Zika threatens to become a huge worldwide pandemic
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摘要
The Aedes aegypti mosquito which transmits Zika virus(as well as dengue, chikungunya and yellow fever) represents a high risk for global transmission. This virus comes from Africa, the Zika forest in Uganda, where it was discovered in 1947 in a rhesus monkey. In May 2015, the first local cases were recorded in Brazil, surpassing 1.5 million cases in December of the same year. By March 2016, local transmission of Zika was recognized in 34 countries. Its clinical condition is similar to dengue febrile illness, although milder.The final geographical distribution area is constantly expanding. Recently, it has been associated with cases of Guillain-Barre′ syndrome in Brazil, Colombia, El Salvador,Venezuela and Suriname. Microcephaly was documented in Brazil. This article discusses some factors that contributed to the spread of Zika virus in South America. Climate change associated with the events of the phenomenon of "El Ni?o" is also analyzed. The biggest concern is how quickly Zika is spreading around the world and that it could be far more dangerous than previously thought. Zika virus infection, by its explosive potential,has every chance of becoming a global pandemic.
The Aedes aegypti mosquito which transmits Zika virus(as well as dengue, chikungunya and yellow fever) represents a high risk for global transmission. This virus comes from Africa, the Zika forest in Uganda, where it was discovered in 1947 in a rhesus monkey. In May 2015, the first local cases were recorded in Brazil, surpassing 1.5 million cases in December of the same year. By March 2016, local transmission of Zika was recognized in 34 countries. Its clinical condition is similar to dengue febrile illness, although milder.The final geographical distribution area is constantly expanding. Recently, it has been associated with cases of Guillain-Barre′ syndrome in Brazil, Colombia, El Salvador,Venezuela and Suriname. Microcephaly was documented in Brazil. This article discusses some factors that contributed to the spread of Zika virus in South America. Climate change associated with the events of the phenomenon of "El Ni?o" is also analyzed. The biggest concern is how quickly Zika is spreading around the world and that it could be far more dangerous than previously thought. Zika virus infection, by its explosive potential,has every chance of becoming a global pandemic.
The Aedes aegypti mosquito which transmits Zika virus(as well as dengue, chikungunya and yellow fever) represents a high risk for global transmission. This virus comes from Africa, the Zika forest in Uganda, where it was discovered in 1947 in a rhesus monkey. In May 2015, the first local cases were recorded in Brazil, surpassing 1.5 million cases in December of the same year. By March 2016, local transmission of Zika was recognized in 34 countries. Its clinical condition is similar to dengue febrile illness, although milder.The final geographical distribution area is constantly expanding. Recently, it has been associated with cases of Guillain-Barre′ syndrome in Brazil, Colombia, El Salvador,Venezuela and Suriname. Microcephaly was documented in Brazil. This article discusses some factors that contributed to the spread of Zika virus in South America. Climate change associated with the events of the phenomenon of "El Ni?o" is also analyzed. The biggest concern is how quickly Zika is spreading around the world and that it could be far more dangerous than previously thought. Zika virus infection, by its explosive potential,has every chance of becoming a global pandemic.
引文
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[4]Duffy MR,Chen TH,Hancock WT,Powers AM,Kool JL,Lanciotti RS,et al.Zika virus outbreak on Yap Island,Federated States of Micronesia.N Engl J Med 2009;360(24):2536-43.
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[8]Cardoso CW,Paploski IA,Kikuti M,Rodrigues MS,Silva MM,Campos GS,et al.Outbreak of exanthematous illness associated with Zika,chikungunya,and dengue viruses,Salvador,Brazil.Emerg Infect Dis 2015;21(12):2274-6.
[9]Lee J.Zika virus infection:new threat in global health.J Korean Med Sci 2016;31(3):331-2.
[10]Yamey G,Torreele E.The world's most neglected diseases.BMJ2002;325:176-7.
[11]Medlock JM,Hansford KM,Schaffner F,Versteirt V,Hendrickx G,Zeller H,et al.A review of the invasive mosquitoes in Europe:ecology,public health risk,and control options.Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2012;12(6):435-47.
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[13]Weaver SC,Reisen WK.Present and future arboviral threats.Antivir Res 2010;85:328-45.
[14]Hayes EB.Zika virus outside Africa.Emerg Infect Dis 2009;15(9):1347-50.
[15]Woolhouse MEJ,Gowtage-Sequeria S.Host range and emerging and reemerging pathogens.Emerg Infect Dis 2005;11(12):1842-7.
[16]Monath TP.Yellow fever.In:Monath TP,editor.The arboviruses:epidemiology and ecology.Boca Raton:CRC Press;1988,p.139-241.
[17]Hennessey M,Fischer M,Staples JE.Zika virus spreads to new areas–region of the Americas,May 2015–January 2016.MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2016;65:55-8.
[18]Weaver SC.Vector biology in viral pathogenesis.In:Nathanson N,editor.Viral pathogenesis.New York:Lippincott-Raven;1997,p.329-52.
[19]Brady OJ,Golding N,Pigott DM,Kraemer MU,Messina JP,Reiner RC Jr,et al.Global temperature constraints on Aedes aegypti and Ae.albopictus persistence and competence for dengue virus transmission.Parasit Vectors 2014;7:338.
