国际贸易与劳动力市场
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摘要
经典贸易理论是基于完美劳动力市场的假设，即劳动力市场完全就业，劳动力流动无任何障碍，且就业瞬时完成、不需要任何成本。在这样的假设之下，分析就业问题首先被排除在市场之外；其次，由于不存在任何摩擦，均衡状态下工资由边际产品价值决定，同质劳动力在各部门获得的工资相等，因此，工资差距问题也与贸易无关，贸易仅能解释要素之间的分配问题，如要素禀赋理论中的斯托尔帕—萨缪尔森定理；再者，由于各国劳动力市场均完美，劳动力市场对贸易也不会产生任何影响。
然而，现实中各国劳动力市场都存在着一些问题，如失业率居高不下，收入差距拉大等。就我国情况而言，近年来，我国城镇失业率呈上升趋势，失业以“大学生就业难”和“民工荒”现象为突出特点。收入分配问题也日益凸显，一方面表现为初次分配中劳动与资本要素的分配失衡，劳动要素份额不断下降；另一方面，劳动要素内部不同人群收入差距扩大。
这些现象的发生都是伴随着国际全球化程度的不断加深，世界贸易迅猛发展。那么，如果与现实一致，劳动力市场并不是完美的，对劳动力市场完美性假设作以放松，差异性劳动力市场会对各国的贸易绩效产生影响吗？另一方面，由于劳动力市场不完美，企业需要支付额外的成本雇佣工人，而工人同样需要支付额外的成本寻找工作，那么，贸易开放所引起的劳动力再配置会对就业、工资产生影响吗？影响的效果会受到劳动力市场状况的影响吗？
为了回答以上问题，本文基于劳动力市场摩擦的存在，以求职者与企业空岗位之间匹配效率为研究视角，探讨劳动力市场摩擦与国际贸易之间的关系。匹配效率衡量求职者与空岗位结合过程的效率，直接影响参与双方的成本，进而可能影响企业的经营绩效、企业要素投入决策、工人求职愿望、劳动力和企业在工资谈判中的谈价还价能力。因此，劳动力市场匹配效率的高低可以影响企业的出口绩效从而成为比较优势的又一来源。再者，匹配效率也会影响一国的就业问题。
第一章为研究背景，主要描述当前我国劳动力市场存在的不完美性特征。这主要表现在失业率的上升、收入差距扩大等问题。并进一步联系了对外开放程度增加的大背景，分析贸易开放与劳动力市场问题之间存在关联的可能性。
第二章为文献综述。首先对经典贸易理论中劳动力市场完美性假设的局限性作以分析，经典贸易理论中不存在失业问题，也只有斯托尔帕—萨缪尔森定理涉及到一个国家内部要素间分配。其次，在加入劳动力市场摩擦后，一些文献对经典贸易理论的结论提出挑战，经典贸易理论的结论需要作以修正，甚至并不成立。接着，介绍了一些基于新新贸易理论和劳动力市场搜寻摩擦结合的模型。最后，对搜寻匹配理论和匹配效率测度的相关文献进行了梳理。
第三章为理论模型，在两个国家两个部门框架下，加入要素市场搜寻匹配摩擦，模型的结论表明，当就业波动为行业特征，与国家无关，劳动力市场的匹配效率更多地为国家特征，反映一国劳动力市场整体效率，劳动力市场匹配效率高的国家将在就业波动性大的行业具有比较优势。另一方面，国际贸易对就业状况的作用效果还取决于劳动力市场的匹配效率，匹配效率低将弱化贸易对就业的影响强度。
第四章研究了匹配效率对比较优势的影响。利用2004年29个省市28个制造业行业截面数据发现，劳动力市场匹配效率高的地区在就业波动性大的行业具有比较优势。这主要是由于就业波动性大行业的发展更依赖于劳动力配置机制的有效性，只有较高的匹配效率才能保证企业较低的雇佣成本，以使其达到出口的生产率门槛，从而具有较高的出口绩效。
第五章将劳动力市场匹配效率纳入分析框架来研究贸易开放对就业的影响。利用欧盟27个国家1995-2008年的跨国面板数据发现，贸易开放对总就业增长的直接作用为正，即贸易开放程度的增加有利于就业的增长；贸易开放对就业增长的间接作用取决于劳动力市场的匹配效率，匹配效率较低，会削弱贸易开放对就业增长的正向促进作用；贸易开放对就业增长的总作用取决于直接作用和间接作用之和，当劳动力市场匹配效率过低，将逆转贸易开放的正向作用。
第六章基于劳动力市场摩擦分析贸易对技能溢价的影响。贸易对技能溢价的影响可能与贸易模式有关。加工贸易对劳动力技能水平要求较低，劳动力讨价还价较低；一般贸易对技能劳动力的需求较加工贸易高，因此在雇佣工人的过程中对劳动者筛选职位匹配的投入较多，替代成本的存在使技能劳动力具有较高的讨价还价能力，进而一般贸易的发生相对加工贸易会更有利于技能劳动力的相对工资水平提高，而加工贸易模式下这一效果较弱。此外，相对而言一般贸易的发生主要源于技术，而加工贸易则源于我国丰裕的廉价劳动力禀赋，我国以加工贸易为主的贸易模式也可能从需求方面增加了对非技能劳动的需求。利用2001-2008年工业行业面板数据重点探讨不同贸易方式对我国工资差距尤其是技能工人与非技能工人相对工资的影响。结果表明，总体而言开放程度的提高对科技活动人员的相对工资起促进作用，一般贸易比重对技能溢价的影响显著为正，但加工贸易的影响并不显著。最后是全文的主要结论和政策建议。
The traditional trade theories are based on the assumption of perfect labormarket, which means full employment, labor mobility without any obstacles, andemployment process completes instantaneously without any cost. Under theseassumptions, the analysis of the employment problem was first excluded from themodel; Secondly, because there is no frictions, the equilibrium wage is determinedby the marginal product value, so the homogeneous labors get equal wages in allsectors, therefore, the wage inequality has nothing to do with trade, trade can onlyexplain the distribution effect between factors, such as the Stolper-Samuelsontheorem; Furthermore, as every country has a perfect labor market, the labor marketcondition does not have any impact on trade.
