生物学哲学中的机制研究
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摘要
科学中的机制(mechanism)概念源自古希腊的μηχαυισoε,在古希腊人的观念里原意指反抗自然力量的机械结构与运作原理。近代机械观念则认为自然也类似人工的机械,哲学上的机械论传统和柏拉图一一毕达哥拉斯传统是牛顿建立经典物理学的两大哲学资源,对近代科学革命产生了非常重要的积极意义。但是,不管是笛卡尔主义机械论还是伽桑狄的原子主义机械论,近代机械论在近代生物学发展上都遭到了失败。然而今天机制已经成为“特殊科学”尤其是新兴生命科学的重要范畴,是生物学、神经科学、社会学和经济学等学科最基本的解释形式之一。对机制的理解已经超出了物理学关于宇宙一般性原理的机器隐喻。机制观念在近代生物学和现代生物学中的不同命运,是我们考察机制观念发展的突破口。考察现代生物学并建立新的机械论,对于传统科学哲学问题和传统哲学问题都有着重要意义。原因主要有两条：
其一,活力论和机械论关于生命本质的争论在某种程度上反映了自由和必然之间的矛盾,而这种矛盾曾被莱布尼兹和康德等人看作是哲学问题的根源。因此,对生物学机制解释在方法、理论和解释上的描述和理解,并对比不存在生命和非生命区分的物理学机械论,将有助于回答这一哲学难题。考察结合生命和非生命特征的生物物理学等交叉学科中的机制解释的结构,还可以加深理解生物学哲学中的严重对立——分支论和独立论的物理主义和反物理主义,以及还原论和反还原论等问题。
其二,科学哲学特别是逻辑经验主义源自对物理科学的概括,受到了严厉的批判和质疑。生命科学哲学兴起后,一些哲学家将这些批评的根源归结于自然定律(natural law)的观念。生命科学的理论和解释很难找到类似物理学那样的定律,而是通过机制描述进行解释。对机制解释的考察是解决覆盖律解释存在的哲学问题的一种途径,是第三代实证主义试图避开历史主义批评的方式。
因此,本研究的主要任务是通过对机制的定义、解释、模型和发现等方面的描述,阐明“特殊科学”与新机械主义之间的关系。第一,近代机械论没有明确的定义,也不能解释生物学、经济学等“特殊科学”,因此需要综合各门科学给出更普适的定义；第二,机制哲学还关心生物学如何实现现象和机制解释之间转化的问题；第三,通过案例分析和历史研究考察了生命科学的研究过程,包括现象的建立和引入,实验中的现象还原和分析,以及机制模型的提出、修改和检验,用描述的语言展现了生物学中机械观念在这种转化中的作用和角色；第四,研究发现生物学中的新机械论与近代机械论在还原论、原子论和决定论上有着不同的态度,具有实用主义和非极端还原主义的特征。
全文共分为六章：第一章阐述了科学中的机制概念和机制哲学的重要性,提出了本研究的问题、意义、方法和进路；第二章回顾历史上机械观念,尤其是近代机械论对科学革命的影响与局限性；第三章论述了不同机制概念与理论中存在的问题,并根据生物学的自然主义案例研究形成了新的机制定义和生物学机械论理论；第四章阐明了机制解释及其蕴含的因果关系,以及机制解释不同于覆盖律解释的特征；第五章主要是考察基于现象的生物学机制的建模过程,展示机制生物学研究和科学发现中不同于演绎的比较方法；第六章调查了现象经验在第一人称和第三人称上的两种研究,以及解释关联上的补救措施一一神经现象学(Neurophenomenology),并试图用新机械论理论对这种关联作出本体论说明。
本文的部分结论：机制概念在“特殊科学”尤其是生物学中是一个重要的概念；机制具有解释性,机制哲学有助于理解科学解释尤其是机制解释的本质；生物学中的机制解释表现为一种有限还原论,而传统机械论观念将解释依托于最小的原子或物质空间,因此两者具有不同的形而上学；机制观念在认识论、科学组织和科学发现上是一种有效的理论工具；机制观念影响了科学理论和实践组织；机制哲学视角下对科学的理解,并不像逻辑经验主义那样排斥形而上学；另外,机制观念不再简单地将科学发现看作是从猜想到证实的逻辑演绎过程,也不是机会主义的偶然结果,而是一个涉及科学对象系统和科学社会系统之间复杂的组织过程。
本论文系统地考察了现代生物学理论和实践中的新机械主义,以考察生物学的自然主义研究方式发展了机械论理论。传统机械论并没有区分生命和非生命的不同属性,因而仅仅解释了万物的一般性的物理属性,然而无法解释生物的生命现象。新机械论产生于生命科学,对生命本质有着不同于传统机械论的理解。新机械论为回答传统机械论中的还原论、决定论和原子论等问题作出了新的解释。同时,对生物学中新机械论的考察也展现了生物科学不同于物理学的结构形式,对现象机制、科学模型、科学解释、因果关系、科学发现以及认知神经科学中的经验和先验关系作出了新的理解。本研究在机械论进路上,为填补物理科学和生命科学以及自然科学与人文科学之间的巨大鸿沟作出了新的努力,具有非常重要的研究意义。
My research focuses on "the new mechanisic philosophy" in pecial sciences, particularly in biology. Mechanism was one of the philosophical sources of scientific revolution in the17th century. It is an admitted fact that Newton's classical physics has two philosophical originations, one is mechanism and the other is Plato-Pythagorean tradition. While in the two next centuries after the revolution, mechanism is not successful at all in biology and chemistry, it had positive influence in the famous debate with vitalism. More importantly, in the twentieth century, mechanism and mechanistic explanation recured again in and became one of the most common form of explanantion in modern biology and other pecial sciences. Such mechanisms are called anthropic mechanism by many philosophers, distinguished from pragmatic universal mechanisms. There are two significant values in philosophy of mechanism for science.
