Origin of Tafoni in the Late Cretaceous Aeolian Sandstones,Danxiashan UNESCO Global Geopark,South China
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摘要
Tafoni occur generally in granular rocks around the world, but their origin remains controversial. In this study,the roles of lithology, micro–climate, and organism in tafoni development are investigated in the Danxiashan UNESCO Global Geopark of South China. The Jinshiyan Temple and Luyitang sites along the Jinjiang River are chosen to conduct tafoni morphometry, bedrock petrography, and micro–climate analyses. The research methods used in this study include field observations and measurements, Voronoi diagrams, polarizing microscopic and scanning electron microscopic(SEM)image analysis, and meteorological detection. The tafoni are mostly 2–10 cm in length and elliptical in shape. The Late Cretaceous Jinshiyan sandstones are characterized by a grain–to–grain contact fabric and moderate sorting with a high proportion of soluble grains and cements. The Voronoi diagrams developed through the Arc GIS software are largely consistent with the tafoni openings. Moreover, owing to exposure to solar insolation, the external temperature values are higher than the internal ones, while the external relative humidity values are lower than the internal ones. Therefore, the permeable Jinshiyan sandstones are fundamental for tafoni development, while the abundant moisture from the Jinjiang River and frequent rains is favorable for salt weathering in tandem with biological activities. At last, a five–stage development model is proposed for the tafoni progression in the study area.
Tafoni occur generally in granular rocks around the world, but their origin remains controversial. In this study,the roles of lithology, micro–climate, and organism in tafoni development are investigated in the Danxiashan UNESCO Global Geopark of South China. The Jinshiyan Temple and Luyitang sites along the Jinjiang River are chosen to conduct tafoni morphometry, bedrock petrography, and micro–climate analyses. The research methods used in this study include field observations and measurements, Voronoi diagrams, polarizing microscopic and scanning electron microscopic(SEM)image analysis, and meteorological detection. The tafoni are mostly 2–10 cm in length and elliptical in shape. The Late Cretaceous Jinshiyan sandstones are characterized by a grain–to–grain contact fabric and moderate sorting with a high proportion of soluble grains and cements. The Voronoi diagrams developed through the Arc GIS software are largely consistent with the tafoni openings. Moreover, owing to exposure to solar insolation, the external temperature values are higher than the internal ones, while the external relative humidity values are lower than the internal ones. Therefore, the permeable Jinshiyan sandstones are fundamental for tafoni development, while the abundant moisture from the Jinjiang River and frequent rains is favorable for salt weathering in tandem with biological activities. At last, a five–stage development model is proposed for the tafoni progression in the study area.
Tafoni occur generally in granular rocks around the world, but their origin remains controversial. In this study,the roles of lithology, micro–climate, and organism in tafoni development are investigated in the Danxiashan UNESCO Global Geopark of South China. The Jinshiyan Temple and Luyitang sites along the Jinjiang River are chosen to conduct tafoni morphometry, bedrock petrography, and micro–climate analyses. The research methods used in this study include field observations and measurements, Voronoi diagrams, polarizing microscopic and scanning electron microscopic(SEM)image analysis, and meteorological detection. The tafoni are mostly 2–10 cm in length and elliptical in shape. The Late Cretaceous Jinshiyan sandstones are characterized by a grain–to–grain contact fabric and moderate sorting with a high proportion of soluble grains and cements. The Voronoi diagrams developed through the Arc GIS software are largely consistent with the tafoni openings. Moreover, owing to exposure to solar insolation, the external temperature values are higher than the internal ones, while the external relative humidity values are lower than the internal ones. Therefore, the permeable Jinshiyan sandstones are fundamental for tafoni development, while the abundant moisture from the Jinjiang River and frequent rains is favorable for salt weathering in tandem with biological activities. At last, a five–stage development model is proposed for the tafoni progression in the study area.
引文
Achyuthan,H.,Kumar,K.A.,Tiwari,S.K.,and Norwick,S.,2010.A reconnaissance study of tafoni development,exfoliation,and granular disintegration of natural and artificial rock surfaces in the coastal and lowland regions of Tamil Nadu,southern India.Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie,54(4):491-509.
Cao,K.,2018.Cretaceous terrestrial deposits in China.China Geology,1(3):402-414.