However, in reality, the labor market in the world is far from ferfect, there arealways some problems, such as high unemployment rate, a widening incomeinequality. As for China, in recent years, China showed an upward trend in urbanunemployment rate, and the unemployment problem is dominant by thephenomenon of graduates having difficulty in finding a job while being shortage inmigrant workers. The distribution problem is a prevailing social issue nowerdays.On the one hand, the distribution beween labor and capital shows an imbalance, thelabor share in the national income declines; on the other hand, the wage inequalitybetween different groups of labor goes up.
All these phenomena are associated with the growth of the internationalglobalization, the rapid development of world trade. So, the questions we want toask are: If the labor market is not perferct, will the labor market differences betweencountries have an effect on the performance of trade by releasing the assumption ofperfect labor market? On the other hand, due to the imperfectness of labor market,companies need to pay the additional cost of hiring workers, and workers also needto pay additional costs to find a job, as the open up to trade has reallocation effect on factors, then, will the trade impact the employment and wages? And how does thiseffect depend on the labor market condition?
In order to answer all these questions, based on the existence of labor marketimperfectness, this paper research on the perspect of mathing efficiency between thejob seekers(often the unemployed) and vacancies of firms. Empirically, theefficiency of labour markets is often analysed by estimating matching functions. Thematching function is based on the idea that because of various frictions in the labourmarket the unemployed can find jobs and vacancies can be filled only after a delay.This process can be approximated by a functional relationship, which is analogousto an aggregate production function. The matching efficiency influences the cost oflabor and firms directly. Which may have effect on operating performance, factorinput dicisions of firms, willingness to seach for a job the bargaining power in wagenegotiations of workers. Therefore, the level of labor market matching efficiencycan affect the export performance and thus become another source of comparativeadvantage. Furthermore, the matching efficiency can also affect a country'semployment issues.
The first chapter is the research background, describes the characteristics of thelabor market imperfectness, including the whole world and especially China. Thiswas reflected in the rise in unemployment, widening gap in income inequality and soon. And then, the possibility of a link between trade liberalization and labor marketissues is discussed.
The second chapter is the literature review. First, the limitations of the perfectlabor market assumption of traditional trade theories are studied. The problem ofunemployment does not exist in traditional trade theories, and onlyStolper-Samuelson theorem talked about the issue of distritution effect betweenfactors within a country. Secondly, if the labor market frictions are considered, theconclusions of the traditional trade theories face challenges by recent literatures. Theconclusions of traditional trade theories need to be corrected, or even not valid. Then,some models based on the new new trade theory and labor market search frictionsare introduced. Finally, the search and matching theory and the methodology forassessing the efficiency of matching is discussed.
A two-sector general equilibrium model is developed in chapter four, in whichequilibrium unemployment arises endogenously because of trading frictions in thelabor market. If employment volatility is the character of an industry while thematching efficiency reflecting the overall efficiency of a country's labor market, thecountry with a high labor market efficiency of matching will have a comparativeadvantage in the high employment volatility industry. Futhermore, the impact oftrade on employment depends on the labor market matching efficiency, and a lowefficiency of matching will weaken the strength impact of trade on employment.
In chapter four, the link between employment volatility, labor market matchingefficiency and comparative advantage of export is studied. Based on thecross-sectional data of29provinces and28manufacturing industries, we find thatthe provinces with high efficiencies of matching display a comparative advantage inhigh employment-volatility industries. This is due to the fact that the industries withhigh volatility of employment depend more on the effectiveness of labor allocationmechanism. Only the areas with high efficiency of matching can ensure lowemployment costs and therefore better performance of export.
Chapter five deals with the impact of trade on employment, in the present oflabor market matching efficiency. Using panel date of27EU countries between1995and2008, this paper find that the direct impact of trade liberalization on totalemployment growth is positive, but the indirect effects of trade liberalization onemployment growth depends on the matching efficiency of the labor market. Lowefficiency of matching will weaken the positive effect of trade on employmentgrowth. The total impact of trade liberalization on employment growth depends onthe sum of direct effects and indirect effects. While the matching efficiency of labormarket is too low, the positive effect of trade liberalization may be reversed.
The skilled labor needed by the general trade has a higher bargaining powerdue to the replacement cost, which is the result of investment in screeming workers,while the unskilled labor needed by the manufacturing trade has a lower bargaining.So, general trade will be more conducive to the relative wages of skilled labor thanthe processing trade. In addition, the general trade mainly due to the comparativeadvantage of technology, while the manufacturing trade favored by China's abundant labor endowment, so, on the other hand, China’s large manufacturing tradeshare stimulates the demand towards the unskilled workers.Using China’s panel dataof33industries during2001-2008, this paper investigates the effect of general tradeand manufacturing trade on wage inequality. The estimation results show that on thewhole the open-up policy enhances the relative wage of skilled workers. Specifically,the increase of general trade exports will increase the skill premium in high generaltrade share industries while the impact ofprocessing trade is not significant. The lastchapter is the conclusions and policy recommendations.
