古格王国早期的一幅观音唐卡（英文）
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- 英文论文题名：An Early Thangka of Avalokitevara from the Kingdom of Guge
- 论文作者：阿米·海勒
- 英文论文作者：Amy Heller ; Center for Tibetan Studies of Sichuan University ; Research Collaborator ; CNRS
- 年：2014
- 作者机构：四川大学中国藏学研究所;法国国家科学研究中心;
- 会议召开时间：2014-09-01
- 会议录名称：藏学学刊（第10辑）
- 英文会议录名称：Journal of Tibetology
- 语种：英文
- 分类号：J219
- 学会代码：SCZX
- 学会名称：四川大学中国藏学研究所
- 页数：17
- 文件大小：7313k
- 原文格式：O
摘要
1933-1937年间,朱塞佩·图齐教授在托林寺、塔波寺、芒囊寺及古格王国的边远寺庙中发现了大量早期插图藏文写本、壁画及雕塑,余响不绝,近年来霍巍教授带领的团队在聂/卡孜(Nyag/Khatse)、张建林研究员带领的团队在托林都获得了古代寺庙壁画及写本的重要发现。上述艺术作品揭示了受邀前来为1 1-12世纪间拉喇嘛益西沃及古格-普兰王室支持的寺庙进行庄严的克什米尔艺术家的美学影响。本文将集中分析其中一幅独特的红色身形的观音唐卡,这幅唐卡绘画的重要性在于其作为古格王国鼎盛时期西藏西部克什米尔风格的便携式绘画作品的典型范例而具有的美学及历史意义。此唐卡中展现了克什米尔艺术的独特绘画技法要素。此外,与图齐教授西藏考察中由欧金尼奥·盖尔西博士所摄的芒囊寺壁画照片相比较,此唐卡与前者在年代及艺术风格上极为相近,尤其体现在方形的曼荼罗构图,以及克什米尔艺术中对色彩范式及明暗对照法的偏好。探讨其宗教历史背景,则既与敦煌藏文写卷中保存的宗教仪轨有关,也与金刚界曼荼罗相关,后者是西藏西部早期寺庙的壁画及雕塑中体现的最首要的佛教体系,所遵循的是由王室上师仁钦桑波(958-1055)及另一克什米尔上师重译的藏文新译经典。
From 1933-1937,Professor Giuseppe Tucci discovered many early Tibetan illuminated manuscripts and mural paintings as well as sculptures in Tholing,Tabo,Mang nang and remote temples of the Guge kingdom,echoed by recent discoveries of ancient temples with murals and manuscripts by teams led by Professors Huo Wei at Nyag/Khatse and Zhang Jianlin in Tholing.These works of art have revealed the aesthetic of the Kashmiri artists invited to embellish the temples founded under the aegis of Lha bla ma Ye shes 'od and the royal family of Guge-Pu hrang during the 11 th to 12 th century.This article will focus on a thangka of a distinctive red aspect of Avalokitesvara.This painting is highly important for its aesthetic and historic significance as an example of portable painting of the Kashmiri school in western Tibet during the apogee of the Guge kingdom.This thangka exhibits features of painting techniques specific to this school of painting.Also,in the light of comparison with the mural paintings of Mang nang photographed by Dr.Eugenio Ghersi during the Tucci expeditions,this thangka has close chronological and aesthetic parallels in terms of the mandala composition in square configuration as well as the Kashmiri stylistic grammar and preferences for chromatic modeling and chiaroscuro.In terms of religious history,there is correlation to ritual evocations conserved among the Tibetan Dunhuang manuscripts as well as to the Vajradhatu mandala,the primary Buddhist cycle represented in both wall paintings and sculpture in early temples of western Tibet following its re-translation into Tibetan language by the royal chapelain Rin chen bzang po(958-1055) and a Kashmiri Buddhist master.