Chan,K.D.,1938.On the subdivisions of the red beds of SouthEastern China.Acta Geologica Sinica(English Edition),18(3-4):301-324.
Chen,L.Q.,Li,X.M.,Guo,F.S.,Li,P.C.,Li,Y.L.,and Liu,X.,2018.Characteristics and origin of honeycombs in the Danxiashan Global Geopark in South China.Geological Review,64(4):895-904(in Chinese with English Abstract).
Chen,L.Q.,Steel,R.J.,Guo,F.S.,Olariu,C.,and Gong,C.L.,2017.Alluvial fan facies of the Yongchong Basin:Implications for tectonic and paleoclimatic changes during Late Cretaceous in SE China.Journal of Asian Earth Sciences,134:37-54.
Conca,J.L.,and Rossman,G.R.,1985.Core softening in cavernously weathered tonalite.Journal of Geology,93(1):59-73.
Dill,H.G.,Weber,B.,and Gerdes,A.,2010.Constraining the physical-chemical conditions of Pleistocene cavernous weathering in Late Paleozoic granites.Geomorphology,121(3-4):283-290.
Dmitrienko,L.V.,Wang,P.C.,Li,S.Z.,Cao,X.Z.,Somerville,I.,Zhou,Z.Z.,Hu,M.Y.,Suo,Y.H.,Guo,L.L.,Wang,Y.M.,Li,X.Y.,Liu,X.,Yu,S.Y.,and Zhu,J.J.,2018.MesoCenozoic evolution of earth surface system under the East Asian tectonic superconvergence.Acta Geologica Sinica(English Edition),92(2):814-849.
Dorn,R.I.,Mahaney,W.C.,and Krinsley,D.H.,2017.Case hardening:turning weathering rinds into protective shells.Elements,13(3):165-169.
Folk,R.L.,1980.Petrology of Sedimentary Rocks:Texas,Hemphill Publishing Company.
Guo,F.,and Jiang,G.,2015.Investigation into rock moisture and salinity regimes:implications of sandstone weathering in Yungang Grottoes,China.Carbonates and Evaporites,30(1):1-11.
Guo,F.S.,Chen,L.Q.,Xu,H.,and Liu,X.,2018.Origin of beaded tafoni in cliffs of Danxia landscapes,Longhushan Global Geopark,South China.Journal of Mountain Science,15(11):2398-2408.
Hasegawa,H.,Tada,R.,Ichinnorov,N.,and Minjin,C.,2009.Lithostratigraphy and depositional environments of the Upper Cretaceous Djadokhta Formation,Ulan Nuur Basin,southern Mongolia,and its paleoclimatic implication.Journal of Asian Earth Sciences,35(1):13-26.
Hejl,E.,2005.A pictorial study of tafoni development from the2nd millennium BC.Geomorphology,64(1-2):87-95.
Huang,R.H.,and Wang,W.,2017.Microclimatic,chemical,and mineralogical evidence for tafoni weathering processes on the Miaowan Island,South China.Journal of Asian Earth Sciences,134:281-292.
Jia,R.Y.,Wang,G.H.,Geng,L.,Zhang,Z.H.,and Jia,H.X.,2017.Petrogenesis of the Early Cretaceous Tiantangshan A-type granite in northwestern Guangdong province,SE China and tectonic implications.Acta Geologica Sinica(English Edition),91(s1):64-65.
Jiang,X.S.,Pan,Z.X.,Xu,J.S.,Li,X.Y.,Xie,G.G.,and Xiao,Z.J.,2008.Late Cretaceous aeolian dunes and reconstruction of palaeo-wind belts of the Xinjiang Basin,Jiangxi Province,China.Palaeogeography,Palaeoclimatology,Palaeoecology,257(1-2):58-66.
Kusky,T.M.,Ye,M.H.,Wang,J.P.,and Wang,L.,2010.Geological evolution of Longhushan World Geopark in relation to global tectonics.Journal of Earth Science,21(1):1-18.
Mabi,A.,Yang,Z.X.,Zhang,M.C.,Wen,D.K.,Li,Y.L.,and Liu,X.Y.,2018.Two types of granites in the western Yangtze Block and their implications for regional tectonic evolution:constraints from geochemistry and isotopic data.Acta Geologica Sinica(English Edition),92(1):89-105.