然而，现实中各国劳动力市场都存在着一些问题，如失业率居高不下，收入差距拉大等。就我国情况而言，近年来，我国城镇失业率呈上升趋势，失业以“大学生就业难”和“民工荒”现象为突出特点。收入分配问题也日益凸显，一方面表现为初次分配中劳动与资本要素的分配失衡，劳动要素份额不断下降；另一方面，劳动要素内部不同人群收入差距扩大。
这些现象的发生都是伴随着国际全球化程度的不断加深，世界贸易迅猛发展。那么，如果与现实一致，劳动力市场并不是完美的，对劳动力市场完美性假设作以放松，差异性劳动力市场会对各国的贸易绩效产生影响吗？另一方面，由于劳动力市场不完美，企业需要支付额外的成本雇佣工人，而工人同样需要支付额外的成本寻找工作，那么，贸易开放所引起的劳动力再配置会对就业、工资产生影响吗？影响的效果会受到劳动力市场状况的影响吗？
为了回答以上问题，本文基于劳动力市场摩擦的存在，以求职者与企业空岗位之间匹配效率为研究视角，探讨劳动力市场摩擦与国际贸易之间的关系。匹配效率衡量求职者与空岗位结合过程的效率，直接影响参与双方的成本，进而可能影响企业的经营绩效、企业要素投入决策、工人求职愿望、劳动力和企业在工资谈判中的谈价还价能力。因此，劳动力市场匹配效率的高低可以影响企业的出口绩效从而成为比较优势的又一来源。再者，匹配效率也会影响一国的就业问题。
第一章为研究背景，主要描述当前我国劳动力市场存在的不完美性特征。这主要表现在失业率的上升、收入差距扩大等问题。并进一步联系了对外开放程度增加的大背景，分析贸易开放与劳动力市场问题之间存在关联的可能性。
第二章为文献综述。首先对经典贸易理论中劳动力市场完美性假设的局限性作以分析，经典贸易理论中不存在失业问题，也只有斯托尔帕—萨缪尔森定理涉及到一个国家内部要素间分配。其次，在加入劳动力市场摩擦后，一些文献对经典贸易理论的结论提出挑战，经典贸易理论的结论需要作以修正，甚至并不成立。接着，介绍了一些基于新新贸易理论和劳动力市场搜寻摩擦结合的模型。最后，对搜寻匹配理论和匹配效率测度的相关文献进行了梳理。
第三章为理论模型，在两个国家两个部门框架下，加入要素市场搜寻匹配摩擦，模型的结论表明，当就业波动为行业特征，与国家无关，劳动力市场的匹配效率更多地为国家特征，反映一国劳动力市场整体效率，劳动力市场匹配效率高的国家将在就业波动性大的行业具有比较优势。另一方面，国际贸易对就业状况的作用效果还取决于劳动力市场的匹配效率，匹配效率低将弱化贸易对就业的影响强度。
第四章研究了匹配效率对比较优势的影响。利用2004年29个省市28个制造业行业截面数据发现，劳动力市场匹配效率高的地区在就业波动性大的行业具有比较优势。这主要是由于就业波动性大行业的发展更依赖于劳动力配置机制的有效性，只有较高的匹配效率才能保证企业较低的雇佣成本，以使其达到出口的生产率门槛，从而具有较高的出口绩效。
第五章将劳动力市场匹配效率纳入分析框架来研究贸易开放对就业的影响。利用欧盟27个国家1995-2008年的跨国面板数据发现，贸易开放对总就业增长的直接作用为正，即贸易开放程度的增加有利于就业的增长；贸易开放对就业增长的间接作用取决于劳动力市场的匹配效率，匹配效率较低，会削弱贸易开放对就业增长的正向促进作用；贸易开放对就业增长的总作用取决于直接作用和间接作用之和，当劳动力市场匹配效率过低，将逆转贸易开放的正向作用。
第六章基于劳动力市场摩擦分析贸易对技能溢价的影响。贸易对技能溢价的影响可能与贸易模式有关。加工贸易对劳动力技能水平要求较低，劳动力讨价还价较低；一般贸易对技能劳动力的需求较加工贸易高，因此在雇佣工人的过程中对劳动者筛选职位匹配的投入较多，替代成本的存在使技能劳动力具有较高的讨价还价能力，进而一般贸易的发生相对加工贸易会更有利于技能劳动力的相对工资水平提高，而加工贸易模式下这一效果较弱。此外，相对而言一般贸易的发生主要源于技术，而加工贸易则源于我国丰裕的廉价劳动力禀赋，我国以加工贸易为主的贸易模式也可能从需求方面增加了对非技能劳动的需求。利用2001-2008年工业行业面板数据重点探讨不同贸易方式对我国工资差距尤其是技能工人与非技能工人相对工资的影响。结果表明，总体而言开放程度的提高对科技活动人员的相对工资起促进作用，一般贸易比重对技能溢价的影响显著为正，但加工贸易的影响并不显著。最后是全文的主要结论和政策建议。
The traditional trade theories are based on the assumption of perfect labormarket, which means full employment, labor mobility without any obstacles, andemployment process completes instantaneously without any cost. Under theseassumptions, the analysis of the employment problem was first excluded from themodel; Secondly, because there is no frictions, the equilibrium wage is determinedby the marginal product value, so the homogeneous labors get equal wages in allsectors, therefore, the wage inequality has nothing to do with trade, trade can onlyexplain the distribution effect between factors, such as the Stolper-Samuelsontheorem; Furthermore, as every country has a perfect labor market, the labor marketcondition does not have any impact on trade.
However, in reality, the labor market in the world is far from ferfect, there arealways some problems, such as high unemployment rate, a widening incomeinequality. As for China, in recent years, China showed an upward trend in urbanunemployment rate, and the unemployment problem is dominant by thephenomenon of graduates having difficulty in finding a job while being shortage inmigrant workers. The distribution problem is a prevailing social issue nowerdays.On the one hand, the distribution beween labor and capital shows an imbalance, thelabor share in the national income declines; on the other hand, the wage inequalitybetween different groups of labor goes up.
All these phenomena are associated with the growth of the internationalglobalization, the rapid development of world trade. So, the questions we want toask are: If the labor market is not perferct, will the labor market differences betweencountries have an effect on the performance of trade by releasing the assumption ofperfect labor market? On the other hand, due to the imperfectness of labor market,companies need to pay the additional cost of hiring workers, and workers also needto pay additional costs to find a job, as the open up to trade has reallocation effect on factors, then, will the trade impact the employment and wages? And how does thiseffect depend on the labor market condition?
