管道中氢—空气预混火焰传播动力学实验与数值模拟研究
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摘要
可燃气预混燃烧是燃烧实际应用中最基础、最重要的研究课题,也是其火灾、爆炸事故防治的基本研究对象。由于受限空间中的预混火焰动力学是内燃机燃烧的典型过程,同时也代表爆轰波发展中的火焰加速、爆燃向爆轰转变等过程,因此在工程燃烧和爆炸安全等方面均有重要应用。另外,氢气作为一种未来具有广阔前景的新能源,开展氢-空气可燃混合气体燃烧特性和行为的研究势在必行。同时,开发和验证与之相应的、能够广泛应用的燃烧模型和方法对于氢气燃烧应用和爆炸安全具有举足轻重的作用。
本研究的主要目的是为预混燃烧动力学及其机理提供深入的基础性研究,并为预混燃烧和爆炸安全科学研究和工程应用提供坚实的理论基础和可靠的燃烧模型与方法。本论文主要完成两个研究目标。第一个目标是系统地研究管道中预混燃烧动力学特性,包括火焰动力学及其与压力波的相互作用、动态升压特性以及火焰传播的内在动力学机理。本文的另一个重要的目标是研究管道中气体爆炸动力学特性,在此基础上发展和验证能够合理预测灾害性气体爆炸的理论模型和数值方法。本论文的研究基于管道中预混氢-空气预混火焰传播的实验测量和计算流体动力学(CFD)数值模拟。
在实验中,运用高速纹影摄像方法和压力测试技术研究了水平放置的半开口管道和封闭管道中不同当量比的氢-空气火焰动力学和升压特性。高速摄像仪和纹影设备用来记录燃烧过程中火焰形状和位置随时间的变化规律。压力传感器用来测量这种非稳态燃烧过程中的瞬态压力随时间变化特性。另外,实验还研究重力、开口率和当量比对燃烧动力学的影响。
在数值模拟中,预混火焰的传播过程分别模拟为二维和三维的化学反应性流动。在二维的数值模拟中预混燃烧采用动态增厚火焰模型(TF模型)进行模拟。氢气在空气中的化学反应采用19步详细化学反应机理进行求解。三维的数值模拟通过两种不同的数值方法开展。第一种方法基于与二维模拟一样的燃烧技术,即动态增厚火焰模型。但是在模拟中采用了动态的自适应性网格加密技术和火焰面追踪技术。而氢-空气化学反应采用7步简化反应机理进行解算。第二种方法为大涡模拟结合湍流燃烧速度模型的方法。采用基于大涡模拟预混燃烧模型的数值计算以实现对不同的火焰动力学现象及其内在机理的深入研究,并在此基础上揭示实验现象的本质规律与机理。该燃烧模型考虑了四种不同物理机理效应对预混火焰燃烧速度的影响,即流动湍流、火焰前锋诱导湍流、热-扩散不稳定性以及未燃气体瞬态温度与压力等物理因素对预混火焰燃烧速度的增强作用。
实验研究结果表明相比于其他常用气体燃料,管道中氢-空气预混火焰经历了更多的复杂火焰动力学特性变化,包括火焰形状和其他动力学特征。其中一个重要的发现就是在封闭管道中当氢-空气预混气体当量比在0.84<Φ<4.22范围内时,经典Tulip火焰会产生显著的变形。实验表明变形Tulip火焰在火焰形成经典Tulip形状之后产生,并在初始Tulip火舌的引导前锋附近产生变形(凹陷)时引发。当次生Tulip尖端传播到初始Tulip火舌中部并与初始Tulip尖端大小形状相当时,变形Tulip火焰发展成为“三重”Tulip火焰。在第一个变形Tulip火焰消失之际,火焰前锋将产生第二次Tulip火焰变形,此时火焰前锋形成一连串的次生Tulip尖端。实验中对这种显著的Tulip火焰变形进行了细致的研究,并与经典Tulip火焰的瓦解和消失过程进行了区分。变形Tulip火焰的动力学特性与经典Tulip火焰动力学特性有显著的不同。前者经历了更多的火焰形状变化和更不稳定的燃烧动力学过程。经典Tulip火焰在第一次变形Tulip火焰消失时可重新出现。实验高速纹影图像和压力测试记录结果表明变形Tulip火焰传播可分为五个动力学阶段,即球形火焰、指尖形火焰、接触壁面火焰、Tulip火焰和变形Tulip火焰。实验中火焰形状变化(包括Tulip和变形Tulip形状的产生)的引发与火焰前锋突然减速和压力上升的骤然下降同步发生。Tulip和变形Tulip火焰的形成及其动力学特性对混合气体的组成具有较强的依赖性。重力对Tulip火焰具有显著的影响,能使Tulip火焰在低当量比和高当量比时以不同的方式消失,但是在本文实验中重力并不能导致实质性的火焰动力学变化。开口率对火焰传播动力学有重要影响。当开口率小于等于0.4时能形成显著的变形Tulip火焰。火焰传播的特征时间和对应的引导前锋特征位置均随开口率的增大而增大。