Mc Bride,E.F.,and Picard,M.D.,2004.Origin of honeycombs and related weathering forms in Oligocene Macigno Sandstone,Tuscan coast near Livorno,Italy.Earth Surface Processes and Landforms,29(6):713-735.
Mol,L.,2014.Investigations into the relationship between changes in internal moisture regimes and rock surface deterioration in cavernous sandstone features.Earth Surface Processes and Landforms,39(7):914-927.
Mol,L.,and Viles,H.A.,2012.The role of rock surface hardness and internal moisture in tafoni development in sandstone.Earth Surface Processes and Landforms,37(3):301-314.
Mottershead,D.,Gorbushina,A.,Lucas,G.,and Wright,J.,2003.The influence of marine salts,aspect and microbes in the weathering of sandstone in two historic structures.Building and environment,38(9-10):1193-1204.
Mustoe,G.E.,2010.Biogenic origin of coastal honeycomb weathering.Earth Surface Processes and Landforms,35(4):424-434.
Okabe,A,Boots,B.,Sugihara,K.,et al,2000.Spatial Tessellations:Concepts and Applications of Voronoi Diagrams.John Wiley&Sons.
Paradise,T.R.,2013.Tafoni and other rock basins.In:John F.Shroder(ed.)Treatise on Geomorphology,Vol.4:111-126.San Diego:Academic Press.
Peng,H.,Ren,F.,and Pan,Z.X.,2015.A review of Danxia landforms in China.Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie,59(suppl.1):19-33.
Robinson,D.A.,and Williams,R.B.G.,2000.Experimental weathering of sandstone by combinations of salts.Earth Surface Processes and Landforms,25(12):1309-1315.
Rodriguez-Navarro,C.,1998.Evidence of honeycomb weathering on Mars.Geophysical Research Letters,25(17):3249-3252.
Schnepfleitner,H.,Sass,O.,Fruhmann,S.,Viles,H.,and Goudie,A.,2016.A multi-method investigation of temperature,moisture and salt dynamics in tafoni(Tafraoute,Morocco).Earth Surface Processes and Landforms,41(4):473-485.
Shu,L.S.,Zhou,X.M.,Deng,P.,and Zhu,W.B.,2007.Mesozoic-Cenozoic Basin Features and Evolution of Southeast China.Acta Geologica Sinica(English Edition),81(4):573-586.
Turkington,A.V.,and Paradise T.R.,2005.Sandstone weathering:a century of research and innovation.Geomorphology,67(1-2):229-253.
Turkington,A.V.,and Phillips,J.D.,2004.Cavernous weathering,dynamical instability and self-organization.Earth Surface Processes and Landforms,29(6):665-675.
Urban,J.,and Górnik,M.,2017.Some aspects of lithological and exogenic control of sandstone morphology,the?wi?tokrzyskie(Holy Cross)Mts.case study,Poland.Geomorphology,295:773-789.
Wang,C.,Shao,Y.J.,Liu,Z.F.,Liu,Q.Q.,and Zhang,Y.,2018.Geology and geochemistry of the Shizitou molybdenum deposit,Jiangxi Province:implications for geodynamic setting and metallogenesis.Acta Geologica Sinica(English Edition),92(4):1415-1431.
Young,R.W.,Wray,R.A.L.,and Young,A.R.M.,2009.Sandstone Landforms.Cambridge University Press.
Zhang,X.Q.,1992.Division and Correlation of Cretaceous in Danxia Basin.Journal of Stratigraphy,16(2):81-95(In Chinese).
Zhang,X.Q.,and Lin,X.Y.,2013.Cretaceous ostracods from the Changba Formation in the Danxia Basin of northern Guangdong Province.Acta Micropalaeontologica Sinica,30(1):58-86(in Chinese with English Abstract).
Zhu,C.,Wu,L.,Zhu,T.X.,Hou,R.F.,Hu,Z.N.,Tan,Y.,Sun,W.,Jia,T.J.,and Peng,H.,2015.Experimental studies on the Danxia landscape morphogenesis in Mt.Danxiashan,South China.Journal of Geographical Sciences,25(8):943-966.