In order to answer all these questions, based on the existence of labor marketimperfectness, this paper research on the perspect of mathing efficiency between thejob seekers(often the unemployed) and vacancies of firms. Empirically, theefficiency of labour markets is often analysed by estimating matching functions. Thematching function is based on the idea that because of various frictions in the labourmarket the unemployed can find jobs and vacancies can be filled only after a delay.This process can be approximated by a functional relationship, which is analogousto an aggregate production function. The matching efficiency influences the cost oflabor and firms directly. Which may have effect on operating performance, factorinput dicisions of firms, willingness to seach for a job the bargaining power in wagenegotiations of workers. Therefore, the level of labor market matching efficiencycan affect the export performance and thus become another source of comparativeadvantage. Furthermore, the matching efficiency can also affect a country'semployment issues.
The first chapter is the research background, describes the characteristics of thelabor market imperfectness, including the whole world and especially China. Thiswas reflected in the rise in unemployment, widening gap in income inequality and soon. And then, the possibility of a link between trade liberalization and labor marketissues is discussed.
The second chapter is the literature review. First, the limitations of the perfectlabor market assumption of traditional trade theories are studied. The problem ofunemployment does not exist in traditional trade theories, and onlyStolper-Samuelson theorem talked about the issue of distritution effect betweenfactors within a country. Secondly, if the labor market frictions are considered, theconclusions of the traditional trade theories face challenges by recent literatures. Theconclusions of traditional trade theories need to be corrected, or even not valid. Then,some models based on the new new trade theory and labor market search frictionsare introduced. Finally, the search and matching theory and the methodology forassessing the efficiency of matching is discussed.
A two-sector general equilibrium model is developed in chapter four, in whichequilibrium unemployment arises endogenously because of trading frictions in thelabor market. If employment volatility is the character of an industry while thematching efficiency reflecting the overall efficiency of a country's labor market, thecountry with a high labor market efficiency of matching will have a comparativeadvantage in the high employment volatility industry. Futhermore, the impact oftrade on employment depends on the labor market matching efficiency, and a lowefficiency of matching will weaken the strength impact of trade on employment.
In chapter four, the link between employment volatility, labor market matchingefficiency and comparative advantage of export is studied. Based on thecross-sectional data of29provinces and28manufacturing industries, we find thatthe provinces with high efficiencies of matching display a comparative advantage inhigh employment-volatility industries. This is due to the fact that the industries withhigh volatility of employment depend more on the effectiveness of labor allocationmechanism. Only the areas with high efficiency of matching can ensure lowemployment costs and therefore better performance of export.
Chapter five deals with the impact of trade on employment, in the present oflabor market matching efficiency. Using panel date of27EU countries between1995and2008, this paper find that the direct impact of trade liberalization on totalemployment growth is positive, but the indirect effects of trade liberalization onemployment growth depends on the matching efficiency of the labor market. Lowefficiency of matching will weaken the positive effect of trade on employmentgrowth. The total impact of trade liberalization on employment growth depends onthe sum of direct effects and indirect effects. While the matching efficiency of labormarket is too low, the positive effect of trade liberalization may be reversed.
The skilled labor needed by the general trade has a higher bargaining powerdue to the replacement cost, which is the result of investment in screeming workers,while the unskilled labor needed by the manufacturing trade has a lower bargaining.So, general trade will be more conducive to the relative wages of skilled labor thanthe processing trade. In addition, the general trade mainly due to the comparativeadvantage of technology, while the manufacturing trade favored by China's abundant labor endowment, so, on the other hand, China’s large manufacturing tradeshare stimulates the demand towards the unskilled workers.Using China’s panel dataof33industries during2001-2008, this paper investigates the effect of general tradeand manufacturing trade on wage inequality. The estimation results show that on thewhole the open-up policy enhances the relative wage of skilled workers. Specifically,the increase of general trade exports will increase the skill premium in high generaltrade share industries while the impact ofprocessing trade is not significant. The lastchapter is the conclusions and policy recommendations.
引文
[1]白重恩，钱震杰.国民收入的要素分配:统计数据背后的故事.经济研究，2009，3：27-41
[2]邵敏，黄玖立.外资与我国劳动收入份额——基于工业行业的经验研究.经济学，2010，9（003）：1189-1210
[3]ILO. Global Employment Trends，2012
[4]ILO. Global Employment Trends，2011
[5]B. Milanovic. Global inequality: from class to location, from proletarians to migrants.，2011
[6]A. B. Atkinson，T. Piketty，E. Saez. Top Incomes in the Long Run of History. Journal of EconomicLiterature，2011，49（1）：3-71
