The Highest Practical Good and the Ethical Demand:Lines of Development in Phenomenological Ethics
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- 英文论文题名：The Highest Practical Good and the Ethical Demand:Lines of Development in Phenomenological Ethics
- 论文作者：Jan Bengtsson
- 英文论文作者：Jan Bengtsson
- 年：2002
- 作者机构：瑞典Gteborg大学教育系;
- 会议召开时间：2002-10-01
- 会议录名称：外国哲学（第15辑）
- 语种：英文
- 分类号：B82-0
- 学会代码：WJWH
- 学会名称：商印文津文化(北京)有限责任公司
- 页数：47
- 文件大小：1925k
- 原文格式：O
摘要
The phenomenological tradition is today one of the leading research traditions in the world.But although ethics is a central issue in contemporary philosophy as well as in the social sciences,especially in education,the contributions of phenomenology to ethics are little known.The purpose of this article is,therefore,to explore the history of phenomenological ethics and make its results available for the ongoing discussion of ethics.It is possible to outline the history of phenomenological ethics in two different main lines.One of them is a value theoretical line and its central concept is "the highest practical good".This line of thought has its origin in the philosophy of Franz Brentano and its leading representative is Max Scheler.The second line of phenomenological ethics is normative and its basic concept is "the ethical demand".This line of thought has Edmund Husserl as its originator and its foremost representatives are Knud Ejler Lφgstrup and Emmanuel Levinas.There are,however,also several other approaches in phenomenological ethics,which for different reasons have not had the same influence as the two principal lines of thought.Some excursions from the main lines are,therefore,necessary to make.
The phenomenological tradition is today one of the leading research traditions in the world.But although ethics is a central issue in contemporary philosophy as well as in the social sciences,especially in education,the contributions of phenomenology to ethics are little known.The purpose of this article is,therefore,to explore the history of phenomenological ethics and make its results available for the ongoing discussion of ethics.It is possible to outline the history of phenomenological ethics in two different main lines.One of them is a value theoretical line and its central concept is "the highest practical good".This line of thought has its origin in the philosophy of Franz Brentano and its leading representative is Max Scheler.The second line of phenomenological ethics is normative and its basic concept is "the ethical demand".This line of thought has Edmund Husserl as its originator and its foremost representatives are Knud Ejler Lφgstrup and Emmanuel Levinas.There are,however,also several other approaches in phenomenological ethics,which for different reasons have not had the same influence as the two principal lines of thought.Some excursions from the main lines are,therefore,necessary to make.
The phenomenological tradition is today one of the leading research traditions in the world.But although ethics is a central issue in contemporary philosophy as well as in the social sciences,especially in education,the contributions of phenomenology to ethics are little known.The purpose of this article is,therefore,to explore the history of phenomenological ethics and make its results available for the ongoing discussion of ethics.It is possible to outline the history of phenomenological ethics in two different main lines.One of them is a value theoretical line and its central concept is "the highest practical good".This line of thought has its origin in the philosophy of Franz Brentano and its leading representative is Max Scheler.The second line of phenomenological ethics is normative and its basic concept is "the ethical demand".This line of thought has Edmund Husserl as its originator and its foremost representatives are Knud Ejler Lφgstrup and Emmanuel Levinas.There are,however,also several other approaches in phenomenological ethics,which for different reasons have not had the same influence as the two principal lines of thought.Some excursions from the main lines are,therefore,necessary to make.
引文
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R.M.Hare,Freedom and reason(Oxford:Oxford University Press,1963).
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Nicolai Hartmann,Ethik(Berlin and Leipzig:Walter de Gruyter,1926).
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Edmund Husserl,"Lebenswelt-Wissenschaft-Philosophie:Naives hinleben in der Welt-Symbolisches festlegen durch Urteile der WeltBegr(u|¨)ndung".Manuscript BⅠ21Ⅲ,1916-1917.The HusserlArchives in Louvain.
——"Rechtfertigung der praktischen Weisheit und des echten Intellektualismus des philosophischen Lebens".Manuscript BⅠ21Ⅰ,1917-1918.The Husserl-Archives in Louvain.
——Logische Untersuchungen(Halle,1900-01).Husserliana 18-19/1-2(The Hague:Martinus Nijhoff,1975 and 1984).
——Logical Investigation,vols.I-II(London:Routledge&Kegan Paul,1970).
——Die Krisis der europaiscken Wissenschaften und die transzendentale Ph(a|¨)nomenologie.Husserliana 6(The Hague:Martinus Nijhoff,1954).
——The Crisis of the European Sciences and Transcendental Phenomenology(Evanston:Northwestern University Press,1970).
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Wolfgang Kohler,The Place of Value in a World of Facts(New York:Liveright,1938).
Martinus Langeveld,"How Does the Child Experience the World of Things?",Phenomenology+Pedagogy 2(1984/3),pp.215-223.
Kurt Lewin,"Untersuchungen zur Handlungs-und Affekt-Psychologie",Psychologische Forschung 7(1926),pp.294-385.
——"Intention,Will,and Need",in Martin Gold(ed.):The Complete Social Scientist.A Kurt Lewin Reader(Washington,DC:American Psychological Association,1999),pp.83-115.
Emmanuel Levinas,De l'existenceàl'existant(Paris:Fontaine,1947).
——Existence and Existents(The Hague:Martinus Nijhoff,1978).
——"Le temps et 1'autre",in Jean Wahl(ed.):Le choix,le monde,l'existence(Paris:Arthaud,1948).
——Time and Other(Pittsburgh:Duquesne University Press,1987).
——Totalite et infini.Essai sur l'exteriorite(The Hague:Martinus Nijhoff,1961).
——Totality and Infinity.An Essay on Exteriority(Pittsburgh:Duquesne University Press,1969).
——Humanisme de l'autre homme(Montpellier:Fata Morgana,1972).
——Autrement qu'etre ou au-delàde l'essence(The Hague:Martinus Nijhoff,1974).
——Otherwise than Being or Beyond Essence(The Hague:Martinus Nijhoff,1981).
——Ethique et infini.Dialogues avec Philippe Nemo(Paris:Fayard,1982).
——Ethics and Infinity.Conversations with Philippe Nemo(Pittsburgh:Duquesne University Press,1985).
