美国育儿父母支持政策研究——育儿假期与ECEC服务
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摘要
美国20世纪70年代末开始出台一系列对育儿父母(家庭)的支持政策并不断完善,以期提高社会生育率、女性工作机会和生活满意度、促进性别平等、保障儿童教育权利及身心健康,主要表现为对育儿父母无薪假期的提供和对幼儿教育和护理(ECEC)服务的支持。通过对相关政策的出台背景、主要内容及发展情况进行梳理,以其他OECD(经济合作与发展组织)国家的育儿父母支持政策为基础,对美国育儿父母支持政策体系简要评价。结合我国"二孩政策"的实施、人口结构快速老龄化等实际,提出可借鉴美国及其他OECD国家的经验,通过鼓励省市(地区)试点探索对我国育儿父母(家庭)的支持政策,以节省行政成本为目的,利用现有社会保障行政管理架构,最终建立实施全国统一的支持政策体系以保障我国生育率的稳定增长。
A number of objective factors have contributed to the emergence of a series of supportive policies for parenting( family) in the United States since the late 1970 s,such as the provision of unpaid parental leave and support for early childhood education and care( ECEC) services. Based on the supportive policies in other OECD countries,this paper makes a brief evaluation of the parenting policy system in the United States. Combining with our " two-child policy",the rapid aging population structure and so on,the paper states that we can learn from the relevant experiences of the United States and other OECD countries,and through the encouragement of provincial and municipal( regional) trials,explore the parenting supportive policies and save administrative costs by using existing social security and administrative structure,and finally establish a unified national supportive policy system to protect the stable growth of fertility.
A number of objective factors have contributed to the emergence of a series of supportive policies for parenting( family) in the United States since the late 1970 s,such as the provision of unpaid parental leave and support for early childhood education and care( ECEC) services. Based on the supportive policies in other OECD countries,this paper makes a brief evaluation of the parenting policy system in the United States. Combining with our " two-child policy",the rapid aging population structure and so on,the paper states that we can learn from the relevant experiences of the United States and other OECD countries,and through the encouragement of provincial and municipal( regional) trials,explore the parenting supportive policies and save administrative costs by using existing social security and administrative structure,and finally establish a unified national supportive policy system to protect the stable growth of fertility.
引文
[1]LAUGHLIN L.Who's minding the kids?child care arrangements:spring 2005 and summer 2006[J].Household Economic Studies,2013(5):70-121.
[2]HODGES M J,BUDIG M J.Who gets the daddy bonus?organizational hegemonic masculinity and the Impact of fatherhood on earnings[J].Gender&Society,2010,24(6):717-745.
[3]TANAKA S.Parental leave and child health across OECD countries[J].Economic Journal,2005,115(501):7–28.
[4]Huerta M D C,Adema W,Baxter J,et al.Fathers'Leave,Fathers'Involvement and child development:are they related?evidence from four OECD countries[J].Mette Lausten,2013(1):10.
[5]MILLIGAN K.Quebec’s baby bonus:can public policy raise fertility?[J].CD Howe Institute,2002(1):1-9.
[6]GAUTHIER A H.The impact of family policies on fertility in industrialized countries:a review of the literature[J].Population Research&Policy Review,2007,26(3):323-346.
[7]HECKMAN J.Policies to foster human capital[J].Research in Economics,2000,54(1):3–56.
[8]HECKMAN,JAMES J,MOON,SEONG,et al.A new cost-benefit and rate of return analysis for the perry preschool program:a summary[J].Social Science Electronic Publishing,2010(6):1-20.
[9]KAUTZ T,HECKMAN J J,DIRIS R,et al.Fostering and measuring skills:Improving cognitive and non-cognitive skills to promote lifetime success[J].Social Science Electronic Publishing,2014(10):125..
[10]ADEMA W,CLARKE C,FREY V.Paid parental leave:lessons from OECD countries and selected U.S.states[J].Oecd Social Employment&Migration Working Papers,2015,97(4):112-113.
(1)参考:G20 information centre.Achieving stronger growth by promoting a more gender-balanced economy[R/OL].(2014-09-21)[2017-09-02].http://www.g20.utoronto.ca/2014/2014-official-resources.html.
(2)“母亲惩罚”指的是比起没有孩子的女性,已生育的女性接受更低的工资或更愿意接受兼职工作。
(1)参见:OECD数据库.Gender wage gap[EB/OL].[2017-03-10].https://data.oecd.org/earnwage/gender-wage-gap.htm#indic-ator-chart.
(2)参见:US BLS(US Bureau of Labor Statistics)数据库.Employment characteristics of families-2016[EB/OL].(2017-04-20)[2017-07-13].https://www.bls.gov/news.release/famee.toc.htm.
(1)参见:US Bureau of Labor Statistics.Employment status of the civilian noninstitutional population 16 years and over by sex,1976 to date[EB/OL].(2017-02-08)[2017-07-13].https://www.bls.gov/cps/cpsaat02.htm.