[20]Campbell KM,Lin CD,Iamsirithaworn S,Scott TW.The complex relationship between weather and dengue virus transmission in Thailand.Am J Trop Med Hyg 2013;89(6):1066-80.
[21]Carrington LB,Seifert SN,Armijos MV,Lambrechts L,Scott TW.Reduction of Aedes aegypti vector competence for dengue virus under large temperature fluctuations.Am J Trop Med Hyg 2013;88:689-97.
[22]Lambrechts L,Paaijmans KP,Fansiri T,Carrington LB,Kramer LD,Thomas MB,et al.Impact of daily temperature fluctuations on dengue virus transmission by Aedes aegypti.Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2011;108:7460-5.
[23]Carrington LB,Armijos MV,Lambrechts L,Scott TW.Fluctuations at a low mean temperature accelerate dengue virus transmission by Aedes aegypti.PLo S Negl Trop Dis 2013;7:e2190.
[24]Nagao Y,Thavara U,Chitnumsup P,Tawatsin A,Chansang C,Campbell-Lendrum D.Climatic and social risk factors for Aedes infestation in rural Thailand.Trop Med Int Health 2003;8:650-9.
[25]Richardson K,Hoffmann AA,Johnson P,Ritchie S,Kearney MR.Thermal sensitivity of Aedes aegypti from Australia:empirical data and prediction of effects on distribution.J Med Entomol 2011;48:914-23.
[26]Estallo EL,Lamfri MA,Scavuzzo CM,Almeida FF,Introini MV,Zaidenberg M,et al.Models for predicting Aedes aegypti larval indices based on satellite images and climatic variables.J Am Mosq Control Assoc 2008;24:368-76.
[27]Johansson MA,Dominici F,Glass GE.Local and global effects of climate on dengue transmission in Puerto Rico.PLo S Negl Trop Dis 2009;3:e382.
[28]Barbazan P,Guiserix M,Boonyuan W,Tuntaprasart W,Pontier D,Gonzalez JP.Modelling the effect of temperature on transmission of dengue.Med Vet Entomol 2009;24:66-73.
[29]Carrington LB,Seifert SN,Willits NH,Lambrechts L,Scott TW.Large diurnal temperature fluctuations negatively influence Aedes aegypti(Diptera:Culicidae)life-history traits.J Med Entomol2013;50:43-51.
[30]Rohani A,Wong YC,Zamre I,Lee HL,Zurainee MN.The effect of extrinsic incubation temperature on development of dengue serotype 2 and 4 viruses in Aedes aegypti(L.).Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health 2009;40:942-50.
[31]Liang G,Gao X,Gould EA.Factors responsible for the emergence of arbovirus;strategies,challenges and limitations for their control.Emerg Microbes Infect 2015;4(3):e18.
[32]Eisen L,Beaty BJ,Morrison AC,Scott TW.Proactive vector control strategies and improved monitoring and evaluation practices for dengue prevention.J Med Entomol 2009;46(6):1245-55.
[33]Llina′s GA,Gardenal CN.Phylogeography of Aedes aegypti in Argentina:long-distance colonization and rapid restoration of fragmented relicts after a continental control campaign.Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2012;12:254-61.
[34]Morrison AC,Gray K,Getis A,Astete H,Sihuincha M,Focks D,et al.Temporal and geographic patterns of Aedes aegypti(Diptera:Culicidae)production in Iquitos,Peru.J Med Entomol 2004;41:1123-42.
[35]Ayorinde A,Oboh B,Otubanjo O,Alimba A,Odeigah P.Some toxicological effects of a commonly used mosquito repellent in Lagos State,Nigeria.Res J Environ Toxicol 2014;8:46-52.
[36]Koou SY,Chong CS,Vythilingam J,Lee CY,Ng LC.Insecticide resistance and its underlying mechanisms in field populations of Aedes aegypti adults(Diptera:Culicidae)in Singapore.Parasit Vectors 2014;7:471.
[37]Basso C,Caffera RM,García da Rosa E,Lairihoy R,Gonza′lez C,Norbis W,et al.Mosquito-producing containers,spatial distribution,and relationship between Aedes aegypti population indices on the southern boundary of its distribution in South America(Salto,Uruguay).Am J Trop Med Hyg 2012;87:1083-8.
[38]Rubio A,Cardo MV,Vezzani D.Tire-breeding mosquitoes of public health importance along an urbanization gradient in Buenos Aires,Argentina.Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 2011;106:678-84.
[39]Díaz-Nieto LM,Macia′A,Perotti MA,Bero′n CM.Geographical limits of the southeastern distribution of Aedes aegypti(Diptera,Culicidae)in Argentina.PLo S Negl Trop Dis 2013;7:e1963.
[40]Soliani C,Rondan-Due?as J,Chiappero MB,Martínez M,Da Rosa EG,Gardenal CN.Genetic relationships among populations of Aedes aegypti from Uruguay and northeastern Argentina inferred from ISSR-PCR data.Med Vet Entomol 2010;24:316-23.
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