Preparation and characterization of nanocellulose from rapeseed hull
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摘要
Rapeseed hull, a by product in rapeseed processing, deserves deep research for extensive application to promote its limited value at present. The aim of this study was to explore utilization of rapeseed hull as a source of raw material for nanocellulose. On the basis of pretreatment with sodium hydroxide solution and peroxide solution, nanocellulose from rapeseed hull(NRH) was prepared by sulfuric acid hydrolysis. Samples of different pretreatment stages were characterized using scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction, infrared spectrum and thermo-gravimetric analysis. Results showed that sodium hydroxide solution and peroxide solution pretreatment could significantly increase cellulose content of the material(p < 0.05). NRH prepared by sulfuric acid hydrolysis was of short rod structure, 50-250 nm in length with diameter of 5-25 nm. It had a typical type of celluloseⅠcrystal with 64.4% crystallinity. Initial thermal decomposition temperature of NRH was the lowest among all samples. NRH was expected to be applied in biodegradable composites. Therefore, this work will provide reference for further utilization of rapeseed hull as a low-cost source of nanocellulose.
Rapeseed hull, a by product in rapeseed processing, deserves deep research for extensive application to promote its limited value at present. The aim of this study was to explore utilization of rapeseed hull as a source of raw material for nanocellulose. On the basis of pretreatment with sodium hydroxide solution and peroxide solution, nanocellulose from rapeseed hull(NRH) was prepared by sulfuric acid hydrolysis. Samples of different pretreatment stages were characterized using scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction, infrared spectrum and thermo-gravimetric analysis. Results showed that sodium hydroxide solution and peroxide solution pretreatment could significantly increase cellulose content of the material(p < 0.05). NRH prepared by sulfuric acid hydrolysis was of short rod structure, 50-250 nm in length with diameter of 5-25 nm. It had a typical type of celluloseⅠcrystal with 64.4% crystallinity. Initial thermal decomposition temperature of NRH was the lowest among all samples. NRH was expected to be applied in biodegradable composites. Therefore, this work will provide reference for further utilization of rapeseed hull as a low-cost source of nanocellulose.
Rapeseed hull, a by product in rapeseed processing, deserves deep research for extensive application to promote its limited value at present. The aim of this study was to explore utilization of rapeseed hull as a source of raw material for nanocellulose. On the basis of pretreatment with sodium hydroxide solution and peroxide solution, nanocellulose from rapeseed hull(NRH) was prepared by sulfuric acid hydrolysis. Samples of different pretreatment stages were characterized using scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction, infrared spectrum and thermo-gravimetric analysis. Results showed that sodium hydroxide solution and peroxide solution pretreatment could significantly increase cellulose content of the material(p < 0.05). NRH prepared by sulfuric acid hydrolysis was of short rod structure, 50-250 nm in length with diameter of 5-25 nm. It had a typical type of celluloseⅠcrystal with 64.4% crystallinity. Initial thermal decomposition temperature of NRH was the lowest among all samples. NRH was expected to be applied in biodegradable composites. Therefore, this work will provide reference for further utilization of rapeseed hull as a low-cost source of nanocellulose.
引文
Abraham E.,Deepa B.,Pothan L.A.,Jacob M.,Thomas S.,Cvelbar U.,Anandjiwala R.2011.Extraction of nanocellulose fibrils from lignocellulosicfibres:A novel approach.Carbohydrate Polymers.86(4):1468-1475.doi:10.1016/j.carbpol.2011.06.034.
Abraham E.,Deepa B.,Pothan L.A.,Maya John S.S.,Narine S.,Thomas S.,Anandjiwala R.2013.Physicomechanical properties of nanocomposites based on cellulose nanofibre and natural rubber latex.Cellulose.20(1):417-427.doi:10.1007/s10570-012-9830-1.
Alemdar A.,Sain M.2008.Isolation and characterization of nanofibers from agricultural residues-wheat straw and soy hulls.Bioresource Technology.99:1664-1671.doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2007.04.029.
Andresen M.,Johansson L.S.,Tanem B.S.,Stenius P.2006.Properties and characterization of hydrophobized microfibrillated cellulose.Cellulose.13(6):665-677.doi:10.1007/s10570-006-9072-1.