(2)OECD国际学生评估计划(PISA,Program for International Student Assessment)数据显示,参加学前教育至少一年的15岁学生的数学分数可能高于那些没有参加任何学前教育的学生,差距相当于学生近一年的社会经济地位。参见:OECD.PISA 2012 Results:Excellence through Equity.Giving every Student the Chance to Succeed(Volume II)[J].Oecd,2013(2):1.
(3)收入的极大不平等降低了贫困人口对自己以及其子女进行教育和技能投资的能力,2012年有1/6的年轻人(25~34岁)的受教育水平低于其父母。参见:OECD C F E S.In it together:why less inequality benefits all[J].Revista Espa?ola Del Tercer Sector,2016(32):229-233.
(1)华盛顿州2007年立法通过了PFL,但没有真正实施。融资问题、不幸时期(项目立法通过后不久就爆发了金融危机)和在本州范围内实施该项目的既存行政框架的缺位(例如:缺乏可比较的TDI或SDI项目)都是导致项目延后实施的原因。
(2)若没有一个公共框架体系登记员工的资格、跟踪缴费和领取收益的记录,建立新的管理机制是昂贵的。
(1)OECD.Doing the better for families[EB/OL].(2011-04-27)[2017-07-10].http://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/social-issues-migration-health/doing-better-for-families/summary/english_9789264098732-sum-en.
(2)目前美国一些州和地区为4岁儿童提供幼儿园前课程,但在不同地区的适用性和覆盖率差异很大。
(3)Huang和Yang发现加州PFL计划可增加母乳喂养率和纯母乳喂养机会而促进健康。参见:Huang R,Yang M.Paid maternity leave and breastfeeding practice before and after California's implementation of the nation's first paid family leave program.[J].Economics&Human Biology,2015(16):45-59.
(4)90%的公司报告表明美国加州引入带薪家庭假期对企业成本、生产力、利润不会产生消极影响,参见:APPELBAUM E,MILKMAN R.Leaves That Pay:Employer and Worker Experiences with Paid Family Leave in California[J].Technical Report,2012(1):1.
(5)PFL增加了产后休假和产妇就业,符合PFL条件的妇女在成为母亲后比不符合条件的妇女更有可能继续工作。参见:CHARLES L.BAUM,CHRISTOPHER J RUHM.The effects of paid family leave in california on labor market outcomes[J].Journal of Policy Analysis&Management,2016,35(2):1.
(6)数据来源于于OECD家庭数据2016年的OECD“Family Database”,由作者整理比较得出。
(1)Colin Cannonier的研究发现美国《家庭和医疗假期法案》提高了符合条件的妇女生育第一和第二名年子的概率,第一胎婴儿出生率提高了约5%,第二胎出生率则提高了3%;相对于其他妇女而言,符合条件的妇女会提前1年生育第一个孩子和提前8.5个月生育第二个孩子。参见:CANNONIER C.Does the Family and Medical Leave Act(FMLA)Increase Fertility Behavior?[J].Journal of Labor Research,2014,35(2):105-132.
(2)如前所述,即使没有对雇主征税以支付带薪休假,雇主也需要支付其他费用:雇主可能需要更换工人或重新培训现有工人,以暂时处理因休假而耽误的工作,工作的技能要求越高、休假时间越长,这些雇用/更换费用越高。
(3)例如在加拿大魁北克省运行一个单独的父母计划,包括一个父亲专用的五周带薪育儿假。
(1)美国的经验已经表明,成功实行带薪产假和家庭假计划可能需要使用现有的社会保障框架,保存必要的行政记录,以保证带薪假期计划的有效运作。
(2)美国各州市级带薪休假的计划完全是员工自己缴费的,这被认为是相关政策在州立法机构获得成功批准的一个主要原因。
[2]HODGES M J,BUDIG M J.Who gets the daddy bonus?organizational hegemonic masculinity and the Impact of fatherhood on earnings[J].Gender&Society,2010,24(6):717-745.
[3]TANAKA S.Parental leave and child health across OECD countries[J].Economic Journal,2005,115(501):7–28.
[4]Huerta M D C,Adema W,Baxter J,et al.Fathers'Leave,Fathers'Involvement and child development:are they related?evidence from four OECD countries[J].Mette Lausten,2013(1):10.
[5]MILLIGAN K.Quebec’s baby bonus:can public policy raise fertility?[J].CD Howe Institute,2002(1):1-9.
[6]GAUTHIER A H.The impact of family policies on fertility in industrialized countries:a review of the literature[J].Population Research&Policy Review,2007,26(3):323-346.
[7]HECKMAN J.Policies to foster human capital[J].Research in Economics,2000,54(1):3–56.
[8]HECKMAN,JAMES J,MOON,SEONG,et al.A new cost-benefit and rate of return analysis for the perry preschool program:a summary[J].Social Science Electronic Publishing,2010(6):1-20.
[9]KAUTZ T,HECKMAN J J,DIRIS R,et al.Fostering and measuring skills:Improving cognitive and non-cognitive skills to promote lifetime success[J].Social Science Electronic Publishing,2014(10):125..
