“美国式”个人信用制度及其特点
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摘要
在一个国家的现代经济生活中,个人信用制度是必不可少的,它是整个市场经济运行的基础。美国具有完善的个人信用制度,并以此为基础,形成了庞大的信用交易规模。本文介绍了“美国式”个人信用制度的历史演变及其内容。并对其特征、影响因素和“美国式”个人信用制度的作用、局限性进行了系统分析。最后借鉴其经验,对我国个人信用制度的建设提出了几点建议。全文可分为四个部分:
第一部分:“美国式”个人信用制度的历史演变及其影响因素
在引言部分对信用、制度、个人信用制度的概念和“美国式”个人信用制度的内涵进行了界定。在此基础上,本部分按“美国式”个人信用制度发展的历史轨迹,详细的论述了其萌芽、创建、发展最后成熟完善的整个过程。
“美国式”个人信用制度在漫长发展演变过程中受多种要素的支撑,得以建立、发展、完善。个人信用制度作为美国社会制度的重要组成部分,它的建立和有效运行同美国经济的快速发展密切相关。美国人的契约之道、信德文化、基督教文明,成为“美国式”个人信用制度建立的内在驱动力。而美国的民主政治制度、健全的法制社会以及对私人财产权的保护,为个人信用制度建立提供了有力的政治法律保障。
第二部分:市场化运作的个人征信公司
完全市场化运作的美国个人征信公司是整个个人信用制度得以运行的润滑剂。目前,美国的个人征信行业由三大个人征信公司所垄断,它们是:Trans Union、Equifax和Experian。这些公司形成了从个人信用资料的收集登记、产品与服务的开发到销售一体化的社会化大生产模式。市场化是个人征信公司的主要运行模式;独立性和中立性是公司的立身之本;美国消费者较强的信用意识成为个人征信公司发展的动力;产品与服务的不断创新是个人征信公司的重要利润源泉;庞大的数据库和先进的软件系统是公司业务发展的保障。
第三部分:完善的法律规范及监管机制
在美国,同个人信用相关的法律规范有17项之多,其核心是《公平信用报告法》。这些法律规范是在个人信用交易的实践中产生和发展的,形式多样,并具有深厚的文化基础。
个人信用的监管机构主要有政府的相关部门和一些专业协会。它们对个人信用管理的基本作用主要体现在:促进与个人信用相关立法的出台,及相应细则的不断完善;监督个人征信公司,使其合理、合法地利用和传播征信数据。美国个人信用的监管机制多元、分散,这一特征有自身的优势也由其不足处。
第四部分:“美国式”个人信用制度的功能及局限性
个人信用制度对整个美国社会的发展产生了巨大作用,它有助于扩大内需、拉动市场有效需求;节约交易成本;确保市场经济健康有序的运行;增进公民道德建设醇化社会风气。
但事物都有其两面性,虽然“美国式”个人信用制度很健全,但它也面临着许多问题:日益膨胀的消费信用使信用风险不断加大;在实际操作中个人信用制度也存在着一些技术性缺陷;而且不断出现的造假丑闻使“美国式”个人信用制度受到了严峻的挑战。
结语:
在这一部分本文指出了我国个人信用制度建设面临的主要问题:人们的社会信用意识尚未形成;与个人信用相关的法律缺失;个人信用隐私得不到保护;个人信用数据难以收集;个人征信公司得不到大力发展。最后针对我国个人信用制度建立所存在的问题提出了一些建议。
In a national modern economic life, personal credit system is essential. It is the basis of the entire market economy movement. The Unite States has a perfect personal credit system, and it is used as the basis to create a large-scale credit transactions. This paper introduces the historical evolution and its contents of“American-style”personal credit system and analyzes its characteristics, influencing factors and the role and the limitation of the personal credit system. Finally, this paper profits from its experience and puts forward several proposals to our country’s personal credit system. The full text can be divided into four parts:
The first part: the historical evolution and its influencing factors of“American-style”personal credit system
In the introduction, it defines the concept of credit, system, personal credit system and the connotation of“American-style”personal credit system . On this basis, according the historical path of“American-style”personal credit system, this part discusses the entire process of its germ, foundation, development and finally mature.