From 1933-1937,Professor Giuseppe Tucci discovered many early Tibetan illuminated manuscripts and mural paintings as well as sculptures in Tholing,Tabo,Mang nang and remote temples of the Guge kingdom,echoed by recent discoveries of ancient temples with murals and manuscripts by teams led by Professors Huo Wei at Nyag/Khatse and Zhang Jianlin in Tholing.These works of art have revealed the aesthetic of the Kashmiri artists invited to embellish the temples founded under the aegis of Lha bla ma Ye shes 'od and the royal family of Guge-Pu hrang during the 11 th to 12 th century.This article will focus on a thangka of a distinctive red aspect of Avalokitesvara.This painting is highly important for its aesthetic and historic significance as an example of portable painting of the Kashmiri school in western Tibet during the apogee of the Guge kingdom.This thangka exhibits features of painting techniques specific to this school of painting.Also,in the light of comparison with the mural paintings of Mang nang photographed by Dr.Eugenio Ghersi during the Tucci expeditions,this thangka has close chronological and aesthetic parallels in terms of the mandala composition in square configuration as well as the Kashmiri stylistic grammar and preferences for chromatic modeling and chiaroscuro.In terms of religious history,there is correlation to ritual evocations conserved among the Tibetan Dunhuang manuscripts as well as to the Vajradhatu mandala,the primary Buddhist cycle represented in both wall paintings and sculpture in early temples of western Tibet following its re-translation into Tibetan language by the royal chapelain Rin chen bzang po(958-1055) and a Kashmiri Buddhist master.
引文
Buhnemann,Gudrun.1992."Some Remarks on the Date of Abhayakaragupta and the Chronology of His Works."Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenlandischen Gesellschaft,vol.142,no.1:120-127.
Gunasinghe,Siri.1957.La Technique de la Peinture Indienne d'apres les textes du Shilpa,Paris:Presses Universitaitre de France(Annales du Musee Guimet,tome 62).
Harrison,Paul.2007."Notes on some West Tibetan manuscript folios in the Los Angeles County Museum of Art",In Pramanakirtih edited by Birgit Kellner,Helmut Krasser,Horst Lasic,Michael T.Much,Helmut Tauscher,Vienna:Arbeitskreis fur Tibetische und Buddhistische Studien.229-246.
Heller,Amy.2009.Hidden Treasures of the Himalayas,Tibetan manuscripts,paintings and sculptures of Dolpo.Chicago:Serindia Publications.
——2010."Preliminary Remarks on the Donor Inscriptions and Iconography of an 11thcentury Mchodrten at Tholing,"In Tibetan Art and Architecture in Context,Proceedings of the 11th Seminar of the International Association for Tibetan Studies,edited by Erberto Lo Bue and Christian Luczanits,Andiast:International Institute for Tibetan and Buddhist Studies GmbH.43-74.
——2014."Early Paintings from West Tibet and the Western Himalayas in the Margot and Thomas J.Pritzker Collection",Orientations,vol 45/5:36-49.
——Forthcoming(2015)."Tracing the impact of kashmiri art in Guge and Ladakh,11-13th century,"Journal of Inner Asian Art and Archaeology vol.8,guest editor John Clarke.
Huo Wei,Zhang Changhong and Lu Hongliang,2009."Xi zang A li xiang quan he liu yu ka zi he gu fo jiao yi cun de kao gu diao cha yu yan jiu",Kaogu xuebao,vol.4:547-577.
Klimburg-Salter,Deborah.1982.The Silk Route and the Diamond Path.Los Angeles:UCLA Art Council.
Klimburg-Salter,Deborah.1997.Tabo,A Lamp for the Kingdom.Milano:Skira.
——1999."The Dharmadhatu Vagishvara Manjusri Mandala..Tabo Du khang",In Tabo StudiesⅡ,Manuscripts,Texts,Inscriptions and the Arts,edited by Cristina Anna ScherrerSchaub and Ernst Steinkellner.Roma:IsMEO.299-320.
de Mallmann,Marie-Therese.1975(1986 reprint).Introduction a l'iconographie du Bouddhisme tantrique.Paris:Adrien Maisonneuve Librairie d'Amerique et d'Orient.