Deborah Lipstadt,Denying the Holocaust.The Growing Assault on Truth and Memory(Harmondsworth:Penguin Books,1993).
Knud Ejler L0gstrup,Kierkegaards und Heideggers Existehzanalyse und ihr Verhaltnis zur Verk(u|¨)ndigung(Berlin:Bl(a|¨)schker,1950).
——Den etiske fordring(Copenhagen:Gyldendal,1956).
——The Ethical Demand(Philadelphia:Fortress Press,1971);New enlarged edition(Notre Dame and London:University of Notre Dame Press,1997).
——Kunst og etik(Copenhagen:Gyldendal,1961).
——Opgr med Kierkegaard(Copenhagen:Gyldendal,1968).
——Auseinandersetzung mit Kierkegaard(Munchen:Kaiser,1968).
——"Etiske begreber og problemer",in Gustaf Wingren(ed.):Etik och kristen tro(Lund:Gleerup,1971),pp.207-286.
——Norm og spontaneitet.Etik og politik mellem teknokrati og dilettantokrati(Copenhagen:Gyldendal,1972).
——Norm und Spontaneitat.Ethik und Politik zwischen Technokratie und Dilettantokratie(Tubingen:J.C.B.Mohr,1989).
——System og symbol(Copenhagen:Gyldendal,1983).
Maurice Mandelbaum,The Phenomenology of Moral Experience(Baltimore and London:The Johns Hopkins Press,1955).
Werner Marx,Gibt es auf Erden ein MaβGrundbestimmungen einer nichtmetaphysischen Ethik(Hamburg:Felix Meiner,1983).
——Is there a Measure on Earth(Chicago:Chicago University Press,1987).
——Ethos und Lebensrvelt.Zum Maβdes Mit-Leiden-K(o|¨)nnens(Hamburg:Felix Meiner,1986).
——Towards a Phenomenological Ethichs.Ethos and the Life-World(Albany:State University of New York Press,1991).
George Edward Moore,"Franz Brentano:The origin of the knowledge of right and wrong",International Journal of Ethics 14(1903),pp.115-123.
Blaise Pascal,Pensees(Paris,1670;Paris:Garnier-Flammarion,1976).
——The Thoughts of Blaise Pascal(Westport,Conn.:Green wood,1978).
Alexander Pfander,Schriften aus dem Nachlaβzur Ph(a|¨)nomenologie und Ethik,vol.2:Ethik in kurzer Darstellung(Munich:Wilhelm Fink,1973).
Raymond Polin,La creation des valeurs(Paris:Vrin,1944).
——Comprehension des valeurs(Paris:PUF,1945).
——Du laid,du mal,du faux(Paris:PUF,1948).
Hans Reiner,Das Prinzip von Gut und Bose(Freiburg im Breisgau,1949).
——Pflicht und Neigung.Die Grundlagen der Sittlichkeit er(o|¨)rtert und neu bestimmt mit besonderem Bezug auf Kant und Schiller(Meisenheim am Glan:Anton Hain,1951);Second enlarged edition,Die Grundlagen der Sittlichkeit(1974).
——Duty and Inclination.The Fundamentals of Morality Discussed and Redefined with Special Regard to Kant and Schiller(The Hague:Martinus Nijhoff,1983).
——Gut und B(o|¨)se.Ursprung und Wesen der sittlichen Grundunterscheidungen(Freiburg im Breisgau:L.Bielefelds Verlag,1965).
Paul Ricceur,Philosophie de la volonte.Vol.Ⅰ:Le volontaire et involontaire(Paris:Aubier,1950).Vol.Ⅱ:Finitude et culpabilite,book1:L'homme fallible(Paris:Aubier,1960);book 2:La symbolique du mal(Paris:Aubier,1960).
——Freedom and Nature.The Voluntary and the Involuntary(Evanston:Northwestern University Press,1966).
——Fallible Man(Chicago:Henry Regnery,1965).
——The Symbolism of Evil(New York:Harper&Row,1967).
Alois Roth,Edmund Husserls ethische Untersuchungen.Dargestellt anhand seiner Vorlesungsmanuskripte(The Hague:Martinus Nijhoff,1960).
Jean-Paul Sartre,L'etre et le neant(Paris:Gallimard,1943).
——Being and Nothingness(London:Methuen,1958 and New York:Philosophical Library,1958).
——Huis clos(Paris:Gallimard,1943).
——In Camera(London:Hamish Hamilton,1946);No Exit(New York:Knopf,1947).
——Cahiers pour une morale(Paris:Gallimard,1983).
——Notebooks for an Ethics(Chicago:Chicago University Press,1992).
Max Scheler,"Uber Ressentiment und moralisches Werturteil.Ein Beitrag zur Pathologie der Kultur",Zeitschrift f(u|¨)r Pathopsychologie 1(1912/2and 3).Gesammelte Werke,vol.3(Bern and Munich:Francke,1972).
——Ressentiment(Glencoe,Ill.:Free Press,1961).
——"Der Formalismus in der Ethik und die materiale Wertethik",Jahrbuch fur Philosophie und ph(a|¨)nomenologische Forschung 1(1913),pp.405-565,and 2(1916),pp.21-480.Gesammelte Werke,vol.2(Bern and Munich:Francke,1980).
——Formalism in Ethics and Non-formal Ethics of Value(Evanston:Northwestern University Press,1973).
——Abhandlungen und Aufs(a|¨)tze,vols.1-2(Leipzig,1915).2~(nd)edition Vom Umsturz der Werte,vols.1-2(Leipzig,1919).Gesammelte Werke,vol.3(Bern and Munich:Francke,1972).
——On Feeling,Knowing,and Valuing.Selected Writings(Chicago:Chicago University Press,1992).
——Zur Ph(a|¨)nomenologie und Theorie der Sympathiegef(u|¨)hle und von Liebe und Haβ(Halle,1913).2~(nd)edition Wesen und Formen der Sympathie(Bonn,1923).Gesammelte Werke,vol.7(Bern and Munich:Francke,1973).
——The Nature of Sympathy(London:Routledge&Kegan Paul,1954).
Robert Sokolowski,Moral Action.A Phenomenological Study(Bloomington:Indiana University Press,1985).