“American-style”personal credit system is supported by a number of factors in the long evolutionary process, which make it was able to establish, develop, perfect. As an important component part of the American society system, personal credit system’s estabilishment and effective operation is closely related with the rapid economic development of the US. American’s contract theroy, credit and moral culture, the Christian civilization become the internal driving force of the establishment of“American-style”personal credit system. The perfect legal system society and the perfect property rights have provided the powerful political law safeguard for the establishment of personal credit system.
The second part: personal credit bureau is a market-oriented operation
The entire market-oriented operational personal credit bureau is the lubricant by which the entire personal credit system can move. At present, the American personal credit trades are monopolized by three big personal credit bureaus, they are: Trans Union, Equifax, Experian. These companies have formed from the collection of personal credit information register, the development of products and services to the social-oriented large-scale production model of sale integration. The market-oriented is main operational model of the credit bureau, independence and neutrality is the foundation of the company, American consumers’strong sense of credit become the driving force in the development of credit bureau, the innovation of product and service is a major profit source of credit bureau,the huge database and advanced business software system is the guarantee of credit bureau’s development.
The third part: the perfect legal standard and supervising and managing mechanism
In America, it has 17 items laws which related with personal credit, its core is Fair Credit Repoting Act. These laws are produced and developed in the practice of personal credit transaction,it has various forms, and has a profound cultural foundation.
The personal credit supervision is composed of relevant government departments and some of the professional associations. Their basic function to personal credit management mainly embody: it promotes the appearing of the personal credit’s relevant laws, and the consummation of the corresponding regulation, supervise credit bureaus, and they can make reasonable and lawful use and dissemination of credit information. The American personal credit monitoring mechanism is pluralistic, decentralized, this feature has its own advantages, and also has its shortcoming.
The fourth part: the functions and limitations of“American-style”personal credit system
Personal credit system plays an important role in the whole development of American society, it promotes expanding domestic demand, stimulating market demand, saving transaction costs, ensuring the healthy and orderly operation of the market economy, promoting the citizen moral reconstruction and purifying social convention.
All things have its dural character,“American-style”personal credit system is very perfect, but it faces many problems: expanding consumer credit increased credit risks,in the practical operation, personal credit system has some technical flaws, and the emergence of fabricated scandal has caused“American-style”personal credit system to receive the stern challenge.
Conclusion:
In this part, the paper points out some main problem of China’s personal credit system: pepole’s social credit awareness has not been formed, the relevant laws with personal credit loss, personal credit privacy can not be protected, personal credit information is difficult to collect, the credit bureau can not be developed. Finally, the paper makes some suggestions to the problems of our country’s personal credit system.
第一部分:“美国式”个人信用制度的历史演变及其影响因素
在引言部分对信用、制度、个人信用制度的概念和“美国式”个人信用制度的内涵进行了界定。在此基础上,本部分按“美国式”个人信用制度发展的历史轨迹,详细的论述了其萌芽、创建、发展最后成熟完善的整个过程。
“美国式”个人信用制度在漫长发展演变过程中受多种要素的支撑,得以建立、发展、完善。个人信用制度作为美国社会制度的重要组成部分,它的建立和有效运行同美国经济的快速发展密切相关。美国人的契约之道、信德文化、基督教文明,成为“美国式”个人信用制度建立的内在驱动力。而美国的民主政治制度、健全的法制社会以及对私人财产权的保护,为个人信用制度建立提供了有力的政治法律保障。
第二部分:市场化运作的个人征信公司
完全市场化运作的美国个人征信公司是整个个人信用制度得以运行的润滑剂。目前,美国的个人征信行业由三大个人征信公司所垄断,它们是:Trans Union、Equifax和Experian。这些公司形成了从个人信用资料的收集登记、产品与服务的开发到销售一体化的社会化大生产模式。市场化是个人征信公司的主要运行模式;独立性和中立性是公司的立身之本;美国消费者较强的信用意识成为个人征信公司发展的动力;产品与服务的不断创新是个人征信公司的重要利润源泉;庞大的数据库和先进的软件系统是公司业务发展的保障。
第三部分:完善的法律规范及监管机制
在美国,同个人信用相关的法律规范有17项之多,其核心是《公平信用报告法》。这些法律规范是在个人信用交易的实践中产生和发展的,形式多样,并具有深厚的文化基础。
个人信用的监管机构主要有政府的相关部门和一些专业协会。它们对个人信用管理的基本作用主要体现在:促进与个人信用相关立法的出台,及相应细则的不断完善;监督个人征信公司,使其合理、合法地利用和传播征信数据。美国个人信用的监管机制多元、分散,这一特征有自身的优势也由其不足处。
第四部分:“美国式”个人信用制度的功能及局限性
个人信用制度对整个美国社会的发展产生了巨大作用,它有助于扩大内需、拉动市场有效需求;节约交易成本;确保市场经济健康有序的运行;增进公民道德建设醇化社会风气。
但事物都有其两面性,虽然“美国式”个人信用制度很健全,但它也面临着许多问题:日益膨胀的消费信用使信用风险不断加大;在实际操作中个人信用制度也存在着一些技术性缺陷;而且不断出现的造假丑闻使“美国式”个人信用制度受到了严峻的挑战。
结语:
在这一部分本文指出了我国个人信用制度建设面临的主要问题:人们的社会信用意识尚未形成;与个人信用相关的法律缺失;个人信用隐私得不到保护;个人信用数据难以收集;个人征信公司得不到大力发展。最后针对我国个人信用制度建立所存在的问题提出了一些建议。