基于动态增厚火焰模型的二维数值模拟合理地再现了实验中观察到的火焰五个特征阶段的动力学现象。实验和数值模拟中均观察到了火焰诱导逆向流动和涡旋运动。火焰前锋、逆向流动与已燃区涡旋运动之间的相互作用将改变火焰形状并使火焰前锋发展成为Tulip形状。火焰第一次接触管道侧壁面时所触发的压力波是变形Tulip火焰传播过程中火焰前锋急剧减速和周期性振荡现象的直接原因,并对变形Tulip火焰的形成具有重要作用。采用动态增厚火焰的三维数值模拟能够较好地重复实验中的火焰特性。并且三维模拟的压力上升过程与实验结果符合较好。数值模拟结果与实验结果之间较好的吻合性表明增厚火焰模型对于管道中氢-空气预混火焰传播的模拟具有较高的适用性。通过数值模拟发现Tulip(?)]变形Tulip火焰均可以在没有壁面摩擦的情况下形成,这说明壁面摩擦对Tulip(?)]变形Tulip火焰的形成并不重要。
通过大涡模拟方法进一步深入研究了火焰前锋、压力波与燃烧诱导流动之间的相互作用,特别是当火焰前锋形成变形Tulip形状时。同时完善并通过实验验证了LES燃烧模型。LES模拟很好地再现了实验观察到的变形Tulip动力学特性。数值计算结果表明经典Tulip火焰形成之后在火焰前锋附近已燃区形成大尺度的涡旋运动。这些涡旋在火焰附近持续运动从而改变火焰前锋附近流场,直接导致初始Tulip尖端和靠近管道侧壁面的火焰前锋传播速度大于初始Tulip火舌中部火焰速度。这种火焰前锋传播速率之间的差异最后可导致变形Tulip火焰形成。LES燃烧模型很好地再现了管道中氢-空气预混火焰传播动力学和压力上升特性。数值模拟也表明网格分辨率在火焰前锋发生反转之后对燃烧动力学的模拟结果有一定程度的影响。
在实验与CFD数值模拟基础上,基于压力波与火焰的相互作用关系,对封闭管道中氢-空气预混火焰传播动力学进行了理论分析,建立了变形Tulip火焰传播的理论模型。理论分析结果与实验及大涡模拟结果吻合较好,同时理论分析证明了变形Tulip火焰形成本质原因是Taylor不稳定性。
Premixed combustion of the combustible gas mixture is a very fundamental and potential subject for practical application, e.g. accidental explosions. The fundamental understanding of premixed flame propagation phenomena is essential for the development of novel analytical and numerical combustion models. Premixed flame dynamics in confined vessels is of particular importance since it provides understanding of the burning processes taking place in internal combustion engines, and explains the mechanisms behind flame acceleration that can lead to transition from deflagration to detonation. In addition, hydrogen is a promising alternative energy carrier in the future, and it is desirable to characterize the combustion behavior of its blends with air. Meantime, the development and the validation of contemporary combustion models with a wide range of applicability are important for both hydrogen combustion applications and explosion safety.