Herebert Spiegelberg,Steppingstones Toward an Ethics for Fellow Existers(Dordrecht:Martinus Nijhoff,1986).
Stephan Strasser,Welt im Widerspruch.Gedanken zu einer Ph(a|¨)nomenologie als ethischer Fundamentalphilosophie(Dordrecht:Kluwer,1991).
Anna-Teresa Tymieniecka,"The Moral Sense.A Discourse on the Phenomenological Foundation of the Social World and of Ethics",Analecta Husserliana 15(Dordrecht:Reidel,1983),pp.3-78.
——Logos and Life,Book 1,Creative Experience and the Critique of Reason.Analecta Husserliana 24(Dordrecht:Kluwer,1988).
——Logos and Life,Book 2,The Three Movements of the Soul.Analecta Husserliana 25(Dordrecht:Kluwer,1988).
——Logos and Life,Book 3,The Passions of the Soul and the Elements in the Ontopoiesis of Culture.The Life Significance of Literature(Dordrecht:Kluwer,1990).
——Logos and Life,Book 4,Impetus and Equipoise in the Life-strategies of Reason.Analecta Husserliana 70(Dordrecht:Kluwer,2000).
Max Wertheimer,"Some Problems in the Theory of Ethics",Social Research2(1935),pp.353-367.
(1)The differences at this time were,however,not bigger than that G.E.Moore,the originator of modern metaethics in analytical philosophy,was deeply impressed by Vom Ursprung sittlicher Erkenntnis.In a review of the English translation from 1902,he introduced his review by the following comment s"This is a far better discussion of the most fundamental principles of Ethics than any others with which I am acquainted"and concluded that"it would be difficult to exaggerate the importance of his work"(Moore 1903,p.115).
(2)I am going to refer to the translation by Roderick Chisholm and Elizabeth Schneewind,published in 1969 with a slightly changed title,The Origin of our Krurwledge of Right and Wrong,pp.14-16.
(1)Ibid.,p.14.
(2)Ibid.,pp.17-18.
(1)Ibid.,p.18 ff.
(2)Ibid.,p.25 ff.
(1)The Foundation and Construction of Ethics,p.282.
(1)Ibid.,p.204.
(2)A list of Husserl's lectures on ethics is found in Alois Roth's book Edmund Husserls ethische Untersuchungen("Edmund Husserl's ethical investigations")of 1960,p.X.This was,by the way,for many years the only book on Husserl's ethics and it tries to reconstruct the systematic content of his lectures on ethics.Today,we can add James Hart's book The Person and the Common Life.Studies in a Husserlian Social Ethics,published in1992 which is based on Husserls later manuscripts.Hart tries on this basis to reconstruct Husserl's later ethics in a teleological way and sees rational self-responsibility in a communal humanity of reason as the telos of moral life.We can also add Stephen Strasser's book Welt im Widerspruch("World in contradiction")of 1991.This book,however,is not limited to Husserl's ethics,but argues for the more general thesis that phenomenology should be understood as an ethical project.This thesis,he finds sustained by Husserl's later philosophy and his idea of the ethical responsibility of philosophy(read phenomenology)for humanity,i.e.to realise the telos of human life in the sense of living in absolute rationality and self-responsibility.The phenomenology of Levinas and his idea of ethics as first philosophy can also sustain Strasser's thesis.There is,however,a tension between these two views on ethics,which is going to be clearer below,I hope.
(1)One exception is an article which Husserl published in a Japanese journal in Japanese translation.The title of the original German text is"Erneuerung als individualethisches Problem"("Renewal as problem of individual ethics").This article together with some earlier unpublished texts with relevance for ethics are published in volume 27 of Husserliana,Husserls collected works,under the title Aufs(a|¨)tze und Vortr(a|¨)ge(1922-1937)("Articles and lectures 1922-1937").
(2)Some of his lectures ori ethics have been published in volume 28 of Husserliana under the title Vorlesungen(u|¨)ber Ethikund Wertlehre(1908-1914)("Lectures on ethics and theory of value").By the way,Husserl's collected manuscripts are kept at the HusserlArchives in Louvain in Belgium.His ethical manuscripts are found in the group AⅡ,BⅠand F I.At this place,I want to express my gratitude to the Husserl-Archives for letting me quote from Husserl's manuscripts,but also to its director,professor Samuel Usseling,and his collaborators and colleagues,Rudolf Bernet and Ullrich Melle,who by their hospitality and knowledge made my research stay at the archives fruitful.
(12)Manuscript BⅠ21Ⅲ.This is a working manuscript that was never intended for publication in its present wording.Husserl bothered as little by making his working manuscripts well written as he was concerned about the literary form of the texts which were prepared for a larger public.In my translation of the quotations,I have tried to make as good English as possible out of them,but the interested can find the originals in appendixes at the end of the article.Considering the widespread idea that Husserl worked out his theory of the life-world as an answer to Heidegger's thesis of"being-in-the-world",i.e.after the publication of Being and Time in 1927,the title of the first part of the mentioned manuscript is illuminating.It is"Lebenswelt-Wissenschaft-Philosophie:Naives hinleben in der Welt-Symbolisches festlegen durch Urteile der Welt-Begr(u|¨)ndung"("Life-world-Science-Philosophy:Na(i|¨)ve living in the world-Symbolical fixation by judgements of the world-Justification").The idea of the life-world,not only the word,can even be traced longer hack than to 1916.This is not hard to show,but this is,of course,not the proper place of doing it.
(1)Manuscript B I 21 I,"Rechtfertigung der praktischen Weisheit und des echten Intellektualismus,des philosophischen Lebens"("Justification of the practical wisdom and the genuine intellectualism,the philosophical life"),of 1917 or 1918,p.20.
(1)This is,for instance,the function of univeraalisability designated by Hare.Cf.his Freedom and Reason.
(1)Cf.The Crisis of the European Sciences and Transcendental Phenomenology,appendixⅨ,p.389.Husserl himself,however,did not include transcendental phenomenology in the dreams that are over.