In a national modern economic life, personal credit system is essential. It is the basis of the entire market economy movement. The Unite States has a perfect personal credit system, and it is used as the basis to create a large-scale credit transactions. This paper introduces the historical evolution and its contents of“American-style”personal credit system and analyzes its characteristics, influencing factors and the role and the limitation of the personal credit system. Finally, this paper profits from its experience and puts forward several proposals to our country’s personal credit system. The full text can be divided into four parts:
The first part: the historical evolution and its influencing factors of“American-style”personal credit system
In the introduction, it defines the concept of credit, system, personal credit system and the connotation of“American-style”personal credit system . On this basis, according the historical path of“American-style”personal credit system, this part discusses the entire process of its germ, foundation, development and finally mature.
“American-style”personal credit system is supported by a number of factors in the long evolutionary process, which make it was able to establish, develop, perfect. As an important component part of the American society system, personal credit system’s estabilishment and effective operation is closely related with the rapid economic development of the US. American’s contract theroy, credit and moral culture, the Christian civilization become the internal driving force of the establishment of“American-style”personal credit system. The perfect legal system society and the perfect property rights have provided the powerful political law safeguard for the establishment of personal credit system.
The second part: personal credit bureau is a market-oriented operation
The entire market-oriented operational personal credit bureau is the lubricant by which the entire personal credit system can move. At present, the American personal credit trades are monopolized by three big personal credit bureaus, they are: Trans Union, Equifax, Experian. These companies have formed from the collection of personal credit information register, the development of products and services to the social-oriented large-scale production model of sale integration. The market-oriented is main operational model of the credit bureau, independence and neutrality is the foundation of the company, American consumers’strong sense of credit become the driving force in the development of credit bureau, the innovation of product and service is a major profit source of credit bureau,the huge database and advanced business software system is the guarantee of credit bureau’s development.
The third part: the perfect legal standard and supervising and managing mechanism
In America, it has 17 items laws which related with personal credit, its core is Fair Credit Repoting Act. These laws are produced and developed in the practice of personal credit transaction,it has various forms, and has a profound cultural foundation.
The personal credit supervision is composed of relevant government departments and some of the professional associations. Their basic function to personal credit management mainly embody: it promotes the appearing of the personal credit’s relevant laws, and the consummation of the corresponding regulation, supervise credit bureaus, and they can make reasonable and lawful use and dissemination of credit information. The American personal credit monitoring mechanism is pluralistic, decentralized, this feature has its own advantages, and also has its shortcoming.
The fourth part: the functions and limitations of“American-style”personal credit system
Personal credit system plays an important role in the whole development of American society, it promotes expanding domestic demand, stimulating market demand, saving transaction costs, ensuring the healthy and orderly operation of the market economy, promoting the citizen moral reconstruction and purifying social convention.
All things have its dural character,“American-style”personal credit system is very perfect, but it faces many problems: expanding consumer credit increased credit risks,in the practical operation, personal credit system has some technical flaws, and the emergence of fabricated scandal has caused“American-style”personal credit system to receive the stern challenge.
Conclusion:
In this part, the paper points out some main problem of China’s personal credit system: pepole’s social credit awareness has not been formed, the relevant laws with personal credit loss, personal credit privacy can not be protected, personal credit information is difficult to collect, the credit bureau can not be developed. Finally, the paper makes some suggestions to the problems of our country’s personal credit system.