Firstly, the famous debate between vitalism and mechanism reflects the giant gap between the understanding of freedom and human dignity in one hand and the determinism of natural world in another. This was regarded as the main source of all philosophical issues by Leibnitz and Kant. The exploration of new field in special sciences, particularly biology for mechanism philosophy surely will increase our understanding of this problem, since the mechanism in the17th century only focused on inanimate objects. Mechanism is also related with causation, since causation is an important notion in science and in concept of freedom. A kind of comparison between mechanism in classical physics and special sciences will be very helpful for understanding the differences on scientific explantion and its construction. Such an investigation will also extend our vison on scientific models, scientific inquiry, theory levels and relations between phenomena and observations. Meanwhile it will increase our understanding of the nature of life, and biology and science finally. To advance our knowledge about the severe contradictions between reductionism and anti-reductionis and the status of biology in science, it also make sense to investigate how new disciplines such as biophysics and biochemistry emerges from cross disciplinary researches. Further effort is to achieve more understanding about the gap between natural sciences and humanistic sciences and seeking for possible methodological solutions.
Secondly, it is doubtful to see the failure of Logical Empiricism as the end of philosophy of science, since the Logical Empiricism is regarded only the generalization of physics. Many philosophers of special sciences unwilling to follow the Historicism take the position of Neo-positivism. After the flourish of life sciences, many philosophers take the failure of positivism as the result of law notion. It is well known, unlike physics, there is lack of law in biology and other special sciences, but take mechanistic form of explanation.
Thus, the conception of mechanism and mechanistic inquiry according the context of the practices of special sciences will be the main goal of new mechanisic philosophy in my dissertation. This goal is comprised of two tasks, one is about the conception of mechanism, and the other is about the mechanistic explantion. The first question is quiet simple. It is achieved by comparison between different definitions and modified by case study from neurobiology. The second task is about the question how biologists generalize mechanistic explanation from biological phenomena, and why such a transition is possible. New questions are also answered about the nature of the difference between observations and phenomena, characters of mechanistic models, difference between pragmatic mechanism and mechanism in special sciences, reduction and determination in mechanism, and so on.
According the aforementioned goals, this dissertation contains six chapters. Chapter one raise the problem, questions and methodology for the whole dissertation commit to solve, viz. how mechanism, mechanistic explantion and mechanistic inquiry really are in biology. Chapter two reviews the relationship between mechanism and the scientific revolusion, and the limits of mechanism particularly on chemistry and biology after the17th century. Chapter three focuses on conceptions of mechanism and their problems, and modified the definition of mechanism by the case conception. Chapter four engages in the characters of mechanistic explanation and the differences of the causations it contains from that of law based explanations. Chapter five inquires the construction of mechanisms and characters of the methods applied by mechanistic sciences, including methodological meaning of comparative researches in different levels. Chapter six devotes to reveal the problem in the connection between mental phenomena and neural mechanisms. Neurophenomenology as a methodological remedy for the problem will be discussed, especially on the relationship between empirical data and transcendental analysis.
Conclusionally, mechanism is an important concept for special sciences especilly in modern biology. Mechanism philosophy will increase our understanding of the nature of biology and biological explanations. Mechanistic notion is a very useful tool in biological discovery, and applied as limited reduction that is always mixed with wholism in the practice of biology. Many differences are revealed between pragmatic universal mechanism and anthropic mechanism, especially on their metaphysics.
The most important inovation in this dissertation is that it is the first systematic study on mechanism in special sciences among domestic doctoral dissertations.
A supposed value of this dissertation is the improvement of our understanding of life sciences, inculding scientific model, explanation levels, causations, scientific revolution and scientific discovery. Such improvement will add new knowledge about the differences between classical sciences and special sciences.