Cao,K.,2018.Cretaceous terrestrial deposits in China.China Geology,1(3):402-414.
Chan,K.D.,1938.On the subdivisions of the red beds of SouthEastern China.Acta Geologica Sinica(English Edition),18(3-4):301-324.
Chen,L.Q.,Li,X.M.,Guo,F.S.,Li,P.C.,Li,Y.L.,and Liu,X.,2018.Characteristics and origin of honeycombs in the Danxiashan Global Geopark in South China.Geological Review,64(4):895-904(in Chinese with English Abstract).
Chen,L.Q.,Steel,R.J.,Guo,F.S.,Olariu,C.,and Gong,C.L.,2017.Alluvial fan facies of the Yongchong Basin:Implications for tectonic and paleoclimatic changes during Late Cretaceous in SE China.Journal of Asian Earth Sciences,134:37-54.
Conca,J.L.,and Rossman,G.R.,1985.Core softening in cavernously weathered tonalite.Journal of Geology,93(1):59-73.
Dill,H.G.,Weber,B.,and Gerdes,A.,2010.Constraining the physical-chemical conditions of Pleistocene cavernous weathering in Late Paleozoic granites.Geomorphology,121(3-4):283-290.
Dmitrienko,L.V.,Wang,P.C.,Li,S.Z.,Cao,X.Z.,Somerville,I.,Zhou,Z.Z.,Hu,M.Y.,Suo,Y.H.,Guo,L.L.,Wang,Y.M.,Li,X.Y.,Liu,X.,Yu,S.Y.,and Zhu,J.J.,2018.MesoCenozoic evolution of earth surface system under the East Asian tectonic superconvergence.Acta Geologica Sinica(English Edition),92(2):814-849.
Dorn,R.I.,Mahaney,W.C.,and Krinsley,D.H.,2017.Case hardening:turning weathering rinds into protective shells.Elements,13(3):165-169.
Folk,R.L.,1980.Petrology of Sedimentary Rocks:Texas,Hemphill Publishing Company.
Guo,F.,and Jiang,G.,2015.Investigation into rock moisture and salinity regimes:implications of sandstone weathering in Yungang Grottoes,China.Carbonates and Evaporites,30(1):1-11.
Guo,F.S.,Chen,L.Q.,Xu,H.,and Liu,X.,2018.Origin of beaded tafoni in cliffs of Danxia landscapes,Longhushan Global Geopark,South China.Journal of Mountain Science,15(11):2398-2408.
Hasegawa,H.,Tada,R.,Ichinnorov,N.,and Minjin,C.,2009.Lithostratigraphy and depositional environments of the Upper Cretaceous Djadokhta Formation,Ulan Nuur Basin,southern Mongolia,and its paleoclimatic implication.Journal of Asian Earth Sciences,35(1):13-26.
Hejl,E.,2005.A pictorial study of tafoni development from the2nd millennium BC.Geomorphology,64(1-2):87-95.
Huang,R.H.,and Wang,W.,2017.Microclimatic,chemical,and mineralogical evidence for tafoni weathering processes on the Miaowan Island,South China.Journal of Asian Earth Sciences,134:281-292.
Jia,R.Y.,Wang,G.H.,Geng,L.,Zhang,Z.H.,and Jia,H.X.,2017.Petrogenesis of the Early Cretaceous Tiantangshan A-type granite in northwestern Guangdong province,SE China and tectonic implications.Acta Geologica Sinica(English Edition),91(s1):64-65.
Jiang,X.S.,Pan,Z.X.,Xu,J.S.,Li,X.Y.,Xie,G.G.,and Xiao,Z.J.,2008.Late Cretaceous aeolian dunes and reconstruction of palaeo-wind belts of the Xinjiang Basin,Jiangxi Province,China.Palaeogeography,Palaeoclimatology,Palaeoecology,257(1-2):58-66.
Kusky,T.M.,Ye,M.H.,Wang,J.P.,and Wang,L.,2010.Geological evolution of Longhushan World Geopark in relation to global tectonics.Journal of Earth Science,21(1):1-18.
Mabi,A.,Yang,Z.X.,Zhang,M.C.,Wen,D.K.,Li,Y.L.,and Liu,X.Y.,2018.Two types of granites in the western Yangtze Block and their implications for regional tectonic evolution:constraints from geochemistry and isotopic data.Acta Geologica Sinica(English Edition),92(1):89-105.