引文
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[77]韩阳. 美国信用危机产生的体系根源及对我国的启示[J]. 山东行政学院山东省管理干部学院学报, 2005,(1):42
1、 龙西安. 个人信用、征信与法[M]. 北京:中国金融出版社, 2004.
2、 王淑芹等. 信用伦理研究[M]. 北京:中央编译出版社, 2005.
3、朱永新、徐艳、秦燕. 诚信启示录[M]. 北京:高等教育出版社,2004.
4、[美]林·C.托马斯、戴维·B.埃德尔曼、乔纳林·N.克鲁克著,王晓蕾、石庆炎、吴晓惠译. 信用评分及其应用[M]. 北京:中国金融出版社, 2006.
5、邹浩. 美国消费信用体系初探[M]. 北京:中国政法大学出版社, 2006.
6、[美]詹姆斯·S.科尔曼. 社会理论的基础(上)[M]. 北京:社会科学文献出版社, 1999.
7、王征宇. 美国的个人征信局及其服务[M]. 北京:中国方正出版社,2003.
8、[美]马克.E·沃伦,吴辉译. 民主与信任[M]. 北京:华夏出版社,2004.
9、炎林. 诚信就是资本[M]. 哈尔滨:北方文艺出版社, 2004.
10、陈宝森. 当代美国经济[M]. 北京:社会科学文献出版社,2001.
11、候申华. 诚信恐慌[M]. 北京:中华工商联合出版社, 2004.
12、林钧跃.社会信用体系管理[M]. 北京:中国方正出版社, 2003.
13、张维迎. 产权、政府与信誉[M]. 上海:上海三联书店, 2001.
14、喻敬明、林钧跃、孙杰. 国家信用管理体系[M]. 北京:社会科学文献出版社, 2000.
15、康志杰、胡军. 诚信—传统意义与现代价值[M]. 北京:中国社会科学出版社, 2004.
16、[美]弗兰西斯·福山. 信任—社会道德与繁荣的创造[M]. 内蒙古:远方出版社 1998.
17、骆玉鼎. 信用经济中的金融控制[M]. 上海:上海财经大学出版社,2000.
18、[美]希尔斯曼. 美国是如何治理的[M]. 上海:商务印书馆, 1998.
19、陈宝森. 美国经济与政府政策[M]. 北京:世界知识出版社, 1991.
20、黄文平. 信用经济与政府责任[J]. 学术月刊,2002,(4):84-91
21、石时态. 全面建设信用社会—美国信用制度启示录[J]. 学习导报, 2003,(2):25-26
22、任辉. 经济全球化与中国社会的信用建设[J]. 理论导刊, 2004,(8):61-62
23、丁丽云、王文臣. 构建中国社会主义信用体系探讨[J]. 信阳师范学院学报, 2004,(7):58-62
24、林健. 从外国企业征信模式的利弊看我国征信模式的选择[J]. 经济纵横, 2003,(7):40-42
25、刘永红、聂应德.按论政府信用及其建构[J]. 云南社会科学, 2004,(3):15-19
26、郭建新. 信用制度建设的道德思考[J]. 经济经纬, 2003,(1):88-90
27、张维迎. 法律制度的信誉基础[J]. 经济研究, 2002,(1):3-13
28、熊玲君. 论西方政治信用伦理思考的历史演变[J]. 中南大学学报社科版, 2005,(2):157-161
29、孟韬、史达. 论产业集群的信任机制[J]. 社会科学辑刊》,2006,(2):99-103
30、Elayne Robertson Demby. A new Approach to Credit Reporting[J]. Credit Card Mangement,Vol11,1998.
31、Raymond Wacks. Personal Information: Privacy and the Law[M]. Oxford University Press,1989.
32、Roger· Leroy .Miller、Raphael·W.Bostic, Credit Scoring Statistical Issues and Evidence from Credit—bureau Files[J]. Real Estate Economics,Vol28,No3,2000.