[10]ADEMA W,CLARKE C,FREY V.Paid parental leave:lessons from OECD countries and selected U.S.states[J].Oecd Social Employment&Migration Working Papers,2015,97(4):112-113.
(1)参考:G20 information centre.Achieving stronger growth by promoting a more gender-balanced economy[R/OL].(2014-09-21)[2017-09-02].http://www.g20.utoronto.ca/2014/2014-official-resources.html.
(2)“母亲惩罚”指的是比起没有孩子的女性,已生育的女性接受更低的工资或更愿意接受兼职工作。
(1)参见:OECD数据库.Gender wage gap[EB/OL].[2017-03-10].https://data.oecd.org/earnwage/gender-wage-gap.htm#indic-ator-chart.
(2)参见:US BLS(US Bureau of Labor Statistics)数据库.Employment characteristics of families-2016[EB/OL].(2017-04-20)[2017-07-13].https://www.bls.gov/news.release/famee.toc.htm.
(1)参见:US Bureau of Labor Statistics.Employment status of the civilian noninstitutional population 16 years and over by sex,1976 to date[EB/OL].(2017-02-08)[2017-07-13].https://www.bls.gov/cps/cpsaat02.htm.
(2)OECD国际学生评估计划(PISA,Program for International Student Assessment)数据显示,参加学前教育至少一年的15岁学生的数学分数可能高于那些没有参加任何学前教育的学生,差距相当于学生近一年的社会经济地位。参见:OECD.PISA 2012 Results:Excellence through Equity.Giving every Student the Chance to Succeed(Volume II)[J].Oecd,2013(2):1.
(3)收入的极大不平等降低了贫困人口对自己以及其子女进行教育和技能投资的能力,2012年有1/6的年轻人(25~34岁)的受教育水平低于其父母。参见:OECD C F E S.In it together:why less inequality benefits all[J].Revista Espa?ola Del Tercer Sector,2016(32):229-233.
(1)华盛顿州2007年立法通过了PFL,但没有真正实施。融资问题、不幸时期(项目立法通过后不久就爆发了金融危机)和在本州范围内实施该项目的既存行政框架的缺位(例如:缺乏可比较的TDI或SDI项目)都是导致项目延后实施的原因。
(2)若没有一个公共框架体系登记员工的资格、跟踪缴费和领取收益的记录,建立新的管理机制是昂贵的。
(1)OECD.Doing the better for families[EB/OL].(2011-04-27)[2017-07-10].http://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/social-issues-migration-health/doing-better-for-families/summary/english_9789264098732-sum-en.
(2)目前美国一些州和地区为4岁儿童提供幼儿园前课程,但在不同地区的适用性和覆盖率差异很大。
(3)Huang和Yang发现加州PFL计划可增加母乳喂养率和纯母乳喂养机会而促进健康。参见:Huang R,Yang M.Paid maternity leave and breastfeeding practice before and after California's implementation of the nation's first paid family leave program.[J].Economics&Human Biology,2015(16):45-59.
(4)90%的公司报告表明美国加州引入带薪家庭假期对企业成本、生产力、利润不会产生消极影响,参见:APPELBAUM E,MILKMAN R.Leaves That Pay:Employer and Worker Experiences with Paid Family Leave in California[J].Technical Report,2012(1):1.
(5)PFL增加了产后休假和产妇就业,符合PFL条件的妇女在成为母亲后比不符合条件的妇女更有可能继续工作。参见:CHARLES L.BAUM,CHRISTOPHER J RUHM.The effects of paid family leave in california on labor market outcomes[J].Journal of Policy Analysis&Management,2016,35(2):1.
(6)数据来源于于OECD家庭数据2016年的OECD“Family Database”,由作者整理比较得出。
(1)Colin Cannonier的研究发现美国《家庭和医疗假期法案》提高了符合条件的妇女生育第一和第二名年子的概率,第一胎婴儿出生率提高了约5%,第二胎出生率则提高了3%;相对于其他妇女而言,符合条件的妇女会提前1年生育第一个孩子和提前8.5个月生育第二个孩子。参见:CANNONIER C.Does the Family and Medical Leave Act(FMLA)Increase Fertility Behavior?[J].Journal of Labor Research,2014,35(2):105-132.
(2)如前所述,即使没有对雇主征税以支付带薪休假,雇主也需要支付其他费用:雇主可能需要更换工人或重新培训现有工人,以暂时处理因休假而耽误的工作,工作的技能要求越高、休假时间越长,这些雇用/更换费用越高。
(3)例如在加拿大魁北克省运行一个单独的父母计划,包括一个父亲专用的五周带薪育儿假。
(1)美国的经验已经表明,成功实行带薪产假和家庭假计划可能需要使用现有的社会保障框架,保存必要的行政记录,以保证带薪假期计划的有效运作。
(2)美国各州市级带薪休假的计划完全是员工自己缴费的,这被认为是相关政策在州立法机构获得成功批准的一个主要原因。