Mc Bride,E.F.,and Picard,M.D.,2004.Origin of honeycombs and related weathering forms in Oligocene Macigno Sandstone,Tuscan coast near Livorno,Italy.Earth Surface Processes and Landforms,29(6):713-735.
Mol,L.,2014.Investigations into the relationship between changes in internal moisture regimes and rock surface deterioration in cavernous sandstone features.Earth Surface Processes and Landforms,39(7):914-927.
Mol,L.,and Viles,H.A.,2012.The role of rock surface hardness and internal moisture in tafoni development in sandstone.Earth Surface Processes and Landforms,37(3):301-314.
Mottershead,D.,Gorbushina,A.,Lucas,G.,and Wright,J.,2003.The influence of marine salts,aspect and microbes in the weathering of sandstone in two historic structures.Building and environment,38(9-10):1193-1204.
Mustoe,G.E.,2010.Biogenic origin of coastal honeycomb weathering.Earth Surface Processes and Landforms,35(4):424-434.
Okabe,A,Boots,B.,Sugihara,K.,et al,2000.Spatial Tessellations:Concepts and Applications of Voronoi Diagrams.John Wiley&Sons.
Paradise,T.R.,2013.Tafoni and other rock basins.In:John F.Shroder(ed.)Treatise on Geomorphology,Vol.4:111-126.San Diego:Academic Press.
Peng,H.,Ren,F.,and Pan,Z.X.,2015.A review of Danxia landforms in China.Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie,59(suppl.1):19-33.
Robinson,D.A.,and Williams,R.B.G.,2000.Experimental weathering of sandstone by combinations of salts.Earth Surface Processes and Landforms,25(12):1309-1315.
Rodriguez-Navarro,C.,1998.Evidence of honeycomb weathering on Mars.Geophysical Research Letters,25(17):3249-3252.
Schnepfleitner,H.,Sass,O.,Fruhmann,S.,Viles,H.,and Goudie,A.,2016.A multi-method investigation of temperature,moisture and salt dynamics in tafoni(Tafraoute,Morocco).Earth Surface Processes and Landforms,41(4):473-485.
Shu,L.S.,Zhou,X.M.,Deng,P.,and Zhu,W.B.,2007.Mesozoic-Cenozoic Basin Features and Evolution of Southeast China.Acta Geologica Sinica(English Edition),81(4):573-586.
Turkington,A.V.,and Paradise T.R.,2005.Sandstone weathering:a century of research and innovation.Geomorphology,67(1-2):229-253.
Turkington,A.V.,and Phillips,J.D.,2004.Cavernous weathering,dynamical instability and self-organization.Earth Surface Processes and Landforms,29(6):665-675.
Urban,J.,and Górnik,M.,2017.Some aspects of lithological and exogenic control of sandstone morphology,the?wi?tokrzyskie(Holy Cross)Mts.case study,Poland.Geomorphology,295:773-789.
Wang,C.,Shao,Y.J.,Liu,Z.F.,Liu,Q.Q.,and Zhang,Y.,2018.Geology and geochemistry of the Shizitou molybdenum deposit,Jiangxi Province:implications for geodynamic setting and metallogenesis.Acta Geologica Sinica(English Edition),92(4):1415-1431.
Young,R.W.,Wray,R.A.L.,and Young,A.R.M.,2009.Sandstone Landforms.Cambridge University Press.
Zhang,X.Q.,1992.Division and Correlation of Cretaceous in Danxia Basin.Journal of Stratigraphy,16(2):81-95(In Chinese).
Zhang,X.Q.,and Lin,X.Y.,2013.Cretaceous ostracods from the Changba Formation in the Danxia Basin of northern Guangdong Province.Acta Micropalaeontologica Sinica,30(1):58-86(in Chinese with English Abstract).
Zhu,C.,Wu,L.,Zhu,T.X.,Hou,R.F.,Hu,Z.N.,Tan,Y.,Sun,W.,Jia,T.J.,and Peng,H.,2015.Experimental studies on the Danxia landscape morphogenesis in Mt.Danxiashan,South China.Journal of Geographical Sciences,25(8):943-966.