33、Broderick Perkins. New Credit Reporting Services For Non-Traditional Credit Consumers[EB/OL]. http://realtytimes.com/rtcpages/20040929_creditreporting.htm, 2004.9.24
34、American credit system thingamabob……[EB/OL]. http://www.tfproject.org/tfp/archive/index.php/t--66423.html, 2004.8.26
35、Kate Riley. My identity laid bare[EB/OL]. http ://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html
36、Credit control[EB/OL]. http://www.thebestaffiliate.com/finace/credit--control.php
37、Kenneth R.Harney. Unseen Credit File Errors Can Boost Mortgage Fees Behind Your Back[EB/OL].http://realtytimes..com/rtcpages/20021118_creditfile.htm, 2002.11.18
38、Five Reasons to Check Your Crdeit Report Regularly[EB/OL]. http://realtytimes.com/rtcpages/20021025_creditreport.htm, 2002.10.25
39、Lendd calder. Finanaing the Ameriean Dream :A Cultural History of Consumer Credit [M]. Princeton University Press,1999.
40、Ed Deshields.The Globalization of Consumer Credit[EB/OL]. http://cnx.org/content/m13359/lastest/, 2006.6.11
41、DavidA.Szwak. Undertstanding Credit Cands,Credit Reports And Fraud[EB/OL]. http://www.lectlaw.com/files/ban16.html.
42、 The Fair Credit Reporting Act (FCRA)and the Privacy of Your Credit Report[EB/OL]. http://www.epic.org/privacy/fcra/, 2005.10.7
43、Your Credit Score :how It All Adds Up[EB/OL]. http://www.privacyrights.org/fs/fs6c-CreditScores.htm, 2006.6.17
44、Kenneth ·R .Harney. Major Credit Reform Bill Passed Unanimously by House Subcommittee[EB/OL]. http://realtytimes.com/rtcpages/2003072/-reform.htm, 2003. 7.21
45、Akos Rona-Tas. Uncertainty and Credit Card Markets[EB/OL]. http://www.cor.web.vai.edu/vfiles/Calendar/copenhagen.doc.
46、[49]Consumer Law Help Manual[EB/OL]. http://www.consumer.State.ny.us/clahm/clahm-credit-roporting.htm.
47、FACTA,the Fair and Accurate Credit Transactions Act:Consumers Win some,Lose some[EB/OL]. http://www.privacyrights.org/index.htm, 2006.6.18
48、Fighting Identity Theft[EB/OL]. http://www.house.gov/good latte/wc-2002-2003/091203wc.html,2003.9.2
49、Total Credit Reports Unveils Discussion Forums for Credit Reports and Credit Scores[EB/OL]. http://www.prweb.com/releases/2005/5/prweb245793.htm, 2005.5.21
50、Marjore A.Corwin. A Road Map Through Maryland’s Consumer Credit Laws[M].Maryland Bar Journal, April 2002.
[2]李建平、石淑华. 试析“诚信”与“信用”的联系与区别——再论信用本质上是一个经济问题[J]. 东南学术, 2004 年,(1):85
[3]马克思恩格斯全集[M]. 第 25 卷, 北京:人民出版社,1962.496
[4]姚益龙. 市场经济中的信用关系重建思考[J]. 学术研究, 2001,(9):61
[5]王淑芹等. 信用伦理研究[M]. 北京:中央编译出版社, 2005. 5
[6]石淑华、李建平. 论现代信用文化建设[J]. 福建论坛人文社会科版, 2003,(1):77
[7]谭崇台. 发展经济学的新发展[M]. 武汉:武汉大学出版社,1999.109
[8]龙西安. 个人信用、征信与法[M]. 北京:中国金融出版社,2004.7
[9]王爱俭、孟昊. 建立我国个人信用制度对策研究[J]. 经济学动态, 2001,(2):15
[10]朱永新、徐艳、秦燕. 诚信启示录[M]. 北京:高等教育出版社,2004.84
[11]何建奎、岳慧霞. 美国个人信用体系范式及其对我国的借鉴[J]. 财经问题研究, 2004,(11):48
[12]孙国峰. 社会信用的制度分析[J]. 社会科学研究, 2002,(5):106
[13] [美]林·C.托马斯、戴维·B.埃德尔曼、乔纳林·N.克鲁克著,王晓蕾、石庆炎、吴晓惠译. 信用评分及其应用[M]. 北京:中国金融出版社, 2006.3
[14]Lendd calder. Finanaing the Ameriean Dream :A Cultural History of Consumer Credit [M]. Princeton University Press,1999.
