我国城镇居民工资性别差异的分布变迁与成因分解
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摘要
性别的收入差异由来已久，而且在世界各国普遍存在。在中国，改革开放以后，国家向市场经济体制转型，工资水平由市场决定，在这个进程中不同阶层的工资差异问题显现，性别工资差异也开始凸显，为众多学者和社会大众所关注。本文利用CHNS数据库的1993年、2000年和2009年调查数据对我国城镇居民工资性别差异的分布变迁与成因进行了研究，首先通过数据的初步描述统计以及核密度方法得到的各年份工资分布考察我国城镇居民工资的性别差异分布变迁的总体情况，接着对我国城镇居民工资的性别差异在三个年份是否存在“天花板效应”和“地板效应”作了一个直观的判断，然后应用分位数回归方法估计男性和女性工资方程，通过对各年份分位数回归结果的分析，研究了各解释变量对工资分布不同位置性别工资差异影响的变化，接着应用Neumark分解法、Melly2005分位数分解法和JMP1991分解法从横向和纵向对比两个角度对不同年份我国城镇居民工资的性别差异和分性别的工资分布变迁的特点与成因进行了考察和分析。结果主要得到，我国城镇居民工资的性别差异在1993年、2000年和2009年三个年份的对比中表现为先缩小后扩大。2009年女性与男性累积分布在低分位点到0.6分位点区间的空白明显扩大。我国城镇居民工资的性别差异在1993年具有“天花板效应”，2000年和2009年只在0.90-0.70分位点的标准中存在；“地板效应”则认为在三个年份都存在。2009年的性别工资差异几近出于不可解释的部分，总的性别工资差异几近由性别歧视引起，且在总的歧视中有60.5%来自于对女性的直接歧视。不可解释性别工资差异中，在1993年出于经验和集体的贡献较大，在2000年，蓝领的贡献较大，而在最近的2009年，私营和白领的贡献较大。此外，三个年份系数差异和总差异表现的变动趋势一致，就是说，在工资分布的低端，随着工资水平的降低，性别工资差异越大，由性别歧视引起的性别工资差异也越大。
The gender income differences have a long history and exist commonly invarious countries. With opening-up and reform policy in China, the state change tomarket-oriented economy and Wages are determined by the market which results tothe problem of wage disparities in different income level. The gender wage gap alsobegins to highlight and arouses many scholars and public concern. Using CHNS datain1993,2000and2009, this paper researchs on the distribution changes and itsreasons decomposition in China’s urban residents. This paper firstly apply descriptivestatistics and nonparametric estimation methods to observe the overall genderdifferential changes situation in China and to get an initial understanding whetherthere exists the glass ceiling effect or the sticky floor effects in three years. Nextauthor uses quantile regression method to analyze coefficients differential of theinfluential factors in the male and female wage equations. Lastly through applicationof the Neumark, Melly(2005) and JMP1991decomposition method, author studiesthe characteristic of changes and reasons in China’s urban residents in three yearsfrom both view of horizontal and vertical contrast. The main results show that thegender wage gap in urban China reduce from1993to2000and expand from2000to2009. The gap blank between female and male cumulative distribution enlargeobviously from low distribution point to0.60in2009. There is a stick floor effect inurban in three years, while a glass ceiling effect exists in1993and exists in the0.90to reference point0.70in2000and2009. In2009the gender wage gap is almostunexplained and is almost caused by gender discrimination, and60.5%is the directdiscrimination to female. In the unexplained part of gender wage gap, the experienceand collective covariates makes larger contribution in1993, and the blue-collar in2000, the private and white-collar in2009. Coefficient differences across thedistribution change as same as total differences in there years, that is, the lower wagelevels, the greater gender wage gap, and the larger unexplained gender wage gap.