Namgyal,P.2001.Mtholing Monastery.Beijing:Encyclopedia of China Publishing House.
Neumann,Helmut.1998."The Cave of the Offering Goddesses:Early Painting in Western Tibet",Oriental Art,vol.44/4:52-60.
Pal,Pratapaditya.1983.Art of Tibet.Los Angeles:Los Angeles County Museum of Art.
——2003.Himalayas an Aesthetic Adventure(with contributions by Amy Heller,Oscar von Hin(u|¨)ber and Ian Alsop).Chicago:Art Institute of Chicago.
——2007a.The Arts of Kashmir.New York:Asia Society.
——2007b."A Painted Book Cover from Ancient Kashmir",www.asiantart.com.
Pritzker,Thomas J.1996."A Preliminary report on Early Cave Paintings of Western Tibet",Orientations,June 1996:26-47.
——2008."The Wall Paintings of Nyag Lhakhang dkarpo",Orientations,vol.39/2:102-113.
van Schaik,Sam.2006."The Tibetan Avalokitesvara cult in the Tenth century:Evidence from the Dunhuang Manuscripts",In Tibetan Buddhist Literature and Praxis,edited by Ronald Davidson and Christian Wedemeyer.Leiden:Brill.2006:55-72.
Snellgrove,David,(translator)1980."Biography of Rin chen bzang po",in D.Snellgrove and T.Skorupski(eds).The Cultural Heritage ofLadakh,vol.2,Warminster,1980:83-116.
——1987.Lido-Tibetan Buddhism.London:Serindia Publications.
Tucci,Giuseppe.1935.Indo-Tibetica,vol.m/1."The paintings of Western Tibet".
——1937."Indian Paintings in Western Tibetan temples",ArtibusAsiae xxxx vol.7:191-204,reprinted in Opera Minora parte 2:357-362.
——1949.Tibetan Painted Scrolls.Roma:Libreria Dello Stato.
Vitali,Roberto.1996.The Kingdoms of Guge Pu hrang,Dharmasala,Tho ling gtsug lag khang lo gcig stong'khor ba'i rjes dran mdzad sgo'i go sgrig tshogs chung.
——1999.Records of Tho Jing,Dharamsala:High Asia.
1 Tucci 1935,vol.Ⅲ/I and Tucci 1937.
2 Huo Wei,Zhang Changhong,Lu Hongliang 2009 and Pritzker 2008;see Heller 2011 for discussion of the findings of Zhang Jianlin as well as Zhang Jianlin in press.
3 See Namgyel 2001.At Tholing,inside two stupa wall paintings have been attributed to Kashmiri painters c.1025,one of these stupa has been identified as the funerary reliquary(sku gdung)of Ye shes'od,see Heller 2010:43-74.(and Heller 2011:228-251,=Journals of Tibetology vol.7,"Tuolinsi 11 shiji fota zhong gong-yang-ren tiji ji tuxiang de chubu yanjiu(托林寺11世纪佛塔中供养人题记及图像的初步研究)",translated by Yang Qingfan,Chengdu:Sichuan University Press,2012:228-251.)For a painted Kashmiri wooden book-cover attributed late 10th century,see Pal 2007 b.
4 See Heller 2014.Pal 2003:144-145 illustrated Kashmiri painted wood panels of a Cakrasamvara mandala.Due to the small format,quite possibly these were painted in Kashmir and imported to Guge,although they may have been painted by Kashmiri artists working in Guge.
5 The majority of Tucci's illuminated manuscripts are now conserved in the Los Angeles County Museum of Art,see Tucci 1949:274-275 and.Plate C,D.Additional photographs of Tucci's Tholing manuscripts are found in Pal,1983.and Pal 2007:ch.5.Painting in Ancient Kashmir(600-1200).