This study aims to provide fundamental and in-depth investigation for premixed combustion and reliable predictive approaches for combustion engineering and explosion safety. Two primary aims is planned to be achieved in the present work. The first objective of this work is to study the premixed combustion dynamics in tubes, i.e. flame and pressure dynamics, and explain the mechanisms of the dynamics of the premixed combustion and flame. Another important target of the present study is to investigate gas explosions in tubes, and to develop and validate theoretical and numerical methods that could provide reasonable prediction of accidental gas explosions inside tubes. Laboratory experiments and CFD numerical simulations of premixed hydrogen-air flames in tubes are the basis of the thesis.
In the experiments, both the dynamics of premixed hydrogen-air flames and pressure build-up at various equivalence ratios propagating in half-open and closed horizontal ducts are investigated using high-speed schlieren photography and pressure records. The high-speed schlieren device is used to record the changes both in the flame shape and position as a function of time during the combustion process. The pressure transient in the duct during the nonsteady combustion is measured using a pressure transducer. The influences of gravity, opening ratio and equivalence ratio on the flame dynamics are also examined in the experimental investigation.
In the numerical simulations, the premixed combustion wave is simulated as two-dimensional (2D) or three-dimensional (3D) chemically reacting flow. A dynamic thickened flame (TF) model is applied in the2D numerical simulation to account for the premixed combustion. The chemical reaction of hydrogen and air is taken into account using a19-step detailed chemistry scheme. The3D numerical simulations are carried out using two numerical approaches. The first one is based on the same combustion technique as that in the2D simulation, namely the dynamic TF flame method. Nevertheless, a dynamically and locally adaptive mesh refinement is adopted, and tracks the location of the flame front. The hydrogen-air chemical reactions are taken into accounts using a seven-step chemistry scheme. The second one is the large eddy simulation (LES) together with a turbulent burning velocity model. The LES premixed combustion model is applied to gain an insight into various phenomena of flame and explain the experimental observations. The model accounts for the effects of four different physical mechanisms, i.e. flow turbulence, turbulence generated by flame front itself, diffusive-thermal instability, and transient pressure and temperature of unburned gas, on the premixed flame burning velocity.
The experimental study shows that the premixed hydrogen/air flame in ducts undergoes more complex shape changes and exhibits more distinct characteristics than that of other gaseous fuels. One of the outstanding findings is that significant distortions happen to the classical tulip flame front after its full formation when equivalence ratio ranges from0.84to4.22in the closed duct. A distorted tulip flame is initiated as the distortions or indentations are created very near the leading tips of the tulip lips after a well-pronounced classical tulip flame is produced. The distorted tulip flame develops into a salient "triple tulip" shape as the secondary tulip cusps approach the center of the primary tulip lips and appear comparable to the primary cusp. A second distorted tulip flame appears with a cascade of secondary cusps on the primary tulip lips just before the collapse of the first one. The salient tulip flame distortions are specially scrutinized and distinguished from the classical tulip. The dynamics of distorting tulip flame is different from that of classical tulip flame. The distorting tulip flame undergoes more complex shape changes and more unstable combustion process than the classical tulip flame. The normal tulip flame can be reproduced after the disappearance of the first distortion followed by another distortion. The schlieren images and the pressure records show that the distorted tulip flame propagation can be divided into five stages of dynamics, i.e. spherical flame, finger-shape flame, flame touching the sidewalls, tulip flame and distorted tulip flame. The initiation of flame shape changes coincides with the deceleration both of pressure rise and flame front speed for flames with tulip distortions. And the formation and dynamics of both tulip and distorting tulip flames depend on the mixture composition. The gravity has a noticeable impact on the tulip flame and can make the tulip flame collapse in different way between low and high equivalence ratios. The opening ratio can significantly influence the flame dynamics in a partially open duct. When the opening ratio is smaller than0.4a remarkable distorted tulip flame can be formed. The characteristic times and the corresponding characteristic distances of flame front increase with the increase of the opening ratio.