(1)This is Scheler's principal work,but not the only one in the ethical field.In 1912,he already published the well known essay"(U|¨)ber Ressentiment und moralisches Werturteil"("On ressentiment and moral value judgement")and in 1915 a larger anthology with own essays,Abhandlungen und Aufs(a|¨)tze("Essays and articles"),later with the title Vom Umsturz der Werte,("On the overthrow of values")in which the previously mentioned essay is included in an enlarged version and with a new title,"Das Ressentiment im Aufbau der Moralen"(English translation as Ressentiment,1961).Of importance for his ethics is also the book Zur PhanoTnenologie und Theorie der Sympathiegefilhle und von Liebe und Haβ("Towards a phenomenology and theory of the emotions of sympathy and on love and hate")of 1913,in the second edition from 1923 with the new title Wesen und Formen der Sympathie(English translation as The Nature of Sympathy,1970).
(1)See Formalism in Ethics and Non-Formal Ethics of Values(1973),p.9 ff.and p.48 ff.
(1)"The heart has its reasons,which reason does not know",The Thoughts of Blaise Pascal,no.277.
(2)Unfortunately,in this context there is not space enough for an exhaustive exposition of the different components in Scheler's hierarchical model.I have,therefore,been forced to limit myself to a compilation in a highly schematic form of the scattered places in his book where he discusses the different components of the hierarchy.For a closer study,I refer to the following pages:the hierarchy of values and emotions is discussed on p.104 ff.and328 ff.,types of the value-person on p.583 ff.,and the social units on p.S19.
(1)Ibid.,p.533.
(1)Ibid.,pp.26-27.Cf.also p.23 ff.and p.85 ff.
(1)Notebooks for an Ethics,pp.215-274 and 274-294 respectively.
(1)Ibid.,p.274.
(2)In the English translation is"Nat(u|¨)rlicher Aufforderungscharakter"translated with"natural valence",a word almost void of expressive and appealing connotations.
(3)Cf.chapter IV"Das Ding in der Welt des Kindes"(English translation as"How does the Child Experience the World of Things?",1984).
(1)His most important publications are Kunst og etik("Art and ethics"),1961,Opgor med Kierkegaard("Controversy with Kierkegaard"),1968,"Etiske begreber og problemer"("Ethical concepts and problems"),1971,Norm og spontaneitet("Norm and spontaneity"),1972,and System og symbol("System and symbol"),1983.His authorship started,however,not with The Ethical Demand and the importance of the demand in life was already discussed in earlier publications such as Kierkegaards und Heideggers Existenzanalyse und ihr Verhaltnis zur Verk(u|¨)ndigung("Kierkegaard's and Heidegger's analysis of existence and its relation to preaching"),1950.
(2)The bibliography of his writings has been published by Karstein Hansen under the title K.E.L(?)gstrups forfatterskap 1930-1987.En bibliografi,1987:It contains 1.186 numbers,including reviews of L(?)gstrup's books by other authors.A bibliography of secondary literature does not exist,but it would today include several hundred numbers of which at least some thirty monographs.
(1)Cf."Etiake begreber og problemer",pp.213-215.
(2)My references are to the enlarged edition of The Ethical Demand(1997),p.8 ff.
(3)Ibid.,pp.22-23.
(4)Ibid.,44 ff.
(1)Ibid.,p.115 ff.
(2)Ibid.,p.29 ff.and p.164 ff.
(3)Ibid.,p.22 ff.Cf.also chapter 2.
(4)Ibid.,pp.66-67.
(1)Ibid.,p.164 ff.
(2)Ibid.,p.143 ff.
(3)"Etiske begreber og problemer",p.227.
(1)Levinas goes in this connection back to concepts that he has developed in earlier publications like Le temps et l'autre(English translation as Time and Other,1987),1948,and De l'existenceàl'existant(English translation as Existence and Existents,1978),1947.
(2)See also Humanisme de l'autre homme("Humanism of the other man"),1972.A somewhat easily accessible introduction to his philosophy gives Levinas in Ethique et infini(English translation as Ethics and Infinity,1985),an interview from 1982 in book-length by Philippe Nemo.
(3)As a factual possibility,an exchange of thoughts could have been possible.Levinas didn't knew Danish,at least not as far as I know,but he mastered German.In this way,L(?)gstrup's principal work,The Ethical Demand,became available for Levinas in 1959when it was published in German translation.Inversely,the publications of Levinas were already from the beginning available for L(?)gstrup,who spoke German as well as French.Moreover,even a meeting could have taken place.During their student days at the end of the 1920s,their ways were crossing several times,but they didn't meet.Thus,Levinas had finished his studies at the University of Strasbourg in exactly the same year as L(?)gstrup arrived to study there for one year.Levinas studied in Strasbourg from 1923 to 1930 and L0gstrup,consequently,from 1930 to 1931.Furthermore,Levinas stayed in the schoolyear1928-1929 in Freiburg to study with Husserl and Heidegger.L(?)gstrup made an equivalent stay in Freiburg only some few years later,more exactly in 1933-1934.
(1)This concept,he already developed in his book Existence and Existents of 1947.
(2)Levinas'description of Heidegger's ontology is not quite fair,I think.It is true that Heidegger talks about the neutral determinations of ontology,but at the same time his concept of"present-at-hand"do not differ to any appreciable extent from Levinas'concept of"there is".In both cases,it is a matter of something deduced,which is not original.Heidegger understands the present-at-hand as an abstraction from the readiness-to-hand,from the entire practical and interhuman world of equipments("Zeugwelt"),which he sees as original.
(3)Totality and Infinity,pp.27-30.
(4)Ibid.,p.33 ff.
(1)Ibid.,p.187 ff;
(1)Ethics and Infinity,p.99.The English translation writes"one responsibility",but as far as I can see it should be"a responsibility".
(2)Lφgstrup makes the same distinction.Also for Scheler is this difference important within the scope of his personalistic ethics.
(3)Humanisme de l'autre homme,p.84 ff.Love was the object of an investigation already in 1948 in Le temps et l'autre(English translation as Time and Other,1987).
(1)Cf.my distinction above between Sartre as"existentialist"and phenomenologist.
(1)Steppingstones toward an Ethics for Fellovu Existers,p.1.
(2)Ibid.,p.8.
(1)"The Moral Sense",p.10.
(2)Ibid.,p.10.
(1)Ibid.,p.15 ff.
(2)Ibid.,p.17.