Azubuike C.P.,Okhamafe A.O.2012.Physicochemical,spectroscopic and thermal properties of microcrystalline cellulose derived from corn cobs.International Journal of Recycling of Organic Waste in Agriculture.15(10):1-9.doi:10.1186/2251-7715-1-9.
Bai W.,Holbery J.,Li K.C.2009.A technique for production of nanocrystalline cellulose with a narrow size distribution.Cellulose.16(3):455-465.doi:10.1007/s10570-009-9277-1.
Beck-Candanedo S.,Roman M.,Gray D.G.2005.Effect of reaction conditions on the properties and behavior of wood cellulose nanocrystal suspensions.Biomacromolecules.6(2):1048-1054.doi:10.1021/bm049300p.
Brinchi L.,Cotana F.,Fortunati E.2013.Production of nanocrystalline cellulose from lignocellulosic biomass:Technology and applications.Carbohydrate Polymers.94:154-169.doi:10.1016/j.carbpol.2013.01.033.
Camarero Espinosa S.,Kuhnt T.,Foster E.J.,Weder C.2013.Isolation of thermally stable cellulose nanocrystals by phosphoric acid hydrolysis.Biomacromolecules.14(4):1223-1230.doi:10.1021/bm400219u.
Chen W.S.,Yu H.P.,Liu Y.X.,Hai Y.F.,Zhang M.X.,Chen P.2011.Isolation and characterization of cellulose nanofibers from four plant cellulose fibers using a chemical-ultrasonic process.Cellulose.18:433-442.doi:10.1007/s10570-011-9497-z.
Cherian B.M,Leao A.L,de Souza S.F.2010.Isolation of nanocellulose from pineapple leaf fibres by steam explosion.Carbohydrate Polymers.81(3):720-725.doi:10.1016/j.carbpol.2010.03.046.
Corrêa A.C.,Teixeira E.D.,Pessan L.A.,Mattoso L.H.C.2010.Cellulose nanofibers from curaua fibers.Cellulose.17(6):1183-1192.doi:10.1007/s10570-010-9453-3.
Das K.,Ray D.,Bandyopadhyay N.R.,Ghosh T.,Mohanty K.,Misra M.2009.A study of the mechanical,thermal and morphological properties of microcrystalline cellulose particles prepared from cotton slivers using different acid concentrations.Cellulose.16(5):783-793.doi:10.1007/s10570-009-9280-6.
Espino E.,Cakir M.,Domenek S.,Roman-Gutierrez A.D.,Belgacem N.,Bras J.2014.Isolation and characterization of cellulose nanocrystals from industrial by-products of Agave tequilana and barley.Industrial Crops and Products.62:552-559.doi:10.1016/j.indcrop.2014.09.017.
Flauzino Neto W.P.,Silvério H.A.,Dantas N.O.,Pasquini D.2013.Extraction and characterization of cellulose nanocrystals from agro-industrial residue-soy hulls.Industrial Crops and Products.42:480-488.doi:10.1016/j.indcrop.2012.06.041.
Fortunati E.,Puglia D.,Monti M.,Peponi L.,Santulli C.,Kenny J.M.,Torre L.2013.Extraction of cellulose nanocrystals from Phormium tenax fibres.Journal of the Polymer and Environment.21(2):319-328.doi:10.1007/s10924-012-0543-1.
Habibi Y.,Lucia L.A.,Rojas O.J.2010.Cellulose nanocrystals:chemistry,self-assembly,and application.Chemical Reviews.110:3479-3500.doi:10.1021/cr900339w.
Heath L.,Thielemans W.2010.Cellulose nanowhisker aerogels.Green Chemistry.12(8):1448-1453.doi:10.1039/c0gc00035c.
Henriette M.C.de Azeredo.2009.Nanocomposites for food packaging applications.Food Research International.42(9):1240-1253.doi:10.1016/j.foodres.2009.03.019.
Heux L.,Chauve G.,Bonini C.2000.Nonflocculating and chiral-nematic self-ordering of cellulose microcrystals suspensions in nonpolar solvents.Langmuir.16(21):8210-8212.doi:10.1021/la9913957.
Janardhnan S.,Sain M.M.2006.Isolation of cellulose microfibrils an enzymatic approach.Bioresources.1(2):176-188.