[15]邹浩. 美国消费信用体系初探[M]. 北京:中国政法大学出版社, 2006.10
[16]薄晓光. 美国的信用报告制度[J]. 中外企业文化,2004,(1):48
[17]同[8],第 48 页
[18]同[10],第 85 页
[19]美国消费者征信服务公司的运作模式与特点[EB/OL]. http://www.tj-credit.cn/index.php?dirID=129, 2006.3.7
[20]陈文玲. 中美信用制度建设的比较和建议[J]. 经济社会体制比较,2003,(2):89
[21][美]詹姆斯·S.科尔曼. 社会理论的基础(上)[M]. 北京:社会科学文献出版社, 1999.108
[22]王征宇. 美国的个人征信局及其服务[M]. 北京:中国方正出版社,2003.8
[23]何建奎、岳慧霞. 美国个人信用体系范式及其对我国的借鉴[J]. 财经问题研究, 2004,(11):49
[24]董杰.美国信用局制度的演进及启示[EB/OL]. http://www.studa.net/bank/061010/09410198-2.html, 2006.10.10
[25]陈坤木. 美国信用建设的考察与启示[J]. 科技导报, 2003,(11):55
[26][美]彼德.布莱,张非、张黎勤译. 社会生活中的交换与权力[M]. 北京:华夏出版社,1998.294
[27]同[14], 第 211 页
[28]同[14],第 294 页
[29]Ed Deshields.The Globalization of Consumer Credit[EB/OL]. http://cnx.org/content/m13359/lastest/,2006.6.11
[30]同[8],第 180 页
[31]DavidA.Szwak. Undertstanding Credit Cands,Credit Reports And Fraud[EB/OL]. http://www.lectlaw.com/files/ban16.html.
[32]同[8],第 123 页
[33]Surveys of Consumer Finances.
[34]同[24]
[35]同[19]
[36][美]马克.E·沃伦,吴辉译. 民主与信任[M]. 北京:华夏出版社,2004.65
[37]The Fair Credit Reporting Act (FCRA)and the Privacy of Your Credit Report[EB/OL]. http://www.epic.org/privacy/fcra/,2005.10.7
[38]同[23], 第 49 页
[39]Your Credit Score :how It All Adds Up[EB/OL]. http://www.privacyrights.org/fs/fs6c-CreditScores.htm, 2006.6.17
[40]Kenneth ·R .Harney. Major Credit Reform Bill Passed Unanimously by House Subcommittee[EB/OL]. http://realtytimes.com/rtcpages/2003072/-reform.htm, 2003.7.21
[41]Akos Rona-Tas. Uncertainty and Credit Card Markets[EB/OL]. http://www.cor.web.vai.edu/vfiles/Calendar/copenhagen.doc.
[42]邹建平. 诚信论[M]. 天津:天津人民出版社, 2005.34
[43]同[42]第 16 页
[44]李建平、石淑华. 信用本质是一个经济问题----兼论经济信用、法律信用和道德信用的关系[J]. 当代经济研究 2003,(5):14
[45]林滨、李萍. 比较视域中的中西信任观[J]. 中山大学学报:社科版, 2005,(3):104
[46]炎林. 诚信就是资本[M]. 哈尔滨:北方文艺出版社, 2004.140
[47]同[5],第 100 页
[48]吕路. 美国个人信用制度的历史简介[EB/OL]. http://scrc.com.cn/11yjs/ztyj_ccntent.jsp, 2002.6.8
[49]Consumer Law Help Manual[EB/OL]. http://www.consumer.State.ny.us/clahm/clahm-credit-roporting.htm.
[50]美国消费者征信服务公司的运作模式与特点[EB/OL]. http://www.tj-eredit.cn/index.php?dirID=129,2006.3.7
[51]同[22],第 7 页
[52]美国个人信用体系建设及应用情况[EB/OL]. http://www.nciic.com.cn/xingyong.htm.