6 Snellgrove 1980:92 and 106(line 26).
7 Harrison 2007:229-246.
8 Several aspects of Avalokitesvara(standing/seated,1 or 11 heads,2 or 4 or 6 arms)have been documented among Kashmiri sculptures and sculptures cast in metal or modeled in clay in the late 10th to 11th century in the Guge kingdom for which no sadhana are extant,although their historic authenticity(in some cases corroborated by dedication inscriptions)is not in doubt.The sadhana either have been lost over time,or were not included or translated in the ritual compendia such as the Sadhanamala.See Heller forthcoming for study of several of these sculptures.
9 See Tucci 1937,for the square mandala configuration at the temples in Mang nang,which were commissioned between 1037 and 1041 according to the chronology for Mang nang determined by Vitali 1999:16.The square configuration of mandala is also documented at Tholing(Heller 2011),at Nyag Lhakhang dkarpo(Pritzker 2008,Huo Wei et al 2009),at Tabo,Piyang and at Dunkar(Klimburg-Salter 1999).
10 This iconography of a seated red AvalokitesVara with 1 heads and 2 arms does not correspond to any sadhana known at present in the Dunhuang manuscripts and the Indian ritual anthologies.For Tibetan sadhana among the Dunhuang manuscripts of the 10th-11th century which reflect other unique iconographic aspects of Avalokitesvara,see van Schaik,2006:62.
11 The circular configuration is present in c.10~(th)century Tibetan mandala recovered among the Dunhuang manuscripts,however it differs from the Indian model.See Heller 2014 for a circular mandala of a seated eleven-head Avalokitesvara attributed to Kashmiri artists in the Guge kingdom and Klimburg-Salter 1982:p1.61 and p1.73 for Tibetan mandala from Dunhuang now conserved in New Delhi(National Museum)and Paris(Musee Guimet).
12 This distinctive gesture is also made by Vajradharma,one of the 16 Bodhisattva of the Vajradhatu mandala,but Vajradharma's color is white with reddish tint,not red(see Heller 2010).
13 Pritzker 1996:fig.24 illustrates murals at Phyiang with the same nimbus differentiation.
14 It is significant that Vajrapuspa is yellow in this mandala because she is usually white.She is yellow only in the context of the eight goddesses of the Vajradhatu mandala and the Dharmadhatu vagishvara mandala(de Mallmann1986:313).This implies that the present mandala is related to the Vajradhatu cycle.
15 Neumann 1998:fig.9 identified the goddess beside Vajrasphota as Dipa,the goddess offering light.The Tibetan name is rdo rje mar me ma,literally,"the vajra goddess of the butter lamp"which corresponds exactly to this red goddess.
16 Vitali 1999:16 discusses the chronology of 1037-1041 for the construction Mang nang,.It is known that Atisha wrote a text there,thus its construction was prior to 1045,when he left Guge.For the chronology of Dun mkhar,it is known that the capital of Guge was moved from Tholing to Dun mkhar following the assassination of rTse lde ca.1083,thus a phase of royal commission of mural paintings was initiated shortly thereafter(Vitali 1996:344).
17 Pal 1983:illustrates a Prajfiaparamita manuscript with a large and most elegant illumination depicting a six-arm aspect of the goddess Prajfiaparamita,represented with male donors wearing very similar robes to the present mandala donors.For the donors at Tabo,see Klimburg-Salter,1997.For the lady's garments,a slightly later version of the same short red cape over the white robes with fluted blue pleats may be seen in the donor portraits of the manuscripts now conserved in the Pijor sanctuary,Dolpo which are believed to have been imported to Dolpo from Tholing(Heller 2001:70 and Heller 2009:91-93,figs.65-67.)
18 van Schaik 2006:62.
19 van Schaik 2006:61.
20 Buhnemann 1992:120-127 for chronology of Abhayakaragupta and his work on the Sadhanamala.
21 deMallmann 1986:108 for description of aspects of Avalokitesvara.