The flame dynamics observed in the experiment is well reproduced in the2D numerical simulation with TF method. The flame-induced reverse flow and vortex motion are observed both in experiment and the2D simulation. The interactions between the flame front, reverse flow and vortices in the burned gas change the flame shape and ultimately the flame front develops into a tulip shape. The pressure wave triggered by the first contact of the flame with the side walls is responsible for the periodic deceleration of the flame front and plays an important role in the formation of the distorted tulip flame. The flame and pressure dynamics observed in the experiment are well reproduced in the3D numerical simulation using the dynamic TF model. The predicted pressure dynamics in the numerical simulation is also in good agreement with that in the experiment. The close correspondence between the experiment and the numerical simulation demonstrate that the TF approach is quite reliable for the study of premixed hydrogen/air flame propagation in the closed duct. Both the tulip and distorted tulip flames can be created in the simulation with free-slip boundary condition at the duct walls, which means that the wall friction could be unimportant for the tulip and distorted tulip formation.
The LES numerical simulation provides further understanding of the interaction between flame front, pressure wave and combustion-generated flow, especially when the flame acquires a "distorted tulip" shape. The dynamics of "distorted tulip" flame observed in the experiment is well reproduced by the LES. The numerical simulations show that large-scale vortices are generated in the burnt gas after the formation of a classical tulip flame. The vortices remain in the proximity of the flame front and modify the flow field around the flame front. As a result, the flame front in the original cusp and near the sidewalls propagates faster than that close to the centre of the original tulip lips. The discrepancy in the flame propagation rate can finally lead to the formation of the "distorted tulip" flame. The LES model validated previously against large-scale hydrogen/air deflagrations is successfully applied in this study to reproduce the dynamics of flame propagation and pressure build up in the small-scale duct. It is confirmed that grid resolution has an influence to a certain extent on the simulated combustion dynamics after the flame inversion.
On the basis of the experimental and numerical investigation of the interaction between flame front and pressure wave, the premixed flame dynamics for hydrogen/air mixture in the closed duct is theoretically analyzed. A theoretical model of the distorted tulip flame is developed. The results predicted using the theoretcial model is in satisfactory agreement with those in the experiments and LES. The theoretical analysis demonstrates that the Taylor instability is the substantial cause of the "distorted tulip" flame.