[7]李坤望，冯冰.对外贸易与劳动收入占比:基于省际工业面板数据的研究.国际贸易问题，2012（1）：26-37
[8]R. W. Jones. The structure of simple general equilibrium models. The Journal of PoliticalEconomy，1965，73（6）：557-572
[9]P. A. Diamond. A search-equilibrium approach to the micro foundations of macroeconomics: theMIT Press，1984
[10]C. Davidson，L. Martin，S. Matusz. The structure of simple general equilibrium models withfrictional unemployment. The Journal of Political Economy，1988：1267-1293
[11]Y. Sheng，X. Xu. Trade theorems with search unemployment. Canadian Journal of Economics，2010，43（3）：795-815
[12]M. Melitz. The impact of trade on aggregate industry productivity and intra-industry reallocations.Econometrica，2003，71（6）：1695-1725
[13]G. Felbermayr，J. Prat，H. J. Schmerer. Globalization and labor market outcomes: wage bargaining,search frictions, and firm heterogeneity. Journal of Economic Theory，2011，146（1）：39-73
[14]E. Helpman，O. Itskhoki，S. Redding. Inequality and unemployment in a global economy: NationalBureau of Economic Research，2008
[15]E. Helpman，O. Itskhoki. Labour market rigidities, trade and unemployment. Review of EconomicStudies，2010，77（3）：1100-1137
[16]Elhanan Helpman，Oleg Itskhoki，Stephen James Redding. Inequality and Unemployment in aGlobal Economy.，2009
[17]A. Janiak. Does Trade Liberalization Lead to Unemployment? Theory and Some Evidence.ECARES, Universite Libre de Bruxelles，2006
[18]D. Acemoglu. Good jobs versus bad jobs. Journal of Labor Economics，2001，19（1）：1
[19]M. Larch，W. Lechthaler. Comparative Advantage and Skill-Specific Unemployment. The BEJournal of Economic Analysis&Policy，2011，11（1）：1-56
[20]M. P. Moore，P. Ranjan. Globalisation vs Skill‐Biased Technological Change: Implications forUnemployment and Wage Inequality*. The Economic Journal，2005，115（503）：391-422
[21]R. D. Wright. Search, layoffs, and reservation wages. Journal of Labor Economics，1987：354-365
[22]S. Kitao，L. Ljungqvist，T. J. Sargent. A Life Cycle Model of.，2008
[23]G. Kambourov，I. Manovskii. Occupational mobility and wage inequality. Review of EconomicStudies，2009，76（2）：731-759
[24]C. A. Pissarides. Short-run equilibrium dynamics of unemployment, vacancies, and real wages.The American Economic Review，1985，75（4）：676-690
[25]C. A. Pissarides. Equilibrium unemployment theory: the MIT press，2000
[26]P. A. Diamond. Mobility costs, frictional unemployment, and efficiency. The Journal of PoliticalEconomy，1981：798-812
[27]P. A. Diamond. Wage determination and efficiency in search equilibrium. The Review ofEconomic Studies，1982，49（2）：217-227
[28]P. A. Diamond. Aggregate demand management in search equilibrium. The Journal of PoliticalEconomy，1982：881-894
[29]D. T. Mortensen. The matching process as a noncooperative bargaining game: University ofChicago Press，1982
[30]D. T. Mortensen. Property rights and efficiency in mating, racing, and related games. TheAmerican Economic Review，1982，72（5）：968-979
[31]C. A. Pissarides. Search intensity, job advertising, and efficiency. Journal of Labor Economics，1984：128-143
[32]D. Andolfatto. Business cycles and labor-market search. The american economic review，1996：112-132
[33]M. Merz. Heterogeneous job-matches and the cyclical behavior of labor turnover. Journal ofMonetary Economics，1999，43（1）：91-124
[34]M. Merz. Search in the labor market and the real business cycle. Journal of Monetary Economics，1995，36（2）：269-300
[35]H. L. Cole，R. Rogerson. Can the Mortensen‐Pissarides Matching Model Match the Business‐Cycle Facts? International Economic Review，1999，40（4）：933-959
[36]W. J. den Haan，G. Ramey，J. Watson. Job Destruction and Propagation of Shocks. AmericanEconomic Review，2000：482-498
[37]J. Costain，M. Reiter. Business Cycles, Unemployment Insurance, and Calibration of MatchingModels.，2003
[38]R. Rogerson，R. Shimer，R. Wright. Search-theoretic models of the labor market: A survey.Journal of Economic Literature，2005，43（4）：959-988
[39]R. E. Hall. Employment fluctuations with equilibrium wage stickiness. American economicreview，2005：50-65
[40]Dennis J. Snower And de la Dehesa. The unemployment and welfare effects of labour marketpolicy: a comparison of the USA and the UK; Unemployment Policy: Cambridge University Press，1997
[41]A. Delacroix. Transitions into unemployment and the nature of firing costs. Review of EconomicDynamics，2003，6（3）：651-671
[42]O. Blanchard，P. Portugal. What hides behind an unemployment rate: comparing Portuguese andUS labor markets. American Economic Review，2001：187-207
[43]M. Pries，R. Rogerson. Hiring policies, labor market institutions, and labor market flows. Journalof Political Economy，2005，113（4）：811-839
[44]钟春平.失业波动之谜与搜寻匹配模型的进展与争议.经济学动态，2010（6）：115-119
[45]OECD. The OECD Jobs Strategy: Enhancing the effectiveness of active labour market policies.Paris: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development，1996
[46]José V. Ramirez，Anatoli Vassiliev. An Efficiency Comparison of Regional Employment OfficesOperating under Different Exogenous Conditions. Swiss Journal of Economics and Statistics，2007，143（I）：31-48
[47]G. M. Sheldon. The efficiency of public employment services: a nonparametric matching functionanalysis for Switzerland. Journal of Productivity Analysis，2003，20（1）：49-70
[48]A. Vassiliev，G. Ferro Luzzi，Y. Flückigeret al. Unemployment and employment offices' efficiency:What can be done? Socio-economic Planning Sciences，2006，40（3）：169-186
[49]S. Kano，M. Ohta. Estimating a matching function and regional matching efficiencies: Japanesepanel data for1973–1999. Japan and the World Economy，2005，17（1）：25-41
[50]S. Kano，M. Ohta. An empirical matching function with regime switching: the Japanese case.，2002