[53]同[22],第 32 页
[54]薄晓光.美国的信用报告制度[J]. 中外企业文化 ,2004,(1):49
[55]美国的个人信用制度及其启示[N].中国信用报 2006 年第 6 期,第 38 版
[56]同[22],第 104 页
[57]同[39]
[58]王长江、刘晓辉.信用衍生产品与信用悖论------西方信用风险管理的经验理论与实践[J].投资与证券, 2002,(8):111
[59]同[52]
[60]孙凤娟. 美国个人信用制度的构建及对我国的启示[J]. 昭乌达蒙族师专学报,2004,(4):72
[61]袁学清. 美国信用消费体系建设对我国的借鉴与启示[J]. 武汉冶金管理干部学院学报,2005,(2):9
[62]张吉光. 美国个人征信体系的发展与启示[J]. 经济纵横, 2003,(4):38
[63]龙静云.防范信用缺失的治本之策[J]. 道德与文明 2004,(1):17
[64]同[15],第 54 页
[65]FACTA,the Fair and Accurate Credit Transactions Act:Consumers Win some,Lose some[EB/OL]. http://www.privacyrights.org/index.htm, 2006.6.18
[66]Fighting Identity Theft[EB/OL]. http://www.house.gov/good latte/wc-2002-2003/091203wc.html, 2003.9.2
[67]Total Credit Reports Unveils Discussion Forums for Credit Reports and Credit Scores[EB/OL]. http://www.prweb.com/releases/2005/5/prweb245793.htm, 2005.5.21
[68]引自康纳利先生 1998 年在北京“消费者信用风险及信用管理研讨会”上的发言
[69]Marjore A.Corwin. A Road Map Through Maryland ’ s Consumer Credit Laws[M].Maryland Bar Journal, April 2002
[70]同[15],第 96 页
[71]达潭枫、达潭辉. 美国信用制度建设及启示[J]. 开发研究, 2004,(6):61
[72]全国整顿与规范市场经济秩序领导小组办公室、北京大学中国信用研究中心. 中国信用发展报告[M]. 北京:中国经济出版社,2006.16
[73]同[15],第 24 页
[74]同[25],第 58 页
[75]陈宝森. 当代美国经济[M]. 北京:社会科学文献出版社,2001.281
[76]同[55]
[77]韩阳. 美国信用危机产生的体系根源及对我国的启示[J]. 山东行政学院山东省管理干部学院学报, 2005,(1):42
1、 龙西安. 个人信用、征信与法[M]. 北京:中国金融出版社, 2004.
2、 王淑芹等. 信用伦理研究[M]. 北京:中央编译出版社, 2005.
3、朱永新、徐艳、秦燕. 诚信启示录[M]. 北京:高等教育出版社,2004.
4、[美]林·C.托马斯、戴维·B.埃德尔曼、乔纳林·N.克鲁克著,王晓蕾、石庆炎、吴晓惠译. 信用评分及其应用[M]. 北京:中国金融出版社, 2006.
5、邹浩. 美国消费信用体系初探[M]. 北京:中国政法大学出版社, 2006.
6、[美]詹姆斯·S.科尔曼. 社会理论的基础(上)[M]. 北京:社会科学文献出版社, 1999.
7、王征宇. 美国的个人征信局及其服务[M]. 北京:中国方正出版社,2003.
8、[美]马克.E·沃伦,吴辉译. 民主与信任[M]. 北京:华夏出版社,2004.
9、炎林. 诚信就是资本[M]. 哈尔滨:北方文艺出版社, 2004.
10、陈宝森. 当代美国经济[M]. 北京:社会科学文献出版社,2001.
11、候申华. 诚信恐慌[M]. 北京:中华工商联合出版社, 2004.
12、林钧跃.社会信用体系管理[M]. 北京:中国方正出版社, 2003.
13、张维迎. 产权、政府与信誉[M]. 上海:上海三联书店, 2001.
14、喻敬明、林钧跃、孙杰. 国家信用管理体系[M]. 北京:社会科学文献出版社, 2000.
15、康志杰、胡军. 诚信—传统意义与现代价值[M]. 北京:中国社会科学出版社, 2004.
16、[美]弗兰西斯·福山. 信任—社会道德与繁荣的创造[M]. 内蒙古:远方出版社 1998.
17、骆玉鼎. 信用经济中的金融控制[M]. 上海:上海财经大学出版社,2000.
18、[美]希尔斯曼. 美国是如何治理的[M]. 上海:商务印书馆, 1998.
19、陈宝森. 美国经济与政府政策[M]. 北京:世界知识出版社, 1991.