本研究的主要目的是为预混燃烧动力学及其机理提供深入的基础性研究,并为预混燃烧和爆炸安全科学研究和工程应用提供坚实的理论基础和可靠的燃烧模型与方法。本论文主要完成两个研究目标。第一个目标是系统地研究管道中预混燃烧动力学特性,包括火焰动力学及其与压力波的相互作用、动态升压特性以及火焰传播的内在动力学机理。本文的另一个重要的目标是研究管道中气体爆炸动力学特性,在此基础上发展和验证能够合理预测灾害性气体爆炸的理论模型和数值方法。本论文的研究基于管道中预混氢-空气预混火焰传播的实验测量和计算流体动力学(CFD)数值模拟。
在实验中,运用高速纹影摄像方法和压力测试技术研究了水平放置的半开口管道和封闭管道中不同当量比的氢-空气火焰动力学和升压特性。高速摄像仪和纹影设备用来记录燃烧过程中火焰形状和位置随时间的变化规律。压力传感器用来测量这种非稳态燃烧过程中的瞬态压力随时间变化特性。另外,实验还研究重力、开口率和当量比对燃烧动力学的影响。
在数值模拟中,预混火焰的传播过程分别模拟为二维和三维的化学反应性流动。在二维的数值模拟中预混燃烧采用动态增厚火焰模型(TF模型)进行模拟。氢气在空气中的化学反应采用19步详细化学反应机理进行求解。三维的数值模拟通过两种不同的数值方法开展。第一种方法基于与二维模拟一样的燃烧技术,即动态增厚火焰模型。但是在模拟中采用了动态的自适应性网格加密技术和火焰面追踪技术。而氢-空气化学反应采用7步简化反应机理进行解算。第二种方法为大涡模拟结合湍流燃烧速度模型的方法。采用基于大涡模拟预混燃烧模型的数值计算以实现对不同的火焰动力学现象及其内在机理的深入研究,并在此基础上揭示实验现象的本质规律与机理。该燃烧模型考虑了四种不同物理机理效应对预混火焰燃烧速度的影响,即流动湍流、火焰前锋诱导湍流、热-扩散不稳定性以及未燃气体瞬态温度与压力等物理因素对预混火焰燃烧速度的增强作用。
实验研究结果表明相比于其他常用气体燃料,管道中氢-空气预混火焰经历了更多的复杂火焰动力学特性变化,包括火焰形状和其他动力学特征。其中一个重要的发现就是在封闭管道中当氢-空气预混气体当量比在0.84<Φ<4.22范围内时,经典Tulip火焰会产生显著的变形。实验表明变形Tulip火焰在火焰形成经典Tulip形状之后产生,并在初始Tulip火舌的引导前锋附近产生变形(凹陷)时引发。当次生Tulip尖端传播到初始Tulip火舌中部并与初始Tulip尖端大小形状相当时,变形Tulip火焰发展成为“三重”Tulip火焰。在第一个变形Tulip火焰消失之际,火焰前锋将产生第二次Tulip火焰变形,此时火焰前锋形成一连串的次生Tulip尖端。实验中对这种显著的Tulip火焰变形进行了细致的研究,并与经典Tulip火焰的瓦解和消失过程进行了区分。变形Tulip火焰的动力学特性与经典Tulip火焰动力学特性有显著的不同。前者经历了更多的火焰形状变化和更不稳定的燃烧动力学过程。经典Tulip火焰在第一次变形Tulip火焰消失时可重新出现。实验高速纹影图像和压力测试记录结果表明变形Tulip火焰传播可分为五个动力学阶段,即球形火焰、指尖形火焰、接触壁面火焰、Tulip火焰和变形Tulip火焰。实验中火焰形状变化(包括Tulip和变形Tulip形状的产生)的引发与火焰前锋突然减速和压力上升的骤然下降同步发生。Tulip和变形Tulip火焰的形成及其动力学特性对混合气体的组成具有较强的依赖性。重力对Tulip火焰具有显著的影响,能使Tulip火焰在低当量比和高当量比时以不同的方式消失,但是在本文实验中重力并不能导致实质性的火焰动力学变化。开口率对火焰传播动力学有重要影响。当开口率小于等于0.4时能形成显著的变形Tulip火焰。火焰传播的特征时间和对应的引导前锋特征位置均随开口率的增大而增大。
基于动态增厚火焰模型的二维数值模拟合理地再现了实验中观察到的火焰五个特征阶段的动力学现象。实验和数值模拟中均观察到了火焰诱导逆向流动和涡旋运动。火焰前锋、逆向流动与已燃区涡旋运动之间的相互作用将改变火焰形状并使火焰前锋发展成为Tulip形状。火焰第一次接触管道侧壁面时所触发的压力波是变形Tulip火焰传播过程中火焰前锋急剧减速和周期性振荡现象的直接原因,并对变形Tulip火焰的形成具有重要作用。采用动态增厚火焰的三维数值模拟能够较好地重复实验中的火焰特性。并且三维模拟的压力上升过程与实验结果符合较好。数值模拟结果与实验结果之间较好的吻合性表明增厚火焰模型对于管道中氢-空气预混火焰传播的模拟具有较高的适用性。通过数值模拟发现Tulip(?)]变形Tulip火焰均可以在没有壁面摩擦的情况下形成,这说明壁面摩擦对Tulip(?)]变形Tulip火焰的形成并不重要。
通过大涡模拟方法进一步深入研究了火焰前锋、压力波与燃烧诱导流动之间的相互作用,特别是当火焰前锋形成变形Tulip形状时。同时完善并通过实验验证了LES燃烧模型。LES模拟很好地再现了实验观察到的变形Tulip动力学特性。数值计算结果表明经典Tulip火焰形成之后在火焰前锋附近已燃区形成大尺度的涡旋运动。这些涡旋在火焰附近持续运动从而改变火焰前锋附近流场,直接导致初始Tulip尖端和靠近管道侧壁面的火焰前锋传播速度大于初始Tulip火舌中部火焰速度。这种火焰前锋传播速率之间的差异最后可导致变形Tulip火焰形成。LES燃烧模型很好地再现了管道中氢-空气预混火焰传播动力学和压力上升特性。数值模拟也表明网格分辨率在火焰前锋发生反转之后对燃烧动力学的模拟结果有一定程度的影响。
在实验与CFD数值模拟基础上,基于压力波与火焰的相互作用关系,对封闭管道中氢-空气预混火焰传播动力学进行了理论分析,建立了变形Tulip火焰传播的理论模型。理论分析结果与实验及大涡模拟结果吻合较好,同时理论分析证明了变形Tulip火焰形成本质原因是Taylor不稳定性。
Premixed combustion of the combustible gas mixture is a very fundamental and potential subject for practical application, e.g. accidental explosions. The fundamental understanding of premixed flame propagation phenomena is essential for the development of novel analytical and numerical combustion models. Premixed flame dynamics in confined vessels is of particular importance since it provides understanding of the burning processes taking place in internal combustion engines, and explains the mechanisms behind flame acceleration that can lead to transition from deflagration to detonation. In addition, hydrogen is a promising alternative energy carrier in the future, and it is desirable to characterize the combustion behavior of its blends with air. Meantime, the development and the validation of contemporary combustion models with a wide range of applicability are important for both hydrogen combustion applications and explosion safety.