(3)Ibid.,p.19.
(4)Ibid.,p.26 ff.
(5)Ibid.,p.23.
(1)Three examples are the discussion about Robert Faurisson's doctoral thesis in France,the writings of the English historian David Irving and the German historian dispute,as it is called.In all three cases,the central issue is how one with the historical events at distance,on the one hand,can deal with them as exchangeable entities of any kind or as pure physical facts and,on the other hand,may not do it.Accordingly,the extermination of the Jews can be seen as a trifle in world history,the extermination can afterwards be difficult to prove,etc.But we may not allow that the suffering of individual persons is fit into the objectivistic and physicalistic way of seeing that choke their voices and kill them a second timethis time spiritual.Deborah Lipstadt published in 1993 a book on this theme called Denying the Holocaust.The Growing Assault on Truth and Memory.
——The Ethics of Ambiguity(New York:Philosophical Library,1958).Franz Brentano,Vom Ursprung sittlicher Erkenntnis(Leipzig:1889;4th edition,Hamburg:Felix Meiner,1955).
——The Origin of the Knowledge of Right and Wrong(London,1902;New translation,1969).
——Grundlegung und Aufbau der Ethik(Bern:Francke,1952).
——The Foundation and Construction of Ethics(London and New York,1973).
Karstein Hansen,K.E.Lφgstrups forfatterskap 1930-1987.En bibliografi(Arhus:Arhus Universitets forlag,1987).
R.M.Hare,Freedom and reason(Oxford:Oxford University Press,1963).
James G.Hart,The Person and the Common Life.Studies in a Husserlian Social Ethics(Dordrecht:Kluwer,1992).
Nicolai Hartmann,Ethik(Berlin and Leipzig:Walter de Gruyter,1926).
——Ethics(London:Allen&Unwin and New York:Humanities Press,1932).
Dietrich von Hildebrand,"Die Idee der sittlichen Handlung",Jahrbuch f(u|¨)r Philosophie und phanomenologische Forschung 3(1916),pp.126-251.
——"Sittlichkeit und Werterkenntnis",Jahrbuch f(u|¨)r Philosophie und phanomenologische Forschung 5(1922),pp.462-602.
——Metaphysik der Gemeinschaft(Augsburg:Institut Haas&Grabherr,1930),Gesammelte Schriften,vol.IV(Regensburg:Habbel,1975).
——Sittliche Grundhaltungen(Mainz and Regensburg:Habbel,1933).
——Fundamental Moral Attitudes(1950).
——Graven Images.Substitutes for True Morality(New York:McKay,1957).
Edmund Husserl,"Lebenswelt-Wissenschaft-Philosophie:Naives hinleben in der Welt-Symbolisches festlegen durch Urteile der WeltBegr(u|¨)ndung".Manuscript BⅠ21Ⅲ,1916-1917.The HusserlArchives in Louvain.
——"Rechtfertigung der praktischen Weisheit und des echten Intellektualismus des philosophischen Lebens".Manuscript BⅠ21Ⅰ,1917-1918.The Husserl-Archives in Louvain.
——Logische Untersuchungen(Halle,1900-01).Husserliana 18-19/1-2(The Hague:Martinus Nijhoff,1975 and 1984).
——Logical Investigation,vols.I-II(London:Routledge&Kegan Paul,1970).
——Die Krisis der europaiscken Wissenschaften und die transzendentale Ph(a|¨)nomenologie.Husserliana 6(The Hague:Martinus Nijhoff,1954).
——The Crisis of the European Sciences and Transcendental Phenomenology(Evanston:Northwestern University Press,1970).
——Aufsatze und Vortrdge(1922-1937).Husserliana 27(Dordrecht:Kluwer,1989).
——Vorlesungen uber Ethik und Wertlehre(1908-1914).Husserliana 28(Dordrecht:Kluwer,1988).
Wolfgang Kohler,The Place of Value in a World of Facts(New York:Liveright,1938).
Martinus Langeveld,"How Does the Child Experience the World of Things?",Phenomenology+Pedagogy 2(1984/3),pp.215-223.
Kurt Lewin,"Untersuchungen zur Handlungs-und Affekt-Psychologie",Psychologische Forschung 7(1926),pp.294-385.
——"Intention,Will,and Need",in Martin Gold(ed.):The Complete Social Scientist.A Kurt Lewin Reader(Washington,DC:American Psychological Association,1999),pp.83-115.
Emmanuel Levinas,De l'existenceàl'existant(Paris:Fontaine,1947).
——Existence and Existents(The Hague:Martinus Nijhoff,1978).
——"Le temps et 1'autre",in Jean Wahl(ed.):Le choix,le monde,l'existence(Paris:Arthaud,1948).
——Time and Other(Pittsburgh:Duquesne University Press,1987).
——Totalite et infini.Essai sur l'exteriorite(The Hague:Martinus Nijhoff,1961).
——Totality and Infinity.An Essay on Exteriority(Pittsburgh:Duquesne University Press,1969).
——Humanisme de l'autre homme(Montpellier:Fata Morgana,1972).
——Autrement qu'etre ou au-delàde l'essence(The Hague:Martinus Nijhoff,1974).
——Otherwise than Being or Beyond Essence(The Hague:Martinus Nijhoff,1981).
——Ethique et infini.Dialogues avec Philippe Nemo(Paris:Fayard,1982).
——Ethics and Infinity.Conversations with Philippe Nemo(Pittsburgh:Duquesne University Press,1985).
Deborah Lipstadt,Denying the Holocaust.The Growing Assault on Truth and Memory(Harmondsworth:Penguin Books,1993).
Knud Ejler L0gstrup,Kierkegaards und Heideggers Existehzanalyse und ihr Verhaltnis zur Verk(u|¨)ndigung(Berlin:Bl(a|¨)schker,1950).
——Den etiske fordring(Copenhagen:Gyldendal,1956).
——The Ethical Demand(Philadelphia:Fortress Press,1971);New enlarged edition(Notre Dame and London:University of Notre Dame Press,1997).
——Kunst og etik(Copenhagen:Gyldendal,1961).
——Opgr med Kierkegaard(Copenhagen:Gyldendal,1968).
——Auseinandersetzung mit Kierkegaard(Munchen:Kaiser,1968).