[51]P. Ilmakunnas，H. Pesola. Regional labour market matching functions and efficiency analysis.Labour，2003，17（3）：413-437
[52]G. E. Battese，T. J. Coelli. A model for technical inefficiency effects in a stochastic frontierproduction function for panel data. Empirical economics，1995，20（2）：325-332
[53]G. E. Battese，T. Coelli，University Of New England. Econometrics. A stochastic frontierproduction function incorporating a model for technical inefficiency effects: University of NewEngland. Department of Econometrics，1993
[54]D. Aigner，C. A. Lovell，P. Schmidt. Formulation and estimation of stochastic frontier productionfunction models. Journal of econometrics，1977，6（1）：21-37
[55]W. Meeusen，J. van Den Broeck. Efficiency estimation from Cobb-Douglas production functionswith composed error. International economic review，1977，18（2）：435-444
[56]A. Charnes，W. W. Cooper，E. Rhodes. Measuring the efficiency of decision making units.European journal of operational research，1978，2（6）：429-444
[57]R. D. Banker. Estimating most productive scale size using data envelopment analysis. EuropeanJournal of Operational Research，1984，17（1）：35-44
[58]C. Davidson. Introduction [to Recent Developments in the Theory of InvoluntaryUnemployment].，1990
[59]A. S. Blinder. The challenge of high unemployment: National Bureau of Economic ResearchCambridge, Mass., USA，1988
[60]C. Davidson，L. Martin，S. Matusz. Trade and search generated unemployment. Journal ofInternational Economics，1999，48（2）：271-299
[61]P. R. Krugman. What do undergrads need to know about trade? The American Economic Review，1993：23-26
[62]王怀民.市场分割,比较优势与加工贸易——对中国城市二元劳动力市场与加工贸易关系的实证研究.世界经济研究，2005（1）：48-53
[63]盛丹，李坤望，王永进.劳动力流动会影响我国地区出口比较优势吗?——基于省区工业细分产业数据的实证研究.世界经济研究，2010（9）：38-44
[64]R. G. Rajan，L. Zingales. Financial dependence and growth. American Economic Review，1998，88(3)：559-586
[65]K. Manova. Credit constraints, heterogeneous firms, and international trade: National Bureau ofEconomic Research，2008
[66]N. Nunn. Relationship-specificity, incomplete contracts, and the pattern of trade. The QuarterlyJournal of Economics，2007，122（2）：569-600
[67]A. Costinot. On the origins of comparative advantage. Journal of International Economics，2009，77（2）：255-264
[68]A. Cu at，M. J. Melitz. Volatility, labor market flexibility, and the pattern of comparativeadvantage: National Bureau of Economic Research，2007
[69]张军，吴桂英，张吉鹏.中国省际物质资本存量估算:1952-2000.经济研究，2004（010）：35-44
[70]白重恩，钱震杰，武康平.中国工业部门要素分配份额决定因素研究.经济研究，2008，8：16-28
[71]白重恩，钱震杰.国民收入的要素分配:统计数据背后的故事.经济研究，2009，3：27-41
[72]C. Davidson，S. J. Matusz. International trade and labor markets: theory, evidence, and policyimplications: WE Upjohn Inst for，2004
[73]A. Lamo，J. Messina，E. Wasmer. Are specific skills an obstacle to labor market adjustment?Theory and an application to the EU enlargement. ECB Working Paper No.585，2006
[74]G. Saint-Paul. Making sense of Bolkestein-bashing: Trade liberalization under segmented labormarkets. Journal of International Economics，2007，73（1）：152-174
[75]R. Wacziarg，J. S. Wallack. Trade liberalization and intersectoral labor movements. Journal ofInternational Economics，2004，64（2）：411-439
[76]P. Dutt，D. Mitra，P. Ranjan. International trade and unemployment: Theory and cross-nationalevidence. Journal of International Economics，2009，78（1）：32-44
[77]F. Alexandre，P. M. A. Bacao，J. Cerejeira Silvaet al. Manufacturing employment and exchangerates in the Portuguese economy: the role of openness, technology and labour market rigidity.，2010
[78]Z. Griliches. Capital-skill complementarity. The review of Economics and Statistics，1969，51（4）：465-468
[79]C. R. Hulten. Total factor productivity. a short biography: University of Chicago Press，2001
[80]P. Krusell，L. E. Ohanian，J. V. Ríos Rullet al. Capital‐skill complementarity and inequality: Amacroeconomic analysis. Econometrica，2000，68（5）：1029-1053
[81]G. H. Hanson，A. Harrison. Trade liberalization and wage inequality in Mexico. Industrial andLabor Relations Review，1999：271-288
[82]R. C. Feenstra，G. H. Hanson. Foreign direct investment and relative wages: Evidence fromMexico's maquiladoras. Journal of international economics，1997，42（3-4）：371-393
[83]R. C. Feenstra，G. H. Hanson. Globalization, outsourcing, and wage inequality: National Bureau ofEconomic Research，1996
[84]R. Feenstra，G. Hanson. Global production sharing and rising inequality: A survey of trade andwages: National Bureau of Economic Research，2001
[85]Kim Bonghoon. Trade Openness and Wage Inequality in Korean Experience: manuscript,University of Florida，2002
[86]B. Xu. Trade liberalization, wage inequality, and endogenously determined nontraded goods.Journal of International Economics，2003，60（2）：417-431
[87]O. M. Fuentes，S. Gilchrist. Skill-biased Technology Adoption: Evidence for the Chileanmanufacturing sector: Boston University-Department of Economics，2005
[88]E. Dinopoulos，C. Syropoulos，B. Xu. Intra-industry trade and wage income inequality. Universityof Florida, mimeo，2000
[89]J. Mazumdar，M. Quispe-Agnoli. Trade and the skill premium in developing countries: the role ofintermediate goods and some evidence from Peru.，2002
[90]D. Acemoglu. Patterns of skill premia. Review of Economic studies，2003，70（2）：199-230
[91]殷德生，唐海燕.技能型技术进步,南北贸易与工资不平衡.经济研究，2006，41（005）：106-114
[92]B. Xu，W. Li. Trade, technology, and China's rising skill demand1. Economics of Transition，2008，16（1）：59-84
[93]D. Acemoglu. Changes in Unemployment and Wage Inequality: An Alternative Theory and SomeEvidence. The American Economic Review，1999
[2]邵敏，黄玖立.外资与我国劳动收入份额——基于工业行业的经验研究.经济学，2010，9（003）：1189-1210
[3]ILO. Global Employment Trends，2012
[4]ILO. Global Employment Trends，2011