This study aims to provide fundamental and in-depth investigation for premixed combustion and reliable predictive approaches for combustion engineering and explosion safety. Two primary aims is planned to be achieved in the present work. The first objective of this work is to study the premixed combustion dynamics in tubes, i.e. flame and pressure dynamics, and explain the mechanisms of the dynamics of the premixed combustion and flame. Another important target of the present study is to investigate gas explosions in tubes, and to develop and validate theoretical and numerical methods that could provide reasonable prediction of accidental gas explosions inside tubes. Laboratory experiments and CFD numerical simulations of premixed hydrogen-air flames in tubes are the basis of the thesis.
In the experiments, both the dynamics of premixed hydrogen-air flames and pressure build-up at various equivalence ratios propagating in half-open and closed horizontal ducts are investigated using high-speed schlieren photography and pressure records. The high-speed schlieren device is used to record the changes both in the flame shape and position as a function of time during the combustion process. The pressure transient in the duct during the nonsteady combustion is measured using a pressure transducer. The influences of gravity, opening ratio and equivalence ratio on the flame dynamics are also examined in the experimental investigation.
In the numerical simulations, the premixed combustion wave is simulated as two-dimensional (2D) or three-dimensional (3D) chemically reacting flow. A dynamic thickened flame (TF) model is applied in the2D numerical simulation to account for the premixed combustion. The chemical reaction of hydrogen and air is taken into account using a19-step detailed chemistry scheme. The3D numerical simulations are carried out using two numerical approaches. The first one is based on the same combustion technique as that in the2D simulation, namely the dynamic TF flame method. Nevertheless, a dynamically and locally adaptive mesh refinement is adopted, and tracks the location of the flame front. The hydrogen-air chemical reactions are taken into accounts using a seven-step chemistry scheme. The second one is the large eddy simulation (LES) together with a turbulent burning velocity model. The LES premixed combustion model is applied to gain an insight into various phenomena of flame and explain the experimental observations. The model accounts for the effects of four different physical mechanisms, i.e. flow turbulence, turbulence generated by flame front itself, diffusive-thermal instability, and transient pressure and temperature of unburned gas, on the premixed flame burning velocity.