——"Etiske begreber og problemer",in Gustaf Wingren(ed.):Etik och kristen tro(Lund:Gleerup,1971),pp.207-286.
——Norm og spontaneitet.Etik og politik mellem teknokrati og dilettantokrati(Copenhagen:Gyldendal,1972).
——Norm und Spontaneitat.Ethik und Politik zwischen Technokratie und Dilettantokratie(Tubingen:J.C.B.Mohr,1989).
——System og symbol(Copenhagen:Gyldendal,1983).
Maurice Mandelbaum,The Phenomenology of Moral Experience(Baltimore and London:The Johns Hopkins Press,1955).
Werner Marx,Gibt es auf Erden ein MaβGrundbestimmungen einer nichtmetaphysischen Ethik(Hamburg:Felix Meiner,1983).
——Is there a Measure on Earth(Chicago:Chicago University Press,1987).
——Ethos und Lebensrvelt.Zum Maβdes Mit-Leiden-K(o|¨)nnens(Hamburg:Felix Meiner,1986).
——Towards a Phenomenological Ethichs.Ethos and the Life-World(Albany:State University of New York Press,1991).
George Edward Moore,"Franz Brentano:The origin of the knowledge of right and wrong",International Journal of Ethics 14(1903),pp.115-123.
Blaise Pascal,Pensees(Paris,1670;Paris:Garnier-Flammarion,1976).
——The Thoughts of Blaise Pascal(Westport,Conn.:Green wood,1978).
Alexander Pfander,Schriften aus dem Nachlaβzur Ph(a|¨)nomenologie und Ethik,vol.2:Ethik in kurzer Darstellung(Munich:Wilhelm Fink,1973).
Raymond Polin,La creation des valeurs(Paris:Vrin,1944).
——Comprehension des valeurs(Paris:PUF,1945).
——Du laid,du mal,du faux(Paris:PUF,1948).
Hans Reiner,Das Prinzip von Gut und Bose(Freiburg im Breisgau,1949).
——Pflicht und Neigung.Die Grundlagen der Sittlichkeit er(o|¨)rtert und neu bestimmt mit besonderem Bezug auf Kant und Schiller(Meisenheim am Glan:Anton Hain,1951);Second enlarged edition,Die Grundlagen der Sittlichkeit(1974).
——Duty and Inclination.The Fundamentals of Morality Discussed and Redefined with Special Regard to Kant and Schiller(The Hague:Martinus Nijhoff,1983).
——Gut und B(o|¨)se.Ursprung und Wesen der sittlichen Grundunterscheidungen(Freiburg im Breisgau:L.Bielefelds Verlag,1965).
Paul Ricceur,Philosophie de la volonte.Vol.Ⅰ:Le volontaire et involontaire(Paris:Aubier,1950).Vol.Ⅱ:Finitude et culpabilite,book1:L'homme fallible(Paris:Aubier,1960);book 2:La symbolique du mal(Paris:Aubier,1960).
——Freedom and Nature.The Voluntary and the Involuntary(Evanston:Northwestern University Press,1966).
——Fallible Man(Chicago:Henry Regnery,1965).
——The Symbolism of Evil(New York:Harper&Row,1967).
Alois Roth,Edmund Husserls ethische Untersuchungen.Dargestellt anhand seiner Vorlesungsmanuskripte(The Hague:Martinus Nijhoff,1960).
Jean-Paul Sartre,L'etre et le neant(Paris:Gallimard,1943).
——Being and Nothingness(London:Methuen,1958 and New York:Philosophical Library,1958).
——Huis clos(Paris:Gallimard,1943).
——In Camera(London:Hamish Hamilton,1946);No Exit(New York:Knopf,1947).
——Cahiers pour une morale(Paris:Gallimard,1983).
——Notebooks for an Ethics(Chicago:Chicago University Press,1992).
Max Scheler,"Uber Ressentiment und moralisches Werturteil.Ein Beitrag zur Pathologie der Kultur",Zeitschrift f(u|¨)r Pathopsychologie 1(1912/2and 3).Gesammelte Werke,vol.3(Bern and Munich:Francke,1972).
——Ressentiment(Glencoe,Ill.:Free Press,1961).
——"Der Formalismus in der Ethik und die materiale Wertethik",Jahrbuch fur Philosophie und ph(a|¨)nomenologische Forschung 1(1913),pp.405-565,and 2(1916),pp.21-480.Gesammelte Werke,vol.2(Bern and Munich:Francke,1980).
——Formalism in Ethics and Non-formal Ethics of Value(Evanston:Northwestern University Press,1973).
——Abhandlungen und Aufs(a|¨)tze,vols.1-2(Leipzig,1915).2~(nd)edition Vom Umsturz der Werte,vols.1-2(Leipzig,1919).Gesammelte Werke,vol.3(Bern and Munich:Francke,1972).
——On Feeling,Knowing,and Valuing.Selected Writings(Chicago:Chicago University Press,1992).
——Zur Ph(a|¨)nomenologie und Theorie der Sympathiegef(u|¨)hle und von Liebe und Haβ(Halle,1913).2~(nd)edition Wesen und Formen der Sympathie(Bonn,1923).Gesammelte Werke,vol.7(Bern and Munich:Francke,1973).
——The Nature of Sympathy(London:Routledge&Kegan Paul,1954).
Robert Sokolowski,Moral Action.A Phenomenological Study(Bloomington:Indiana University Press,1985).
Herebert Spiegelberg,Steppingstones Toward an Ethics for Fellow Existers(Dordrecht:Martinus Nijhoff,1986).
Stephan Strasser,Welt im Widerspruch.Gedanken zu einer Ph(a|¨)nomenologie als ethischer Fundamentalphilosophie(Dordrecht:Kluwer,1991).
Anna-Teresa Tymieniecka,"The Moral Sense.A Discourse on the Phenomenological Foundation of the Social World and of Ethics",Analecta Husserliana 15(Dordrecht:Reidel,1983),pp.3-78.
——Logos and Life,Book 1,Creative Experience and the Critique of Reason.Analecta Husserliana 24(Dordrecht:Kluwer,1988).
——Logos and Life,Book 2,The Three Movements of the Soul.Analecta Husserliana 25(Dordrecht:Kluwer,1988).