[5]B. Milanovic. Global inequality: from class to location, from proletarians to migrants.，2011
[6]A. B. Atkinson，T. Piketty，E. Saez. Top Incomes in the Long Run of History. Journal of EconomicLiterature，2011，49（1）：3-71
[7]李坤望，冯冰.对外贸易与劳动收入占比:基于省际工业面板数据的研究.国际贸易问题，2012（1）：26-37
[8]R. W. Jones. The structure of simple general equilibrium models. The Journal of PoliticalEconomy，1965，73（6）：557-572
[9]P. A. Diamond. A search-equilibrium approach to the micro foundations of macroeconomics: theMIT Press，1984
[10]C. Davidson，L. Martin，S. Matusz. The structure of simple general equilibrium models withfrictional unemployment. The Journal of Political Economy，1988：1267-1293
[11]Y. Sheng，X. Xu. Trade theorems with search unemployment. Canadian Journal of Economics，2010，43（3）：795-815
[12]M. Melitz. The impact of trade on aggregate industry productivity and intra-industry reallocations.Econometrica，2003，71（6）：1695-1725
[13]G. Felbermayr，J. Prat，H. J. Schmerer. Globalization and labor market outcomes: wage bargaining,search frictions, and firm heterogeneity. Journal of Economic Theory，2011，146（1）：39-73
[14]E. Helpman，O. Itskhoki，S. Redding. Inequality and unemployment in a global economy: NationalBureau of Economic Research，2008
[15]E. Helpman，O. Itskhoki. Labour market rigidities, trade and unemployment. Review of EconomicStudies，2010，77（3）：1100-1137
[16]Elhanan Helpman，Oleg Itskhoki，Stephen James Redding. Inequality and Unemployment in aGlobal Economy.，2009
[17]A. Janiak. Does Trade Liberalization Lead to Unemployment? Theory and Some Evidence.ECARES, Universite Libre de Bruxelles，2006
[18]D. Acemoglu. Good jobs versus bad jobs. Journal of Labor Economics，2001，19（1）：1
[19]M. Larch，W. Lechthaler. Comparative Advantage and Skill-Specific Unemployment. The BEJournal of Economic Analysis&Policy，2011，11（1）：1-56
[20]M. P. Moore，P. Ranjan. Globalisation vs Skill‐Biased Technological Change: Implications forUnemployment and Wage Inequality*. The Economic Journal，2005，115（503）：391-422
[21]R. D. Wright. Search, layoffs, and reservation wages. Journal of Labor Economics，1987：354-365
[22]S. Kitao，L. Ljungqvist，T. J. Sargent. A Life Cycle Model of.，2008
[23]G. Kambourov，I. Manovskii. Occupational mobility and wage inequality. Review of EconomicStudies，2009，76（2）：731-759
[24]C. A. Pissarides. Short-run equilibrium dynamics of unemployment, vacancies, and real wages.The American Economic Review，1985，75（4）：676-690
[25]C. A. Pissarides. Equilibrium unemployment theory: the MIT press，2000
[26]P. A. Diamond. Mobility costs, frictional unemployment, and efficiency. The Journal of PoliticalEconomy，1981：798-812
[27]P. A. Diamond. Wage determination and efficiency in search equilibrium. The Review ofEconomic Studies，1982，49（2）：217-227
[28]P. A. Diamond. Aggregate demand management in search equilibrium. The Journal of PoliticalEconomy，1982：881-894
[29]D. T. Mortensen. The matching process as a noncooperative bargaining game: University ofChicago Press，1982
[30]D. T. Mortensen. Property rights and efficiency in mating, racing, and related games. TheAmerican Economic Review，1982，72（5）：968-979
[31]C. A. Pissarides. Search intensity, job advertising, and efficiency. Journal of Labor Economics，1984：128-143
[32]D. Andolfatto. Business cycles and labor-market search. The american economic review，1996：112-132
[33]M. Merz. Heterogeneous job-matches and the cyclical behavior of labor turnover. Journal ofMonetary Economics，1999，43（1）：91-124
[34]M. Merz. Search in the labor market and the real business cycle. Journal of Monetary Economics，1995，36（2）：269-300
[35]H. L. Cole，R. Rogerson. Can the Mortensen‐Pissarides Matching Model Match the Business‐Cycle Facts? International Economic Review，1999，40（4）：933-959
[36]W. J. den Haan，G. Ramey，J. Watson. Job Destruction and Propagation of Shocks. AmericanEconomic Review，2000：482-498
[37]J. Costain，M. Reiter. Business Cycles, Unemployment Insurance, and Calibration of MatchingModels.，2003
[38]R. Rogerson，R. Shimer，R. Wright. Search-theoretic models of the labor market: A survey.Journal of Economic Literature，2005，43（4）：959-988
[39]R. E. Hall. Employment fluctuations with equilibrium wage stickiness. American economicreview，2005：50-65
[40]Dennis J. Snower And de la Dehesa. The unemployment and welfare effects of labour marketpolicy: a comparison of the USA and the UK; Unemployment Policy: Cambridge University Press，1997
[41]A. Delacroix. Transitions into unemployment and the nature of firing costs. Review of EconomicDynamics，2003，6（3）：651-671
[42]O. Blanchard，P. Portugal. What hides behind an unemployment rate: comparing Portuguese andUS labor markets. American Economic Review，2001：187-207
[43]M. Pries，R. Rogerson. Hiring policies, labor market institutions, and labor market flows. Journalof Political Economy，2005，113（4）：811-839
[44]钟春平.失业波动之谜与搜寻匹配模型的进展与争议.经济学动态，2010（6）：115-119
[45]OECD. The OECD Jobs Strategy: Enhancing the effectiveness of active labour market policies.Paris: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development，1996
[46]José V. Ramirez，Anatoli Vassiliev. An Efficiency Comparison of Regional Employment OfficesOperating under Different Exogenous Conditions. Swiss Journal of Economics and Statistics，2007，143（I）：31-48
[47]G. M. Sheldon. The efficiency of public employment services: a nonparametric matching functionanalysis for Switzerland. Journal of Productivity Analysis，2003，20（1）：49-70
[48]A. Vassiliev，G. Ferro Luzzi，Y. Flückigeret al. Unemployment and employment offices' efficiency:What can be done? Socio-economic Planning Sciences，2006，40（3）：169-186
[49]S. Kano，M. Ohta. Estimating a matching function and regional matching efficiencies: Japanesepanel data for1973–1999. Japan and the World Economy，2005，17（1）：25-41