Jiang B.,Liu C.,Zhang C.,Wang B.,Wang Z.2007.The effect of non-symmetric distribution of fiber orientation and aspect ratio on elastic properties of composites.Composites Part B.38(1):24-34.doi:10.1016/j.compositesb.2006.05.002.
Jin A.X.,Ren J.L.,Peng F.,Xu F.,Zhou G.Y.,Sun R.C.,Kennedy J.F.2009.Comparative characterization of degraded and non-degradative hemicelluloses from barley straw and maize stems:composition,structure,and thermal properties.Carbohydrate Polymers.78(3):609-619.doi:10.1016/j.carbpol.2009.05.024.
Johar N.,Ahmad I.,Dufresne A.2012.Extraction.preparation and characterization of cellulose fibres and nanocrystals from rice husk.Industrial Crops and Products.37(1):93-99.doi:10.1016/j.indcrop.2011.12.016.
Jonoobi M.,Oladi R.,Davoudpour Y.,Oksman K.,Dufresne A.,Hamzeh Y.,Davoodi R.2015.Different preparation methods and properties of nanostructured cellulose from various natural resources and residues:a review.Cellulose.22:935-969.doi:10.1007/s10570-015-0551-0.
KacurákováM.,Capek P.,SasinkováV.,Wellner N.EbringerováA.2000.FT-IR study of plant cell wall model compounds:Pectic polysaccharides and hemicelluloses.Carbohydrate Polymers.43(2):195-203.doi:10.1016/S0144-8617(00)00151-X.
Klemm D.,Heublein B.,Fink H.P.2005.Cellulose:Fascinating biopolymer and sustainable raw material.Angewandte Chemie International Edition.44(22):3358-3393.doi:10.1002/anie.200460587.
Li R.,Fei J.,Cai Y.,Li Y.,Feng J.,Yao J.2009.Cellulose whiskers extracted from mulberry:A novel biomass production.Carbohydrate Polymers.76(1):94-99.doi:10.1016/j.carbpol.2008.09.034.
Liu Y.,Hu J.,Li L.2006.Determination of main components and content in rapeseed hull.China Oils and Fats.31(9):64-65.
Liu Y.,Wang H.,Yu G.,Yu Q.,Li B.,Mu X.2014.A novel approach for the preparation of nanocrystalline cellulose by using phosphotungstic acid.Carbohydrate Polymers.110:415-422.doi:10.1016/j.carbpol.2014.04.040.
Mathew A.P.,Thielemans W.,Dufresne A.2008.Mechanical properties of nanocomposites from sorbitol plasticized starch and tunicin whiskers.Journal of Applied Polymer Science.109(6):4065-4074.doi:10.1002/app.28623.
Mihindukulasuriya S.D.F.,Lim L.T.2014.Nanotechnology development in food packaging:A review.Trends in Food Science&Technology.40(2):149-167.doi:10.1016/j.tifs.2014.09.009.
Morán J.,Alvarez V.,Cyras V.,Vazquez V.2008.Extraction of cellulose and preparation of nanocellulose from sisal fibers.Cellulose.15(1):149-159.doi:10.1007/s10570-007-9145-9.
Myriam L.N.,Rosana M.,Monica E.2014.Isolation and characterization of cellulose nanocrystals from spruce bark in a biorefinery perspective.Carbohydrate Polymers.111:979-987.doi:10.1016/j.carbpol.2014.04.092.
Niimura H.,Yokoyama T.,Kimura S.,Matsumoto Y.,Kuga S.2010.AFM observation of ultrathin microfibrils in fruit tissues.Cellulose.17(1):13-18.doi:10.1007/s10570-009-9361-6.
Oksman K.,Etang J.A.,Mathew A.P.,Jonoobi M.2011.Cellulose nanowhiskers separated from a bio-residue from wood bioethanol production.Biomass and Bioenergy.35(1):146-152.doi:10.1016/j.biombioe.2010.08.021.
Paakko M.,Ankerfors M.,Kosonen H.,Nykanen A.,Ahola S.,Osterberg M.,Ruokolainen J.,Laine J.,Larsson P.T.,Ikkala O.,Lindstr?m T.2007.Enzymatic hydrolysis combined with mechanical shearing and high-pressure homogenization for nanoscale cellulose fibrils and strong gels.Biomacromolecules.8(6):1934-1941.doi:10.1021/bm061215p.