The gender income differences have a long history and exist commonly invarious countries. With opening-up and reform policy in China, the state change tomarket-oriented economy and Wages are determined by the market which results tothe problem of wage disparities in different income level. The gender wage gap alsobegins to highlight and arouses many scholars and public concern. Using CHNS datain1993,2000and2009, this paper researchs on the distribution changes and itsreasons decomposition in China’s urban residents. This paper firstly apply descriptivestatistics and nonparametric estimation methods to observe the overall genderdifferential changes situation in China and to get an initial understanding whetherthere exists the glass ceiling effect or the sticky floor effects in three years. Nextauthor uses quantile regression method to analyze coefficients differential of theinfluential factors in the male and female wage equations. Lastly through applicationof the Neumark, Melly(2005) and JMP1991decomposition method, author studiesthe characteristic of changes and reasons in China’s urban residents in three yearsfrom both view of horizontal and vertical contrast. The main results show that thegender wage gap in urban China reduce from1993to2000and expand from2000to2009. The gap blank between female and male cumulative distribution enlargeobviously from low distribution point to0.60in2009. There is a stick floor effect inurban in three years, while a glass ceiling effect exists in1993and exists in the0.90to reference point0.70in2000and2009. In2009the gender wage gap is almostunexplained and is almost caused by gender discrimination, and60.5%is the directdiscrimination to female. In the unexplained part of gender wage gap, the experienceand collective covariates makes larger contribution in1993, and the blue-collar in2000, the private and white-collar in2009. Coefficient differences across thedistribution change as same as total differences in there years, that is, the lower wagelevels, the greater gender wage gap, and the larger unexplained gender wage gap.
引文
[1]Albrecht，J．，A．Bjorklund，S．Vroman．Is There a Glass Ceiling in Sweden?[J]．Journalof Labor Economics，2003，P145—177
[2]Arulamplam，W．，A．L．Booth，M．L．Bryan．Is There a Glass Ceiling over Europe? Exploringthe Gender Pay Gap across the Wage Distribution [J]．Industrial and Labor Relations Review，2006， P163—186
[3]Christofides，L．，A．Polycarpou， K．Vrachimis．The Gender Wage Gaps,‘Sticky Floors’and ‘Glass Ceilings’ of the European Union [J]．Paper provided by Institute for the Study ofLabor (IZA) in its series IZA Discussion Papers with number5044，2010，P1—36
[4]X．Meng．Male–female wage determination and gender wage discrimination in China's ruralindustrial sector [J]．Labour Economics，1998，P67—89
[5]Gustafsson，B．，and Shi Li．Economic Transformation and the Gender Earnings Gap in UrbanChina [J]．Journal of Population Economics，2005，P305—329
[6]张丹丹．市场化与性别工资差异研究．中国人口科学．2004（1）．P32—41
[7]王美艳．中国城市劳动力市场上的性别工资差异．经济研究．2005（12）．P35—44
[8]Liu，P．，X．Meng and J．Zhang．Sectoral Gender Wage Differences and Discrimination in theTransitional Chinese Economy [J]．Journal of Population Economics，2000，P331