——Logos and Life,Book 3,The Passions of the Soul and the Elements in the Ontopoiesis of Culture.The Life Significance of Literature(Dordrecht:Kluwer,1990).
——Logos and Life,Book 4,Impetus and Equipoise in the Life-strategies of Reason.Analecta Husserliana 70(Dordrecht:Kluwer,2000).
Max Wertheimer,"Some Problems in the Theory of Ethics",Social Research2(1935),pp.353-367.
(1)The differences at this time were,however,not bigger than that G.E.Moore,the originator of modern metaethics in analytical philosophy,was deeply impressed by Vom Ursprung sittlicher Erkenntnis.In a review of the English translation from 1902,he introduced his review by the following comment s"This is a far better discussion of the most fundamental principles of Ethics than any others with which I am acquainted"and concluded that"it would be difficult to exaggerate the importance of his work"(Moore 1903,p.115).
(2)I am going to refer to the translation by Roderick Chisholm and Elizabeth Schneewind,published in 1969 with a slightly changed title,The Origin of our Krurwledge of Right and Wrong,pp.14-16.
(1)Ibid.,p.14.
(2)Ibid.,pp.17-18.
(1)Ibid.,p.18 ff.
(2)Ibid.,p.25 ff.
(1)The Foundation and Construction of Ethics,p.282.
(1)Ibid.,p.204.
(2)A list of Husserl's lectures on ethics is found in Alois Roth's book Edmund Husserls ethische Untersuchungen("Edmund Husserl's ethical investigations")of 1960,p.X.This was,by the way,for many years the only book on Husserl's ethics and it tries to reconstruct the systematic content of his lectures on ethics.Today,we can add James Hart's book The Person and the Common Life.Studies in a Husserlian Social Ethics,published in1992 which is based on Husserls later manuscripts.Hart tries on this basis to reconstruct Husserl's later ethics in a teleological way and sees rational self-responsibility in a communal humanity of reason as the telos of moral life.We can also add Stephen Strasser's book Welt im Widerspruch("World in contradiction")of 1991.This book,however,is not limited to Husserl's ethics,but argues for the more general thesis that phenomenology should be understood as an ethical project.This thesis,he finds sustained by Husserl's later philosophy and his idea of the ethical responsibility of philosophy(read phenomenology)for humanity,i.e.to realise the telos of human life in the sense of living in absolute rationality and self-responsibility.The phenomenology of Levinas and his idea of ethics as first philosophy can also sustain Strasser's thesis.There is,however,a tension between these two views on ethics,which is going to be clearer below,I hope.
(1)One exception is an article which Husserl published in a Japanese journal in Japanese translation.The title of the original German text is"Erneuerung als individualethisches Problem"("Renewal as problem of individual ethics").This article together with some earlier unpublished texts with relevance for ethics are published in volume 27 of Husserliana,Husserls collected works,under the title Aufs(a|¨)tze und Vortr(a|¨)ge(1922-1937)("Articles and lectures 1922-1937").
(2)Some of his lectures ori ethics have been published in volume 28 of Husserliana under the title Vorlesungen(u|¨)ber Ethikund Wertlehre(1908-1914)("Lectures on ethics and theory of value").By the way,Husserl's collected manuscripts are kept at the HusserlArchives in Louvain in Belgium.His ethical manuscripts are found in the group AⅡ,BⅠand F I.At this place,I want to express my gratitude to the Husserl-Archives for letting me quote from Husserl's manuscripts,but also to its director,professor Samuel Usseling,and his collaborators and colleagues,Rudolf Bernet and Ullrich Melle,who by their hospitality and knowledge made my research stay at the archives fruitful.
(12)Manuscript BⅠ21Ⅲ.This is a working manuscript that was never intended for publication in its present wording.Husserl bothered as little by making his working manuscripts well written as he was concerned about the literary form of the texts which were prepared for a larger public.In my translation of the quotations,I have tried to make as good English as possible out of them,but the interested can find the originals in appendixes at the end of the article.Considering the widespread idea that Husserl worked out his theory of the life-world as an answer to Heidegger's thesis of"being-in-the-world",i.e.after the publication of Being and Time in 1927,the title of the first part of the mentioned manuscript is illuminating.It is"Lebenswelt-Wissenschaft-Philosophie:Naives hinleben in der Welt-Symbolisches festlegen durch Urteile der Welt-Begr(u|¨)ndung"("Life-world-Science-Philosophy:Na(i|¨)ve living in the world-Symbolical fixation by judgements of the world-Justification").The idea of the life-world,not only the word,can even be traced longer hack than to 1916.This is not hard to show,but this is,of course,not the proper place of doing it.
(1)Manuscript B I 21 I,"Rechtfertigung der praktischen Weisheit und des echten Intellektualismus,des philosophischen Lebens"("Justification of the practical wisdom and the genuine intellectualism,the philosophical life"),of 1917 or 1918,p.20.
(1)This is,for instance,the function of univeraalisability designated by Hare.Cf.his Freedom and Reason.
(1)Cf.The Crisis of the European Sciences and Transcendental Phenomenology,appendixⅨ,p.389.Husserl himself,however,did not include transcendental phenomenology in the dreams that are over.
(1)This is Scheler's principal work,but not the only one in the ethical field.In 1912,he already published the well known essay"(U|¨)ber Ressentiment und moralisches Werturteil"("On ressentiment and moral value judgement")and in 1915 a larger anthology with own essays,Abhandlungen und Aufs(a|¨)tze("Essays and articles"),later with the title Vom Umsturz der Werte,("On the overthrow of values")in which the previously mentioned essay is included in an enlarged version and with a new title,"Das Ressentiment im Aufbau der Moralen"(English translation as Ressentiment,1961).Of importance for his ethics is also the book Zur PhanoTnenologie und Theorie der Sympathiegefilhle und von Liebe und Haβ("Towards a phenomenology and theory of the emotions of sympathy and on love and hate")of 1913,in the second edition from 1923 with the new title Wesen und Formen der Sympathie(English translation as The Nature of Sympathy,1970).
(1)See Formalism in Ethics and Non-Formal Ethics of Values(1973),p.9 ff.and p.48 ff.