22 In addition to the photographs of Mang nang published by Giuseppe Tucci,the photograph P 3290(see fig.6)shows a mandala of a six-armed Avalokitesvara at Mang nang in the Tucci archives in Rome.At Mang nang,Tucci took a detail photograph of a painting of Vajradharma,a Bodhisattva of the Vajtadhatu cycle,holding a lotus stem in left hand,the right hand opening the lotus at the level of his heart just like the central deity of the present mandala.However there is no indication that Vajradharma was the center of a mandala at Mang nang(see fig.4,after Tucci archives P 1744 published in Tucci 1937:198 and fig.5).
23 This technique of the single-hair brush is called ek bal kal,according to Gunasinghe 1957:38.
24 Tucci 1937:fig.8 and fig.10.
Gunasinghe,Siri.1957.La Technique de la Peinture Indienne d'apres les textes du Shilpa,Paris:Presses Universitaitre de France(Annales du Musee Guimet,tome 62).
Harrison,Paul.2007."Notes on some West Tibetan manuscript folios in the Los Angeles County Museum of Art",In Pramanakirtih edited by Birgit Kellner,Helmut Krasser,Horst Lasic,Michael T.Much,Helmut Tauscher,Vienna:Arbeitskreis fur Tibetische und Buddhistische Studien.229-246.
Heller,Amy.2009.Hidden Treasures of the Himalayas,Tibetan manuscripts,paintings and sculptures of Dolpo.Chicago:Serindia Publications.
——2010."Preliminary Remarks on the Donor Inscriptions and Iconography of an 11thcentury Mchodrten at Tholing,"In Tibetan Art and Architecture in Context,Proceedings of the 11th Seminar of the International Association for Tibetan Studies,edited by Erberto Lo Bue and Christian Luczanits,Andiast:International Institute for Tibetan and Buddhist Studies GmbH.43-74.
——2014."Early Paintings from West Tibet and the Western Himalayas in the Margot and Thomas J.Pritzker Collection",Orientations,vol 45/5:36-49.
——Forthcoming(2015)."Tracing the impact of kashmiri art in Guge and Ladakh,11-13th century,"Journal of Inner Asian Art and Archaeology vol.8,guest editor John Clarke.
Huo Wei,Zhang Changhong and Lu Hongliang,2009."Xi zang A li xiang quan he liu yu ka zi he gu fo jiao yi cun de kao gu diao cha yu yan jiu",Kaogu xuebao,vol.4:547-577.
Klimburg-Salter,Deborah.1982.The Silk Route and the Diamond Path.Los Angeles:UCLA Art Council.
Klimburg-Salter,Deborah.1997.Tabo,A Lamp for the Kingdom.Milano:Skira.
——1999."The Dharmadhatu Vagishvara Manjusri Mandala..Tabo Du khang",In Tabo StudiesⅡ,Manuscripts,Texts,Inscriptions and the Arts,edited by Cristina Anna ScherrerSchaub and Ernst Steinkellner.Roma:IsMEO.299-320.
de Mallmann,Marie-Therese.1975(1986 reprint).Introduction a l'iconographie du Bouddhisme tantrique.Paris:Adrien Maisonneuve Librairie d'Amerique et d'Orient.
Namgyal,P.2001.Mtholing Monastery.Beijing:Encyclopedia of China Publishing House.
Neumann,Helmut.1998."The Cave of the Offering Goddesses:Early Painting in Western Tibet",Oriental Art,vol.44/4:52-60.
Pal,Pratapaditya.1983.Art of Tibet.Los Angeles:Los Angeles County Museum of Art.
——2003.Himalayas an Aesthetic Adventure(with contributions by Amy Heller,Oscar von Hin(u|¨)ber and Ian Alsop).Chicago:Art Institute of Chicago.
——2007a.The Arts of Kashmir.New York:Asia Society.
