes, Neue Folge Bd. 25(Hannover, 1955); Hermann Bausinger,"Folklore und gesunkenes Kulturgut,"Deutsche Jahrbuch fur VolkskundeⅠ(1966):15-25.
(6)Dorson,"Folklore in the Modern World,"p. 37.
(7)Richard M. Dorson,"Folklore and Fake Lore,"American Mercury 70(1950):335-43.
(8)Dorson,"Folklore in the Modern World"p. 42.
(1)Dwight MacDonald,"A Theory of Mass Culture,"in Mass Culture:The Popular Arts in America,ed.Bernard Rosenberg and David Manning White(New York:The Free Press, 1957), p. 60.
(2)Martin Jay, The Dialectical Imagination:A History of the Frankfurt School and the Institute of Social Research 1923-1950(Boston:Little Brown, 1973), p. 215.
(3)Leo Lowenthal,"Historical Perspectives of Popular Culture,"in Mass Culture, p. 55.
(4)Margaret Redfield,"The Expressive Utterance, Folk and Popular,"Journal of American Folklore 69(1956):361.认为大众媒体对口头传统有负面影响的观点比是美国独有的。例如,巴西的民俗学认为:“大众媒体与民间创作是对立的,坚持认为媒体有破坏作用,最好听的说法是它对文学等艺术形式有统一格式化的影响”,见Candace Slater,"The Hairy Leg Strikes:The Individual Artist and the Brazilian Literatura de Cordel,"Journal of American Folklore 95(1982):51.该作者特别指Gustavo Barroso的说法,后者坚持认为,“传统在死亡的门口,因为无线电广播将致其于死地。”类似的有Loring M. Danforth认为,希腊的民俗学家认为大众和流行文化对希腊的影偶传统有负面影响,见"Tradition and Change in Greek Shadow Theater,"Journal of American Folklore 96(1983):281-309.
(1)Roger Abrahams and Susan Kalcik,"Folklore and Cultural Pluralism"in Folklore in the Modern World, p.228.
(2)Archie Green,"Sound Recordings, Use and Challenge,"in Handbook of American Folklore, p. 434.
(3)Henry Glassie,"Folkloristic Study of the American Artifact:Objects and Objectives,"in Handbook of American Folklore, p. 379.
(4)Bertrand Harris Bronson, The Ballad as Song(Berkeley:University of California Press, 1969), p. 61.
(1)Kenneth S. Goldstein,"Riddling Traditions in Northeastern Scotland,"Journal of American Folklore 76(1963):333.
(2)Daniel J. Crowley,"I Could Talk Old-Story Good:Creativity in Bahamian Folklore".Folklore Studies I 7(Berkeley and Los Angeles:University of California Press, 1966), pp. 1-7.
(3)Stith Thompson,"Advances in Folklore Studies,"in Anthropology Today:An Encyclopedic Inventory, ed.A. L. Kroeber(Chicago:The University of Chicago Press, 1953), p. 592.
(4)See Stith Thompson,The Folktale(New York:Holt,Rinehart and Winston, 1946),p. 437.
(5)William Bascom,"Verbal Art,"Journal of American Folklore 68(1955):248; idem,"Folklore and Anthropology,"Journal of American Folklore 66(1953):267.
(6)Crowley,I Could Talk Old-Story Good,p.137.
(7)Eric Hobsbawm and Terence Ranger, eds. The Invention of Tradition(Cambridge University Press, 1983).
(1)Raymond Williams,The Long Revolution(London:Chatto&Windus,1961),pp. 50-52.
(2)Dell Hymes,"Folklore's Nature and the Sun's Myth,"Journal of American Folklore 88(1975):353.
(3)Jocelyn Linnekin,"Defining Tradition:Variations on the Hawaiian Identity,"American Ethnologist 10(1983):241.
(4)同上。
(1)Richard Handler and Jocelyn Linnekin."Tradition, Genuine or Spurious,"Journal of American Folklore97(1984):276.
(2)Archer Taylor,"The Problems of Folklore,"Journal of American Folklore 59(1946):101-107.