The experimental study shows that the premixed hydrogen/air flame in ducts undergoes more complex shape changes and exhibits more distinct characteristics than that of other gaseous fuels. One of the outstanding findings is that significant distortions happen to the classical tulip flame front after its full formation when equivalence ratio ranges from0.84to4.22in the closed duct. A distorted tulip flame is initiated as the distortions or indentations are created very near the leading tips of the tulip lips after a well-pronounced classical tulip flame is produced. The distorted tulip flame develops into a salient "triple tulip" shape as the secondary tulip cusps approach the center of the primary tulip lips and appear comparable to the primary cusp. A second distorted tulip flame appears with a cascade of secondary cusps on the primary tulip lips just before the collapse of the first one. The salient tulip flame distortions are specially scrutinized and distinguished from the classical tulip. The dynamics of distorting tulip flame is different from that of classical tulip flame. The distorting tulip flame undergoes more complex shape changes and more unstable combustion process than the classical tulip flame. The normal tulip flame can be reproduced after the disappearance of the first distortion followed by another distortion. The schlieren images and the pressure records show that the distorted tulip flame propagation can be divided into five stages of dynamics, i.e. spherical flame, finger-shape flame, flame touching the sidewalls, tulip flame and distorted tulip flame. The initiation of flame shape changes coincides with the deceleration both of pressure rise and flame front speed for flames with tulip distortions. And the formation and dynamics of both tulip and distorting tulip flames depend on the mixture composition. The gravity has a noticeable impact on the tulip flame and can make the tulip flame collapse in different way between low and high equivalence ratios. The opening ratio can significantly influence the flame dynamics in a partially open duct. When the opening ratio is smaller than0.4a remarkable distorted tulip flame can be formed. The characteristic times and the corresponding characteristic distances of flame front increase with the increase of the opening ratio.
The flame dynamics observed in the experiment is well reproduced in the2D numerical simulation with TF method. The flame-induced reverse flow and vortex motion are observed both in experiment and the2D simulation. The interactions between the flame front, reverse flow and vortices in the burned gas change the flame shape and ultimately the flame front develops into a tulip shape. The pressure wave triggered by the first contact of the flame with the side walls is responsible for the periodic deceleration of the flame front and plays an important role in the formation of the distorted tulip flame. The flame and pressure dynamics observed in the experiment are well reproduced in the3D numerical simulation using the dynamic TF model. The predicted pressure dynamics in the numerical simulation is also in good agreement with that in the experiment. The close correspondence between the experiment and the numerical simulation demonstrate that the TF approach is quite reliable for the study of premixed hydrogen/air flame propagation in the closed duct. Both the tulip and distorted tulip flames can be created in the simulation with free-slip boundary condition at the duct walls, which means that the wall friction could be unimportant for the tulip and distorted tulip formation.
The LES numerical simulation provides further understanding of the interaction between flame front, pressure wave and combustion-generated flow, especially when the flame acquires a "distorted tulip" shape. The dynamics of "distorted tulip" flame observed in the experiment is well reproduced by the LES. The numerical simulations show that large-scale vortices are generated in the burnt gas after the formation of a classical tulip flame. The vortices remain in the proximity of the flame front and modify the flow field around the flame front. As a result, the flame front in the original cusp and near the sidewalls propagates faster than that close to the centre of the original tulip lips. The discrepancy in the flame propagation rate can finally lead to the formation of the "distorted tulip" flame. The LES model validated previously against large-scale hydrogen/air deflagrations is successfully applied in this study to reproduce the dynamics of flame propagation and pressure build up in the small-scale duct. It is confirmed that grid resolution has an influence to a certain extent on the simulated combustion dynamics after the flame inversion.
On the basis of the experimental and numerical investigation of the interaction between flame front and pressure wave, the premixed flame dynamics for hydrogen/air mixture in the closed duct is theoretically analyzed. A theoretical model of the distorted tulip flame is developed. The results predicted using the theoretcial model is in satisfactory agreement with those in the experiments and LES. The theoretical analysis demonstrates that the Taylor instability is the substantial cause of the "distorted tulip" flame.
引文
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