——2007b."A Painted Book Cover from Ancient Kashmir",www.asiantart.com.
Pritzker,Thomas J.1996."A Preliminary report on Early Cave Paintings of Western Tibet",Orientations,June 1996:26-47.
——2008."The Wall Paintings of Nyag Lhakhang dkarpo",Orientations,vol.39/2:102-113.
van Schaik,Sam.2006."The Tibetan Avalokitesvara cult in the Tenth century:Evidence from the Dunhuang Manuscripts",In Tibetan Buddhist Literature and Praxis,edited by Ronald Davidson and Christian Wedemeyer.Leiden:Brill.2006:55-72.
Snellgrove,David,(translator)1980."Biography of Rin chen bzang po",in D.Snellgrove and T.Skorupski(eds).The Cultural Heritage ofLadakh,vol.2,Warminster,1980:83-116.
——1987.Lido-Tibetan Buddhism.London:Serindia Publications.
Tucci,Giuseppe.1935.Indo-Tibetica,vol.m/1."The paintings of Western Tibet".
——1937."Indian Paintings in Western Tibetan temples",ArtibusAsiae xxxx vol.7:191-204,reprinted in Opera Minora parte 2:357-362.
——1949.Tibetan Painted Scrolls.Roma:Libreria Dello Stato.
Vitali,Roberto.1996.The Kingdoms of Guge Pu hrang,Dharmasala,Tho ling gtsug lag khang lo gcig stong'khor ba'i rjes dran mdzad sgo'i go sgrig tshogs chung.
——1999.Records of Tho Jing,Dharamsala:High Asia.
1 Tucci 1935,vol.Ⅲ/I and Tucci 1937.
2 Huo Wei,Zhang Changhong,Lu Hongliang 2009 and Pritzker 2008;see Heller 2011 for discussion of the findings of Zhang Jianlin as well as Zhang Jianlin in press.
3 See Namgyel 2001.At Tholing,inside two stupa wall paintings have been attributed to Kashmiri painters c.1025,one of these stupa has been identified as the funerary reliquary(sku gdung)of Ye shes'od,see Heller 2010:43-74.(and Heller 2011:228-251,=Journals of Tibetology vol.7,"Tuolinsi 11 shiji fota zhong gong-yang-ren tiji ji tuxiang de chubu yanjiu(托林寺11世纪佛塔中供养人题记及图像的初步研究)",translated by Yang Qingfan,Chengdu:Sichuan University Press,2012:228-251.)For a painted Kashmiri wooden book-cover attributed late 10th century,see Pal 2007 b.
4 See Heller 2014.Pal 2003:144-145 illustrated Kashmiri painted wood panels of a Cakrasamvara mandala.Due to the small format,quite possibly these were painted in Kashmir and imported to Guge,although they may have been painted by Kashmiri artists working in Guge.
5 The majority of Tucci's illuminated manuscripts are now conserved in the Los Angeles County Museum of Art,see Tucci 1949:274-275 and.Plate C,D.Additional photographs of Tucci's Tholing manuscripts are found in Pal,1983.and Pal 2007:ch.5.Painting in Ancient Kashmir(600-1200).
6 Snellgrove 1980:92 and 106(line 26).
7 Harrison 2007:229-246.
8 Several aspects of Avalokitesvara(standing/seated,1 or 11 heads,2 or 4 or 6 arms)have been documented among Kashmiri sculptures and sculptures cast in metal or modeled in clay in the late 10th to 11th century in the Guge kingdom for which no sadhana are extant,although their historic authenticity(in some cases corroborated by dedication inscriptions)is not in doubt.The sadhana either have been lost over time,or were not included or translated in the ritual compendia such as the Sadhanamala.See Heller forthcoming for study of several of these sculptures.