[50]S. Kano，M. Ohta. An empirical matching function with regime switching: the Japanese case.，2002
[51]P. Ilmakunnas，H. Pesola. Regional labour market matching functions and efficiency analysis.Labour，2003，17（3）：413-437
[52]G. E. Battese，T. J. Coelli. A model for technical inefficiency effects in a stochastic frontierproduction function for panel data. Empirical economics，1995，20（2）：325-332
[53]G. E. Battese，T. Coelli，University Of New England. Econometrics. A stochastic frontierproduction function incorporating a model for technical inefficiency effects: University of NewEngland. Department of Econometrics，1993
[54]D. Aigner，C. A. Lovell，P. Schmidt. Formulation and estimation of stochastic frontier productionfunction models. Journal of econometrics，1977，6（1）：21-37
[55]W. Meeusen，J. van Den Broeck. Efficiency estimation from Cobb-Douglas production functionswith composed error. International economic review，1977，18（2）：435-444
[56]A. Charnes，W. W. Cooper，E. Rhodes. Measuring the efficiency of decision making units.European journal of operational research，1978，2（6）：429-444
[57]R. D. Banker. Estimating most productive scale size using data envelopment analysis. EuropeanJournal of Operational Research，1984，17（1）：35-44
[58]C. Davidson. Introduction [to Recent Developments in the Theory of InvoluntaryUnemployment].，1990
[59]A. S. Blinder. The challenge of high unemployment: National Bureau of Economic ResearchCambridge, Mass., USA，1988
[60]C. Davidson，L. Martin，S. Matusz. Trade and search generated unemployment. Journal ofInternational Economics，1999，48（2）：271-299
[61]P. R. Krugman. What do undergrads need to know about trade? The American Economic Review，1993：23-26
[62]王怀民.市场分割,比较优势与加工贸易——对中国城市二元劳动力市场与加工贸易关系的实证研究.世界经济研究，2005（1）：48-53
[63]盛丹，李坤望，王永进.劳动力流动会影响我国地区出口比较优势吗?——基于省区工业细分产业数据的实证研究.世界经济研究，2010（9）：38-44
[64]R. G. Rajan，L. Zingales. Financial dependence and growth. American Economic Review，1998，88(3)：559-586
[65]K. Manova. Credit constraints, heterogeneous firms, and international trade: National Bureau ofEconomic Research，2008
[66]N. Nunn. Relationship-specificity, incomplete contracts, and the pattern of trade. The QuarterlyJournal of Economics，2007，122（2）：569-600
[67]A. Costinot. On the origins of comparative advantage. Journal of International Economics，2009，77（2）：255-264
[68]A. Cu at，M. J. Melitz. Volatility, labor market flexibility, and the pattern of comparativeadvantage: National Bureau of Economic Research，2007
[69]张军，吴桂英，张吉鹏.中国省际物质资本存量估算:1952-2000.经济研究，2004（010）：35-44
[70]白重恩，钱震杰，武康平.中国工业部门要素分配份额决定因素研究.经济研究，2008，8：16-28
[71]白重恩，钱震杰.国民收入的要素分配:统计数据背后的故事.经济研究，2009，3：27-41
[72]C. Davidson，S. J. Matusz. International trade and labor markets: theory, evidence, and policyimplications: WE Upjohn Inst for，2004
[73]A. Lamo，J. Messina，E. Wasmer. Are specific skills an obstacle to labor market adjustment?Theory and an application to the EU enlargement. ECB Working Paper No.585，2006
[74]G. Saint-Paul. Making sense of Bolkestein-bashing: Trade liberalization under segmented labormarkets. Journal of International Economics，2007，73（1）：152-174
[75]R. Wacziarg，J. S. Wallack. Trade liberalization and intersectoral labor movements. Journal ofInternational Economics，2004，64（2）：411-439
[76]P. Dutt，D. Mitra，P. Ranjan. International trade and unemployment: Theory and cross-nationalevidence. Journal of International Economics，2009，78（1）：32-44
[77]F. Alexandre，P. M. A. Bacao，J. Cerejeira Silvaet al. Manufacturing employment and exchangerates in the Portuguese economy: the role of openness, technology and labour market rigidity.，2010
[78]Z. Griliches. Capital-skill complementarity. The review of Economics and Statistics，1969，51（4）：465-468
[79]C. R. Hulten. Total factor productivity. a short biography: University of Chicago Press，2001
[80]P. Krusell，L. E. Ohanian，J. V. Ríos Rullet al. Capital‐skill complementarity and inequality: Amacroeconomic analysis. Econometrica，2000，68（5）：1029-1053
[81]G. H. Hanson，A. Harrison. Trade liberalization and wage inequality in Mexico. Industrial andLabor Relations Review，1999：271-288
[82]R. C. Feenstra，G. H. Hanson. Foreign direct investment and relative wages: Evidence fromMexico's maquiladoras. Journal of international economics，1997，42（3-4）：371-393
[83]R. C. Feenstra，G. H. Hanson. Globalization, outsourcing, and wage inequality: National Bureau ofEconomic Research，1996
[84]R. Feenstra，G. Hanson. Global production sharing and rising inequality: A survey of trade andwages: National Bureau of Economic Research，2001
[85]Kim Bonghoon. Trade Openness and Wage Inequality in Korean Experience: manuscript,University of Florida，2002
[86]B. Xu. Trade liberalization, wage inequality, and endogenously determined nontraded goods.Journal of International Economics，2003，60（2）：417-431
[87]O. M. Fuentes，S. Gilchrist. Skill-biased Technology Adoption: Evidence for the Chileanmanufacturing sector: Boston University-Department of Economics，2005
[88]E. Dinopoulos，C. Syropoulos，B. Xu. Intra-industry trade and wage income inequality. Universityof Florida, mimeo，2000
[89]J. Mazumdar，M. Quispe-Agnoli. Trade and the skill premium in developing countries: the role ofintermediate goods and some evidence from Peru.，2002
[90]D. Acemoglu. Patterns of skill premia. Review of Economic studies，2003，70（2）：199-230
[91]殷德生，唐海燕.技能型技术进步,南北贸易与工资不平衡.经济研究，2006，41（005）：106-114
[92]B. Xu，W. Li. Trade, technology, and China's rising skill demand1. Economics of Transition，2008，16（1）：59-84
[93]D. Acemoglu. Changes in Unemployment and Wage Inequality: An Alternative Theory and SomeEvidence. The American Economic Review，1999