(3)F[anny] H. E[ckstrom] and P[hillips] B[arry],"What is Tradition?"Bulletin of the Folksong Society of the Northeast I(1930):2.
(4)有关的文献极多,几个例子如下:Jaroslav Pelikan,The Vindication of Tradition(New Haven:Yale University Press,1984); Yves M. J. Congar,Tradition and Traditions(New York:MacMillan,1967); Eduard Nielsen, Oral Tradition(London:SCM Press, 1954); Birger Gerhardsson, Memory and Manuscript:Oral Tradition and Written Transmission in Rabbinic Judaism and Early Christianity(Uppsala, 1961).
(5)See Adam Parry, ed., The Making of Homeric Verse:The Collected Papers of Milman Parry(Oxford:Clarendon Press, 1971), pp. 1-190. Originally published in 1928.
(6)同上,pp. 365-75.
(1)See Adam Parry, ed., The Making of Homeric Verse:The Collected Papers of Milman Parry(Oxford:Clarendon Press, 1971), p. 339.
(2)Richard Bauman."Differential Identity and the Social Base of Folklore,"in Toward New Perspectives in Folklore, eds. Americo Paredes and Richard Bauman(Austin:University of Texas Press, 1 972), p. 33.
(3)Carl W. von Sydow,Selected Papers on Folklore(Copenhagen:Rosenkilde and Baggar, 1948), p. 12.
(4)Carl W. von Sydow, Selected Papers on Folklore(Copenhagen:Rosenkilde and Baggar, 1948), p. 12.
(5)同上。
(6)See Christine Goldberg,"The Historic-Geographic Method:Past and Future,"Journal of Folklore Research 21(1984):1-18. In the United States, under the influence of Stith Thompson, a greater effort was made toward the classification of motifs and types. Actual diffusion studies are rather few in number.
(1)See Thompson's review of von Sydow's Selected Papers in the Journal of American Folklore 64(1951):332-33.
(2)See,for example, pp. 157-59, 292-93,The Dynamics of Folklore(Boston:Houghton Mifflin, 1979).
(3)In Toward New Perspectives in Folklore, pp. 62-67.
(4)Melville Herskovits,Man and his Works:The Science of Cultural Anthropology(New York:Knopf,1948), p. 17.
(5)Paredes and Stekert, The Urban Experience and Folk Tradition, p. 11.
(1)Alan Dundes,The Study of Folklore(Englewood Cliffs, N.J.:Prentice-Hall, 1965),p. 2.
(2)Alfred L. Kroeber and Clyde Kluckhohn, Culture:Critical Review of Concepts and Definitions(Cambridge,Mass.:Peabody Museum, 1952).
(3)See A. L. Kroeber,"The Superorganic,"American Anthropologist 19(1917),163-213; E. Sapir,"Do We Need a'Superorganic'?"American Anthropologist 19(1917), 441-47.
(4)Dan Ben-Amos,"Toward a Definition of Folklore in Context,"in Toward New Perspectives in Folklore,pp. 13-14.
(5)Kay Cothran,"Participation in Tradition,"Keystone Folklore 18(1973):7-13; reprinted in Jan H.Brunvand, ed., Readings in American Folklore(New York:Norton, 1979), pp. 444-48.
(6)同上,p. 445.
(7)Roger D. Abrahams."Personal Power and Social Restraint,"in Toward New Perspectives in Folklore, p. 29.
(1)Reprinted in Brunvand, Readings in American Folklore, p. 394.
(2)Roger D. Abrahams,"Introductory Remarks to a Rhetorical Theory of Folklore,"Journal of American Folklore 81(1968):145.
(3)同上。
(4)Roger D. Abrahams,"Toward an Enactment-Centered Theory of Folklore,"in Frontiers of Folklore, ed.William Bascom(Colorado:Westview Press, 1977), p. 79.
(1)Robert A. Georges,"Toward an Understanding of Storytelling Events,"Journal of American Folklore82(1969):313-28.
(2)Toelken. The Dynamics of Folklore,p. 10.
(3)同上,p.32.
(4)Toelken. The Dynamics of Folklore, p. 10.