Peng B.L.,Dhar N.,Liu H.L.,Tam K.C.2011.Chemistry and applications of nanocrystalline cellulose and its derivatives:a nanotechnology perspective.Canadian Journal of Chemical Engineering.89:1191-1206.doi:10.1002/cjce.20554.
Plackett D.,Anturi H.,Hedenqvist M.,Ankerfors M.,G?llstedt M.,Lindstr?m T.,SiróI.2010.Physical properties and morphology of films prepared from microfibrillated cellulose and microfibrillated cellulose in combination with amylopectin.Journal of Applied Polymer Science.117(6):3601-3609.doi:10.1002/app.32254.
Roman M.,Winter W.T.,2004.Effect of sulfate groups from sulfuric acid hydrolysis on the thermal degradation behavior of bacterial cellulose.Biomacromolecules.5:1671-1677.doi:10.1021/bm034519+.
Rosa M.F.,Medeiros E.S.,Maimonge J.A.,Gregorski K.S.,Wood D.F.,Mattoso L.H.C.,Glenn G.,Orts W.J.,Imam S.H.2010.Cellulose nanowhiskers from coconut husk fibers:Effect of preparation conditions on their thermal and morphological behavior.Carbohydrate Polymers.81(1):83-92.doi:10.1016/j.carbpol.2010.01.059.
Saito T.,Kimura S.,Nishiyama Y.,Isogai A.2007.Cellulose nanofibers prepared by TEMPO-mediated oxidation of native cellulose.Biomacromolecules.8(8):2485-2491.doi:10.1021/bm0703970.
Sheltami R.M.,Abdullah I.,Ahmad I.,Dufresne A.,Kargarzadeh H.2012.Extraction of cellulose nanocrystals from mengkuang leaves(Pandanus tectorius).Carbohydrate Polymers.88(2):772-779.doi:10.1016/j.carbpol.2012.01.062.
Silvério H.A.,Flauzino Neto W.P.,Dantas N.O.,Pasquini D.2013.Extraction and characterization of cellulose nanocrystals from corncob for application as reinforcing agent in nanocomposites.Industrial Crops and Products.44:427-436.doi:10.1016/j.indcrop.2012.10.014.
Siro I.,Plackett D.2010.Microfibrillated cellulose and new nanocomposite materials:A review.Cellulose.17(3):459-494.doi:10.1007/s10570-010-9405-y.
Stelte W.,Sanadi A.R.2009.Preparation and characterization of cellulose nanofibers from two commercial hardwood and softwood pulps.Industrial&Engineering Chemistry Research.48(24):11211-11219.doi:10.1021/ie9011672.
Teixeira E.M.,Bondancia T.J.,Teodoro K.B.R.,Corrêa A.C.,Marconcini J.M.,Mattoso L.H.C.2011.Sugarcane bagasse whiskers:Extraction and characterizations.Industrial Crops and Products.33:63-66.doi:10.1016/j.indcrop.2010.08.009.
Xiong R.,Zhang X.,Tian D.,Zhou Z.H.,Lu C.H.2012.Comparing microcrystalline with spherical nanocrystalline cellulose from waste cotton fabrics.Cellulose.19(4):1189-1198.doi:10.1007/s10570-012-9730-4.
Yu H.,Qin Z.,Liang B.,Liu N.,Zhou Z.,Chen L.2013.Facile extraction of thermally stable cellulose nanocrystals with a high yield of 93%through hydrochloric acid hydrolysis under hydrothermal conditions.Journal of Materials Chemistry A.1(12):3938-3944.doi:10.1039/c3ta01150j.
Zakaria M.,Nawshad M.,Ariyanti S.,Mohamad A.B.,Vignesh K.,Sikander R.2011.Preparation of cellulose nanocrystals using an ionic liquid,Journal of the Polymer and Environment.19(3):726-731.doi:10.1007/s10924-011-0323-3.
Abraham E.,Deepa B.,Pothan L.A.,Maya John S.S.,Narine S.,Thomas S.,Anandjiwala R.2013.Physicomechanical properties of nanocomposites based on cellulose nanofibre and natural rubber latex.Cellulose.20(1):417-427.doi:10.1007/s10570-012-9830-1.