9 See Tucci 1937,for the square mandala configuration at the temples in Mang nang,which were commissioned between 1037 and 1041 according to the chronology for Mang nang determined by Vitali 1999:16.The square configuration of mandala is also documented at Tholing(Heller 2011),at Nyag Lhakhang dkarpo(Pritzker 2008,Huo Wei et al 2009),at Tabo,Piyang and at Dunkar(Klimburg-Salter 1999).
10 This iconography of a seated red AvalokitesVara with 1 heads and 2 arms does not correspond to any sadhana known at present in the Dunhuang manuscripts and the Indian ritual anthologies.For Tibetan sadhana among the Dunhuang manuscripts of the 10th-11th century which reflect other unique iconographic aspects of Avalokitesvara,see van Schaik,2006:62.
11 The circular configuration is present in c.10~(th)century Tibetan mandala recovered among the Dunhuang manuscripts,however it differs from the Indian model.See Heller 2014 for a circular mandala of a seated eleven-head Avalokitesvara attributed to Kashmiri artists in the Guge kingdom and Klimburg-Salter 1982:p1.61 and p1.73 for Tibetan mandala from Dunhuang now conserved in New Delhi(National Museum)and Paris(Musee Guimet).
12 This distinctive gesture is also made by Vajradharma,one of the 16 Bodhisattva of the Vajradhatu mandala,but Vajradharma's color is white with reddish tint,not red(see Heller 2010).
13 Pritzker 1996:fig.24 illustrates murals at Phyiang with the same nimbus differentiation.
14 It is significant that Vajrapuspa is yellow in this mandala because she is usually white.She is yellow only in the context of the eight goddesses of the Vajradhatu mandala and the Dharmadhatu vagishvara mandala(de Mallmann1986:313).This implies that the present mandala is related to the Vajradhatu cycle.
15 Neumann 1998:fig.9 identified the goddess beside Vajrasphota as Dipa,the goddess offering light.The Tibetan name is rdo rje mar me ma,literally,"the vajra goddess of the butter lamp"which corresponds exactly to this red goddess.
16 Vitali 1999:16 discusses the chronology of 1037-1041 for the construction Mang nang,.It is known that Atisha wrote a text there,thus its construction was prior to 1045,when he left Guge.For the chronology of Dun mkhar,it is known that the capital of Guge was moved from Tholing to Dun mkhar following the assassination of rTse lde ca.1083,thus a phase of royal commission of mural paintings was initiated shortly thereafter(Vitali 1996:344).
17 Pal 1983:illustrates a Prajfiaparamita manuscript with a large and most elegant illumination depicting a six-arm aspect of the goddess Prajfiaparamita,represented with male donors wearing very similar robes to the present mandala donors.For the donors at Tabo,see Klimburg-Salter,1997.For the lady's garments,a slightly later version of the same short red cape over the white robes with fluted blue pleats may be seen in the donor portraits of the manuscripts now conserved in the Pijor sanctuary,Dolpo which are believed to have been imported to Dolpo from Tholing(Heller 2001:70 and Heller 2009:91-93,figs.65-67.)
18 van Schaik 2006:62.
19 van Schaik 2006:61.
20 Buhnemann 1992:120-127 for chronology of Abhayakaragupta and his work on the Sadhanamala.
21 deMallmann 1986:108 for description of aspects of Avalokitesvara.
22 In addition to the photographs of Mang nang published by Giuseppe Tucci,the photograph P 3290(see fig.6)shows a mandala of a six-armed Avalokitesvara at Mang nang in the Tucci archives in Rome.At Mang nang,Tucci took a detail photograph of a painting of Vajradharma,a Bodhisattva of the Vajtadhatu cycle,holding a lotus stem in left hand,the right hand opening the lotus at the level of his heart just like the central deity of the present mandala.However there is no indication that Vajradharma was the center of a mandala at Mang nang(see fig.4,after Tucci archives P 1744 published in Tucci 1937:198 and fig.5).
23 This technique of the single-hair brush is called ek bal kal,according to Gunasinghe 1957:38.
24 Tucci 1937:fig.8 and fig.10.