(1)"The heart has its reasons,which reason does not know",The Thoughts of Blaise Pascal,no.277.
(2)Unfortunately,in this context there is not space enough for an exhaustive exposition of the different components in Scheler's hierarchical model.I have,therefore,been forced to limit myself to a compilation in a highly schematic form of the scattered places in his book where he discusses the different components of the hierarchy.For a closer study,I refer to the following pages:the hierarchy of values and emotions is discussed on p.104 ff.and328 ff.,types of the value-person on p.583 ff.,and the social units on p.S19.
(1)Ibid.,p.533.
(1)Ibid.,pp.26-27.Cf.also p.23 ff.and p.85 ff.
(1)Notebooks for an Ethics,pp.215-274 and 274-294 respectively.
(1)Ibid.,p.274.
(2)In the English translation is"Nat(u|¨)rlicher Aufforderungscharakter"translated with"natural valence",a word almost void of expressive and appealing connotations.
(3)Cf.chapter IV"Das Ding in der Welt des Kindes"(English translation as"How does the Child Experience the World of Things?",1984).
(1)His most important publications are Kunst og etik("Art and ethics"),1961,Opgor med Kierkegaard("Controversy with Kierkegaard"),1968,"Etiske begreber og problemer"("Ethical concepts and problems"),1971,Norm og spontaneitet("Norm and spontaneity"),1972,and System og symbol("System and symbol"),1983.His authorship started,however,not with The Ethical Demand and the importance of the demand in life was already discussed in earlier publications such as Kierkegaards und Heideggers Existenzanalyse und ihr Verhaltnis zur Verk(u|¨)ndigung("Kierkegaard's and Heidegger's analysis of existence and its relation to preaching"),1950.
(2)The bibliography of his writings has been published by Karstein Hansen under the title K.E.L(?)gstrups forfatterskap 1930-1987.En bibliografi,1987:It contains 1.186 numbers,including reviews of L(?)gstrup's books by other authors.A bibliography of secondary literature does not exist,but it would today include several hundred numbers of which at least some thirty monographs.
(1)Cf."Etiake begreber og problemer",pp.213-215.
(2)My references are to the enlarged edition of The Ethical Demand(1997),p.8 ff.
(3)Ibid.,pp.22-23.
(4)Ibid.,44 ff.
(1)Ibid.,p.115 ff.
(2)Ibid.,p.29 ff.and p.164 ff.
(3)Ibid.,p.22 ff.Cf.also chapter 2.
(4)Ibid.,pp.66-67.
(1)Ibid.,p.164 ff.
(2)Ibid.,p.143 ff.
(3)"Etiske begreber og problemer",p.227.
(1)Levinas goes in this connection back to concepts that he has developed in earlier publications like Le temps et l'autre(English translation as Time and Other,1987),1948,and De l'existenceàl'existant(English translation as Existence and Existents,1978),1947.
(2)See also Humanisme de l'autre homme("Humanism of the other man"),1972.A somewhat easily accessible introduction to his philosophy gives Levinas in Ethique et infini(English translation as Ethics and Infinity,1985),an interview from 1982 in book-length by Philippe Nemo.
(3)As a factual possibility,an exchange of thoughts could have been possible.Levinas didn't knew Danish,at least not as far as I know,but he mastered German.In this way,L(?)gstrup's principal work,The Ethical Demand,became available for Levinas in 1959when it was published in German translation.Inversely,the publications of Levinas were already from the beginning available for L(?)gstrup,who spoke German as well as French.Moreover,even a meeting could have taken place.During their student days at the end of the 1920s,their ways were crossing several times,but they didn't meet.Thus,Levinas had finished his studies at the University of Strasbourg in exactly the same year as L(?)gstrup arrived to study there for one year.Levinas studied in Strasbourg from 1923 to 1930 and L0gstrup,consequently,from 1930 to 1931.Furthermore,Levinas stayed in the schoolyear1928-1929 in Freiburg to study with Husserl and Heidegger.L(?)gstrup made an equivalent stay in Freiburg only some few years later,more exactly in 1933-1934.
(1)This concept,he already developed in his book Existence and Existents of 1947.
(2)Levinas'description of Heidegger's ontology is not quite fair,I think.It is true that Heidegger talks about the neutral determinations of ontology,but at the same time his concept of"present-at-hand"do not differ to any appreciable extent from Levinas'concept of"there is".In both cases,it is a matter of something deduced,which is not original.Heidegger understands the present-at-hand as an abstraction from the readiness-to-hand,from the entire practical and interhuman world of equipments("Zeugwelt"),which he sees as original.
(3)Totality and Infinity,pp.27-30.
(4)Ibid.,p.33 ff.
(1)Ibid.,p.187 ff;
(1)Ethics and Infinity,p.99.The English translation writes"one responsibility",but as far as I can see it should be"a responsibility".
(2)Lφgstrup makes the same distinction.Also for Scheler is this difference important within the scope of his personalistic ethics.
(3)Humanisme de l'autre homme,p.84 ff.Love was the object of an investigation already in 1948 in Le temps et l'autre(English translation as Time and Other,1987).
(1)Cf.my distinction above between Sartre as"existentialist"and phenomenologist.
(1)Steppingstones toward an Ethics for Fellovu Existers,p.1.
(2)Ibid.,p.8.
(1)"The Moral Sense",p.10.
(2)Ibid.,p.10.
(1)Ibid.,p.15 ff.
(2)Ibid.,p.17.
(3)Ibid.,p.19.
(4)Ibid.,p.26 ff.
(5)Ibid.,p.23.
(1)Three examples are the discussion about Robert Faurisson's doctoral thesis in France,the writings of the English historian David Irving and the German historian dispute,as it is called.In all three cases,the central issue is how one with the historical events at distance,on the one hand,can deal with them as exchangeable entities of any kind or as pure physical facts and,on the other hand,may not do it.Accordingly,the extermination of the Jews can be seen as a trifle in world history,the extermination can afterwards be difficult to prove,etc.But we may not allow that the suffering of individual persons is fit into the objectivistic and physicalistic way of seeing that choke their voices and kill them a second timethis time spiritual.Deborah Lipstadt published in 1993 a book on this theme called Denying the Holocaust.The Growing Assault on Truth and Memory.