Alemdar A.,Sain M.2008.Isolation and characterization of nanofibers from agricultural residues-wheat straw and soy hulls.Bioresource Technology.99:1664-1671.doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2007.04.029.
Andresen M.,Johansson L.S.,Tanem B.S.,Stenius P.2006.Properties and characterization of hydrophobized microfibrillated cellulose.Cellulose.13(6):665-677.doi:10.1007/s10570-006-9072-1.
Azubuike C.P.,Okhamafe A.O.2012.Physicochemical,spectroscopic and thermal properties of microcrystalline cellulose derived from corn cobs.International Journal of Recycling of Organic Waste in Agriculture.15(10):1-9.doi:10.1186/2251-7715-1-9.
Bai W.,Holbery J.,Li K.C.2009.A technique for production of nanocrystalline cellulose with a narrow size distribution.Cellulose.16(3):455-465.doi:10.1007/s10570-009-9277-1.
Beck-Candanedo S.,Roman M.,Gray D.G.2005.Effect of reaction conditions on the properties and behavior of wood cellulose nanocrystal suspensions.Biomacromolecules.6(2):1048-1054.doi:10.1021/bm049300p.
Brinchi L.,Cotana F.,Fortunati E.2013.Production of nanocrystalline cellulose from lignocellulosic biomass:Technology and applications.Carbohydrate Polymers.94:154-169.doi:10.1016/j.carbpol.2013.01.033.
Camarero Espinosa S.,Kuhnt T.,Foster E.J.,Weder C.2013.Isolation of thermally stable cellulose nanocrystals by phosphoric acid hydrolysis.Biomacromolecules.14(4):1223-1230.doi:10.1021/bm400219u.
Chen W.S.,Yu H.P.,Liu Y.X.,Hai Y.F.,Zhang M.X.,Chen P.2011.Isolation and characterization of cellulose nanofibers from four plant cellulose fibers using a chemical-ultrasonic process.Cellulose.18:433-442.doi:10.1007/s10570-011-9497-z.
Cherian B.M,Leao A.L,de Souza S.F.2010.Isolation of nanocellulose from pineapple leaf fibres by steam explosion.Carbohydrate Polymers.81(3):720-725.doi:10.1016/j.carbpol.2010.03.046.
Corrêa A.C.,Teixeira E.D.,Pessan L.A.,Mattoso L.H.C.2010.Cellulose nanofibers from curaua fibers.Cellulose.17(6):1183-1192.doi:10.1007/s10570-010-9453-3.
Das K.,Ray D.,Bandyopadhyay N.R.,Ghosh T.,Mohanty K.,Misra M.2009.A study of the mechanical,thermal and morphological properties of microcrystalline cellulose particles prepared from cotton slivers using different acid concentrations.Cellulose.16(5):783-793.doi:10.1007/s10570-009-9280-6.
Espino E.,Cakir M.,Domenek S.,Roman-Gutierrez A.D.,Belgacem N.,Bras J.2014.Isolation and characterization of cellulose nanocrystals from industrial by-products of Agave tequilana and barley.Industrial Crops and Products.62:552-559.doi:10.1016/j.indcrop.2014.09.017.
Flauzino Neto W.P.,Silvério H.A.,Dantas N.O.,Pasquini D.2013.Extraction and characterization of cellulose nanocrystals from agro-industrial residue-soy hulls.Industrial Crops and Products.42:480-488.doi:10.1016/j.indcrop.2012.06.041.
Fortunati E.,Puglia D.,Monti M.,Peponi L.,Santulli C.,Kenny J.M.,Torre L.2013.Extraction of cellulose nanocrystals from Phormium tenax fibres.Journal of the Polymer and Environment.21(2):319-328.doi:10.1007/s10924-012-0543-1.
Habibi Y.,Lucia L.A.,Rojas O.J.2010.Cellulose nanocrystals:chemistry,self-assembly,and application.Chemical Reviews.110:3479-3500.doi:10.1021/cr900339w.
Heath L.,Thielemans W.2010.Cellulose nanowhisker aerogels.Green Chemistry.12(8):1448-1453.doi:10.1039/c0gc00035c.
Henriette M.C.de Azeredo.2009.Nanocomposites for food packaging applications.Food Research International.42(9):1240-1253.doi:10.1016/j.foodres.2009.03.019.