[9]Rozelle，S．，X．Dong，L．Zhang and A．Mason．Gender Wage Gaps in Post-Reform RuralChina [J]．Pacific Economic Review，2002，P20-21
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[11]葛玉好．部门选择对工资性别差距的影响:1988—2001年．经济学（季刊）．2007（1）．P607—628
[12]Zhang，J．，J．Han，P．Liu and Y．Zhao．Trends in the Gender Earnings Differential in UrbanChina，1988-2004[J]．Industrial&Labor Relations Review，2008，P224—241
[13]黎波，迟巍，余秋梅．一种新的收入差距研究的计量方法——基于分布函数的半参数化估计．数量经济技术经济研究．2007（8）．P119—129
[14]张世伟，郭凤鸣．分位数上的性别工资歧视——基于东北城市劳动力市场的经验研究．中国人口科学，2009，6．P69—79
[15]陈建宝，段景辉．中国性别工资差异的分位数回归分析．数量经济技术经济研究，2009，10．P95—97
[16]亓寿伟，刘智强．“天花板效应”还是“地板效应”——探讨国有与非国有部门性别工资差异的分布与成因．数量经济技术经济研究，2009，11．P75—76
[17]王震．基于分位数回归分解的农民工性别工资差异研究．世界经济文汇，2010，8．P6
[18]李实，杨修娜．农民工工资的性别差异及其影响因素．经济社会体制比较．2010（5）．P82—89
[19]郭继强，姜俪，陆利丽．工资差异分解方法述评．经济学，2011，1．P363—414
[20]吴喜之，赵博娟．非参数统计．第3版．北京：中国统计出版社，2009．P178
[21]Koenker，R．，G．Bassett．Regression Quantiles [J]．Econometrica，1978，P33—50
[22]（美）伊兰伯格，史密斯．现代劳动经济学：理论与公共政策．刘昕．第八版．北京：中国人民大学出版社，2007．P430
[23]（法）卡赫克（Cahuc，P．），（法）齐尔贝尔博格（Zylberberg，A．）．劳动经济学．沈文恺．上海：上海财经大学出版社，2007．P261
[24]张抗私．劳动力市场性别歧视研究述评．经济学动态．2005（1）．P108—111
[25]葛玉好．工资分布的性别差异:分位数分解方法．上海经济研究．2007（4）．P22—30
[26]D．Neumark．Employer’s Discriminatory Behavior and the Estimation of Wage Discrimination[J]．Journal of Human Resources,23(3)．1988．P279—295
[27]Jose A．F．Machado，Jose Mata．Counterfactual Decomposition of Changes in WageDistributions Using Quantile Regression [J]．Journal of Applied Econometrics，2005，P445—465
[28]B．Melly．Decomposition of Differences in Distribution Using Quantile Regression [J]．SwissInstitute for International Economics and Applied Economic Research (SIAW)，University ofSt. Gallen，2005，P7—9
[29]B．Melly．Estimation of Counterfactual Distributions Using Quantile Regression [J]．SwissInstitute for International Economics and Applied Economic Research (SIAW)，University ofSt. Gallen，2006，P13—50
[30]Juhn，C．，K．M．Murphy，B．Pierce．Wage Inequality and the Rise in Returns to Skill[J]．Journal of Political Economy，1993，P426—429
[31]Juhn，C．，K．M．Murphy，B．Pierce．“Accounting for the Slowdown in Black-White WageConvergence”，in Kosters，M．(ed．)，Workers and Their Wages: Changing Patterns in theUnited States．Washington: American Enterprise Institute Press，1991，
[32]Francine D．Blau，Lawrence M．Kahn．Swimming upstream: Trends in the gender wagedifferential in the1980s [J]．Journal of Labor Economics，1997，P1—42
[33]Francine D．Blau，Lawrence M．Kahn．The U.S. Gender Pay Gap in the1990s: SlowingConvergence [J]．Industrial&Labor Relations Review，2006，P45—66
[33]Francine D．Blau，Lawrence M．Kahn．Understanding International Differences in the GenderPay Gap [J]．Journal of Labor Economics，2003，P106—144
[2]Arulamplam，W．，A．L．Booth，M．L．Bryan．Is There a Glass Ceiling over Europe? Exploringthe Gender Pay Gap across the Wage Distribution [J]．Industrial and Labor Relations Review，2006， P163—186
[3]Christofides，L．，A．Polycarpou， K．Vrachimis．The Gender Wage Gaps,‘Sticky Floors’and ‘Glass Ceilings’ of the European Union [J]．Paper provided by Institute for the Study ofLabor (IZA) in its series IZA Discussion Papers with number5044，2010，P1—36
[4]X．Meng．Male–female wage determination and gender wage discrimination in China's ruralindustrial sector [J]．Labour Economics，1998，P67—89