20、黄文平. 信用经济与政府责任[J]. 学术月刊,2002,(4):84-91
21、石时态. 全面建设信用社会—美国信用制度启示录[J]. 学习导报, 2003,(2):25-26
22、任辉. 经济全球化与中国社会的信用建设[J]. 理论导刊, 2004,(8):61-62
23、丁丽云、王文臣. 构建中国社会主义信用体系探讨[J]. 信阳师范学院学报, 2004,(7):58-62
24、林健. 从外国企业征信模式的利弊看我国征信模式的选择[J]. 经济纵横, 2003,(7):40-42
25、刘永红、聂应德.按论政府信用及其建构[J]. 云南社会科学, 2004,(3):15-19
26、郭建新. 信用制度建设的道德思考[J]. 经济经纬, 2003,(1):88-90
27、张维迎. 法律制度的信誉基础[J]. 经济研究, 2002,(1):3-13
28、熊玲君. 论西方政治信用伦理思考的历史演变[J]. 中南大学学报社科版, 2005,(2):157-161
29、孟韬、史达. 论产业集群的信任机制[J]. 社会科学辑刊》,2006,(2):99-103
30、Elayne Robertson Demby. A new Approach to Credit Reporting[J]. Credit Card Mangement,Vol11,1998.
31、Raymond Wacks. Personal Information: Privacy and the Law[M]. Oxford University Press,1989.
32、Roger· Leroy .Miller、Raphael·W.Bostic, Credit Scoring Statistical Issues and Evidence from Credit—bureau Files[J]. Real Estate Economics,Vol28,No3,2000.
33、Broderick Perkins. New Credit Reporting Services For Non-Traditional Credit Consumers[EB/OL]. http://realtytimes.com/rtcpages/20040929_creditreporting.htm, 2004.9.24
34、American credit system thingamabob……[EB/OL]. http://www.tfproject.org/tfp/archive/index.php/t--66423.html, 2004.8.26
35、Kate Riley. My identity laid bare[EB/OL]. http ://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html
36、Credit control[EB/OL]. http://www.thebestaffiliate.com/finace/credit--control.php
37、Kenneth R.Harney. Unseen Credit File Errors Can Boost Mortgage Fees Behind Your Back[EB/OL].http://realtytimes..com/rtcpages/20021118_creditfile.htm, 2002.11.18
38、Five Reasons to Check Your Crdeit Report Regularly[EB/OL]. http://realtytimes.com/rtcpages/20021025_creditreport.htm, 2002.10.25
39、Lendd calder. Finanaing the Ameriean Dream :A Cultural History of Consumer Credit [M]. Princeton University Press,1999.
40、Ed Deshields.The Globalization of Consumer Credit[EB/OL]. http://cnx.org/content/m13359/lastest/, 2006.6.11
41、DavidA.Szwak. Undertstanding Credit Cands,Credit Reports And Fraud[EB/OL]. http://www.lectlaw.com/files/ban16.html.
42、 The Fair Credit Reporting Act (FCRA)and the Privacy of Your Credit Report[EB/OL]. http://www.epic.org/privacy/fcra/, 2005.10.7
43、Your Credit Score :how It All Adds Up[EB/OL]. http://www.privacyrights.org/fs/fs6c-CreditScores.htm, 2006.6.17
44、Kenneth ·R .Harney. Major Credit Reform Bill Passed Unanimously by House Subcommittee[EB/OL]. http://realtytimes.com/rtcpages/2003072/-reform.htm, 2003. 7.21
45、Akos Rona-Tas. Uncertainty and Credit Card Markets[EB/OL]. http://www.cor.web.vai.edu/vfiles/Calendar/copenhagen.doc.
46、[49]Consumer Law Help Manual[EB/OL]. http://www.consumer.State.ny.us/clahm/clahm-credit-roporting.htm.
47、FACTA,the Fair and Accurate Credit Transactions Act:Consumers Win some,Lose some[EB/OL]. http://www.privacyrights.org/index.htm, 2006.6.18
48、Fighting Identity Theft[EB/OL]. http://www.house.gov/good latte/wc-2002-2003/091203wc.html,2003.9.2
49、Total Credit Reports Unveils Discussion Forums for Credit Reports and Credit Scores[EB/OL]. http://www.prweb.com/releases/2005/5/prweb245793.htm, 2005.5.21
50、Marjore A.Corwin. A Road Map Through Maryland’s Consumer Credit Laws[M].Maryland Bar Journal, April 2002.