Heux L.,Chauve G.,Bonini C.2000.Nonflocculating and chiral-nematic self-ordering of cellulose microcrystals suspensions in nonpolar solvents.Langmuir.16(21):8210-8212.doi:10.1021/la9913957.
Janardhnan S.,Sain M.M.2006.Isolation of cellulose microfibrils an enzymatic approach.Bioresources.1(2):176-188.
Jiang B.,Liu C.,Zhang C.,Wang B.,Wang Z.2007.The effect of non-symmetric distribution of fiber orientation and aspect ratio on elastic properties of composites.Composites Part B.38(1):24-34.doi:10.1016/j.compositesb.2006.05.002.
Jin A.X.,Ren J.L.,Peng F.,Xu F.,Zhou G.Y.,Sun R.C.,Kennedy J.F.2009.Comparative characterization of degraded and non-degradative hemicelluloses from barley straw and maize stems:composition,structure,and thermal properties.Carbohydrate Polymers.78(3):609-619.doi:10.1016/j.carbpol.2009.05.024.
Johar N.,Ahmad I.,Dufresne A.2012.Extraction.preparation and characterization of cellulose fibres and nanocrystals from rice husk.Industrial Crops and Products.37(1):93-99.doi:10.1016/j.indcrop.2011.12.016.
Jonoobi M.,Oladi R.,Davoudpour Y.,Oksman K.,Dufresne A.,Hamzeh Y.,Davoodi R.2015.Different preparation methods and properties of nanostructured cellulose from various natural resources and residues:a review.Cellulose.22:935-969.doi:10.1007/s10570-015-0551-0.
KacurákováM.,Capek P.,SasinkováV.,Wellner N.EbringerováA.2000.FT-IR study of plant cell wall model compounds:Pectic polysaccharides and hemicelluloses.Carbohydrate Polymers.43(2):195-203.doi:10.1016/S0144-8617(00)00151-X.
Klemm D.,Heublein B.,Fink H.P.2005.Cellulose:Fascinating biopolymer and sustainable raw material.Angewandte Chemie International Edition.44(22):3358-3393.doi:10.1002/anie.200460587.
Li R.,Fei J.,Cai Y.,Li Y.,Feng J.,Yao J.2009.Cellulose whiskers extracted from mulberry:A novel biomass production.Carbohydrate Polymers.76(1):94-99.doi:10.1016/j.carbpol.2008.09.034.
Liu Y.,Hu J.,Li L.2006.Determination of main components and content in rapeseed hull.China Oils and Fats.31(9):64-65.
Liu Y.,Wang H.,Yu G.,Yu Q.,Li B.,Mu X.2014.A novel approach for the preparation of nanocrystalline cellulose by using phosphotungstic acid.Carbohydrate Polymers.110:415-422.doi:10.1016/j.carbpol.2014.04.040.
Mathew A.P.,Thielemans W.,Dufresne A.2008.Mechanical properties of nanocomposites from sorbitol plasticized starch and tunicin whiskers.Journal of Applied Polymer Science.109(6):4065-4074.doi:10.1002/app.28623.
Mihindukulasuriya S.D.F.,Lim L.T.2014.Nanotechnology development in food packaging:A review.Trends in Food Science&Technology.40(2):149-167.doi:10.1016/j.tifs.2014.09.009.
Morán J.,Alvarez V.,Cyras V.,Vazquez V.2008.Extraction of cellulose and preparation of nanocellulose from sisal fibers.Cellulose.15(1):149-159.doi:10.1007/s10570-007-9145-9.
Myriam L.N.,Rosana M.,Monica E.2014.Isolation and characterization of cellulose nanocrystals from spruce bark in a biorefinery perspective.Carbohydrate Polymers.111:979-987.doi:10.1016/j.carbpol.2014.04.092.
Niimura H.,Yokoyama T.,Kimura S.,Matsumoto Y.,Kuga S.2010.AFM observation of ultrathin microfibrils in fruit tissues.Cellulose.17(1):13-18.doi:10.1007/s10570-009-9361-6.
Oksman K.,Etang J.A.,Mathew A.P.,Jonoobi M.2011.Cellulose nanowhiskers separated from a bio-residue from wood bioethanol production.Biomass and Bioenergy.35(1):146-152.doi:10.1016/j.biombioe.2010.08.021.