[5]Gustafsson，B．，and Shi Li．Economic Transformation and the Gender Earnings Gap in UrbanChina [J]．Journal of Population Economics，2005，P305—329
[6]张丹丹．市场化与性别工资差异研究．中国人口科学．2004（1）．P32—41
[7]王美艳．中国城市劳动力市场上的性别工资差异．经济研究．2005（12）．P35—44
[8]Liu，P．，X．Meng and J．Zhang．Sectoral Gender Wage Differences and Discrimination in theTransitional Chinese Economy [J]．Journal of Population Economics，2000，P331
[9]Rozelle，S．，X．Dong，L．Zhang and A．Mason．Gender Wage Gaps in Post-Reform RuralChina [J]．Pacific Economic Review，2002，P20-21
[10]Ying Chu Ng．Gender Earnings Differentials and Regional Economic Development in UrbanChina，1988-97[J]．Paper provided by World Institute for Development Economic Research(UNU-WIDER) in its series Working Papers with number RP2006/136，2006，P1-19
[11]葛玉好．部门选择对工资性别差距的影响:1988—2001年．经济学（季刊）．2007（1）．P607—628
[12]Zhang，J．，J．Han，P．Liu and Y．Zhao．Trends in the Gender Earnings Differential in UrbanChina，1988-2004[J]．Industrial&Labor Relations Review，2008，P224—241
[13]黎波，迟巍，余秋梅．一种新的收入差距研究的计量方法——基于分布函数的半参数化估计．数量经济技术经济研究．2007（8）．P119—129
[14]张世伟，郭凤鸣．分位数上的性别工资歧视——基于东北城市劳动力市场的经验研究．中国人口科学，2009，6．P69—79
[15]陈建宝，段景辉．中国性别工资差异的分位数回归分析．数量经济技术经济研究，2009，10．P95—97
[16]亓寿伟，刘智强．“天花板效应”还是“地板效应”——探讨国有与非国有部门性别工资差异的分布与成因．数量经济技术经济研究，2009，11．P75—76
[17]王震．基于分位数回归分解的农民工性别工资差异研究．世界经济文汇，2010，8．P6
[18]李实，杨修娜．农民工工资的性别差异及其影响因素．经济社会体制比较．2010（5）．P82—89
[19]郭继强，姜俪，陆利丽．工资差异分解方法述评．经济学，2011，1．P363—414
[20]吴喜之，赵博娟．非参数统计．第3版．北京：中国统计出版社，2009．P178
[21]Koenker，R．，G．Bassett．Regression Quantiles [J]．Econometrica，1978，P33—50
[22]（美）伊兰伯格，史密斯．现代劳动经济学：理论与公共政策．刘昕．第八版．北京：中国人民大学出版社，2007．P430
[23]（法）卡赫克（Cahuc，P．），（法）齐尔贝尔博格（Zylberberg，A．）．劳动经济学．沈文恺．上海：上海财经大学出版社，2007．P261
[24]张抗私．劳动力市场性别歧视研究述评．经济学动态．2005（1）．P108—111
[25]葛玉好．工资分布的性别差异:分位数分解方法．上海经济研究．2007（4）．P22—30
[26]D．Neumark．Employer’s Discriminatory Behavior and the Estimation of Wage Discrimination[J]．Journal of Human Resources,23(3)．1988．P279—295
[27]Jose A．F．Machado，Jose Mata．Counterfactual Decomposition of Changes in WageDistributions Using Quantile Regression [J]．Journal of Applied Econometrics，2005，P445—465
[28]B．Melly．Decomposition of Differences in Distribution Using Quantile Regression [J]．SwissInstitute for International Economics and Applied Economic Research (SIAW)，University ofSt. Gallen，2005，P7—9
[29]B．Melly．Estimation of Counterfactual Distributions Using Quantile Regression [J]．SwissInstitute for International Economics and Applied Economic Research (SIAW)，University ofSt. Gallen，2006，P13—50
[30]Juhn，C．，K．M．Murphy，B．Pierce．Wage Inequality and the Rise in Returns to Skill[J]．Journal of Political Economy，1993，P426—429
[31]Juhn，C．，K．M．Murphy，B．Pierce．“Accounting for the Slowdown in Black-White WageConvergence”，in Kosters，M．(ed．)，Workers and Their Wages: Changing Patterns in theUnited States．Washington: American Enterprise Institute Press，1991，
[32]Francine D．Blau，Lawrence M．Kahn．Swimming upstream: Trends in the gender wagedifferential in the1980s [J]．Journal of Labor Economics，1997，P1—42
[33]Francine D．Blau，Lawrence M．Kahn．The U.S. Gender Pay Gap in the1990s: SlowingConvergence [J]．Industrial&Labor Relations Review，2006，P45—66
[33]Francine D．Blau，Lawrence M．Kahn．Understanding International Differences in the GenderPay Gap [J]．Journal of Labor Economics，2003，P106—144