Paakko M.,Ankerfors M.,Kosonen H.,Nykanen A.,Ahola S.,Osterberg M.,Ruokolainen J.,Laine J.,Larsson P.T.,Ikkala O.,Lindstr?m T.2007.Enzymatic hydrolysis combined with mechanical shearing and high-pressure homogenization for nanoscale cellulose fibrils and strong gels.Biomacromolecules.8(6):1934-1941.doi:10.1021/bm061215p.
Peng B.L.,Dhar N.,Liu H.L.,Tam K.C.2011.Chemistry and applications of nanocrystalline cellulose and its derivatives:a nanotechnology perspective.Canadian Journal of Chemical Engineering.89:1191-1206.doi:10.1002/cjce.20554.
Plackett D.,Anturi H.,Hedenqvist M.,Ankerfors M.,G?llstedt M.,Lindstr?m T.,SiróI.2010.Physical properties and morphology of films prepared from microfibrillated cellulose and microfibrillated cellulose in combination with amylopectin.Journal of Applied Polymer Science.117(6):3601-3609.doi:10.1002/app.32254.
Roman M.,Winter W.T.,2004.Effect of sulfate groups from sulfuric acid hydrolysis on the thermal degradation behavior of bacterial cellulose.Biomacromolecules.5:1671-1677.doi:10.1021/bm034519+.
Rosa M.F.,Medeiros E.S.,Maimonge J.A.,Gregorski K.S.,Wood D.F.,Mattoso L.H.C.,Glenn G.,Orts W.J.,Imam S.H.2010.Cellulose nanowhiskers from coconut husk fibers:Effect of preparation conditions on their thermal and morphological behavior.Carbohydrate Polymers.81(1):83-92.doi:10.1016/j.carbpol.2010.01.059.
Saito T.,Kimura S.,Nishiyama Y.,Isogai A.2007.Cellulose nanofibers prepared by TEMPO-mediated oxidation of native cellulose.Biomacromolecules.8(8):2485-2491.doi:10.1021/bm0703970.
Sheltami R.M.,Abdullah I.,Ahmad I.,Dufresne A.,Kargarzadeh H.2012.Extraction of cellulose nanocrystals from mengkuang leaves(Pandanus tectorius).Carbohydrate Polymers.88(2):772-779.doi:10.1016/j.carbpol.2012.01.062.
Silvério H.A.,Flauzino Neto W.P.,Dantas N.O.,Pasquini D.2013.Extraction and characterization of cellulose nanocrystals from corncob for application as reinforcing agent in nanocomposites.Industrial Crops and Products.44:427-436.doi:10.1016/j.indcrop.2012.10.014.
Siro I.,Plackett D.2010.Microfibrillated cellulose and new nanocomposite materials:A review.Cellulose.17(3):459-494.doi:10.1007/s10570-010-9405-y.
Stelte W.,Sanadi A.R.2009.Preparation and characterization of cellulose nanofibers from two commercial hardwood and softwood pulps.Industrial&Engineering Chemistry Research.48(24):11211-11219.doi:10.1021/ie9011672.
Teixeira E.M.,Bondancia T.J.,Teodoro K.B.R.,Corrêa A.C.,Marconcini J.M.,Mattoso L.H.C.2011.Sugarcane bagasse whiskers:Extraction and characterizations.Industrial Crops and Products.33:63-66.doi:10.1016/j.indcrop.2010.08.009.
Xiong R.,Zhang X.,Tian D.,Zhou Z.H.,Lu C.H.2012.Comparing microcrystalline with spherical nanocrystalline cellulose from waste cotton fabrics.Cellulose.19(4):1189-1198.doi:10.1007/s10570-012-9730-4.
Yu H.,Qin Z.,Liang B.,Liu N.,Zhou Z.,Chen L.2013.Facile extraction of thermally stable cellulose nanocrystals with a high yield of 93%through hydrochloric acid hydrolysis under hydrothermal conditions.Journal of Materials Chemistry A.1(12):3938-3944.doi:10.1039/c3ta01150j.
Zakaria M.,Nawshad M.,Ariyanti S.,Mohamad A.B.,Vignesh K.,Sikander R.2011.Preparation of cellulose nanocrystals using an ionic liquid,Journal of the Polymer and Environment.19(3):726-731.doi:10.1007/s10924-011-0323-3.