其一,活力论和机械论关于生命本质的争论在某种程度上反映了自由和必然之间的矛盾,而这种矛盾曾被莱布尼兹和康德等人看作是哲学问题的根源。因此,对生物学机制解释在方法、理论和解释上的描述和理解,并对比不存在生命和非生命区分的物理学机械论,将有助于回答这一哲学难题。考察结合生命和非生命特征的生物物理学等交叉学科中的机制解释的结构,还可以加深理解生物学哲学中的严重对立——分支论和独立论的物理主义和反物理主义,以及还原论和反还原论等问题。
其二,科学哲学特别是逻辑经验主义源自对物理科学的概括,受到了严厉的批判和质疑。生命科学哲学兴起后,一些哲学家将这些批评的根源归结于自然定律(natural law)的观念。生命科学的理论和解释很难找到类似物理学那样的定律,而是通过机制描述进行解释。对机制解释的考察是解决覆盖律解释存在的哲学问题的一种途径,是第三代实证主义试图避开历史主义批评的方式。
因此,本研究的主要任务是通过对机制的定义、解释、模型和发现等方面的描述,阐明“特殊科学”与新机械主义之间的关系。第一,近代机械论没有明确的定义,也不能解释生物学、经济学等“特殊科学”,因此需要综合各门科学给出更普适的定义；第二,机制哲学还关心生物学如何实现现象和机制解释之间转化的问题；第三,通过案例分析和历史研究考察了生命科学的研究过程,包括现象的建立和引入,实验中的现象还原和分析,以及机制模型的提出、修改和检验,用描述的语言展现了生物学中机械观念在这种转化中的作用和角色；第四,研究发现生物学中的新机械论与近代机械论在还原论、原子论和决定论上有着不同的态度,具有实用主义和非极端还原主义的特征。
全文共分为六章：第一章阐述了科学中的机制概念和机制哲学的重要性,提出了本研究的问题、意义、方法和进路；第二章回顾历史上机械观念,尤其是近代机械论对科学革命的影响与局限性；第三章论述了不同机制概念与理论中存在的问题,并根据生物学的自然主义案例研究形成了新的机制定义和生物学机械论理论；第四章阐明了机制解释及其蕴含的因果关系,以及机制解释不同于覆盖律解释的特征；第五章主要是考察基于现象的生物学机制的建模过程,展示机制生物学研究和科学发现中不同于演绎的比较方法；第六章调查了现象经验在第一人称和第三人称上的两种研究,以及解释关联上的补救措施一一神经现象学(Neurophenomenology),并试图用新机械论理论对这种关联作出本体论说明。
本文的部分结论：机制概念在“特殊科学”尤其是生物学中是一个重要的概念；机制具有解释性,机制哲学有助于理解科学解释尤其是机制解释的本质；生物学中的机制解释表现为一种有限还原论,而传统机械论观念将解释依托于最小的原子或物质空间,因此两者具有不同的形而上学；机制观念在认识论、科学组织和科学发现上是一种有效的理论工具；机制观念影响了科学理论和实践组织；机制哲学视角下对科学的理解,并不像逻辑经验主义那样排斥形而上学；另外,机制观念不再简单地将科学发现看作是从猜想到证实的逻辑演绎过程,也不是机会主义的偶然结果,而是一个涉及科学对象系统和科学社会系统之间复杂的组织过程。
本论文系统地考察了现代生物学理论和实践中的新机械主义,以考察生物学的自然主义研究方式发展了机械论理论。传统机械论并没有区分生命和非生命的不同属性,因而仅仅解释了万物的一般性的物理属性,然而无法解释生物的生命现象。新机械论产生于生命科学,对生命本质有着不同于传统机械论的理解。新机械论为回答传统机械论中的还原论、决定论和原子论等问题作出了新的解释。同时,对生物学中新机械论的考察也展现了生物科学不同于物理学的结构形式,对现象机制、科学模型、科学解释、因果关系、科学发现以及认知神经科学中的经验和先验关系作出了新的理解。本研究在机械论进路上,为填补物理科学和生命科学以及自然科学与人文科学之间的巨大鸿沟作出了新的努力,具有非常重要的研究意义。
My research focuses on "the new mechanisic philosophy" in pecial sciences, particularly in biology. Mechanism was one of the philosophical sources of scientific revolution in the17th century. It is an admitted fact that Newton's classical physics has two philosophical originations, one is mechanism and the other is Plato-Pythagorean tradition. While in the two next centuries after the revolution, mechanism is not successful at all in biology and chemistry, it had positive influence in the famous debate with vitalism. More importantly, in the twentieth century, mechanism and mechanistic explanation recured again in and became one of the most common form of explanantion in modern biology and other pecial sciences. Such mechanisms are called anthropic mechanism by many philosophers, distinguished from pragmatic universal mechanisms. There are two significant values in philosophy of mechanism for science.
Firstly, the famous debate between vitalism and mechanism reflects the giant gap between the understanding of freedom and human dignity in one hand and the determinism of natural world in another. This was regarded as the main source of all philosophical issues by Leibnitz and Kant. The exploration of new field in special sciences, particularly biology for mechanism philosophy surely will increase our understanding of this problem, since the mechanism in the17th century only focused on inanimate objects. Mechanism is also related with causation, since causation is an important notion in science and in concept of freedom. A kind of comparison between mechanism in classical physics and special sciences will be very helpful for understanding the differences on scientific explantion and its construction. Such an investigation will also extend our vison on scientific models, scientific inquiry, theory levels and relations between phenomena and observations. Meanwhile it will increase our understanding of the nature of life, and biology and science finally. To advance our knowledge about the severe contradictions between reductionism and anti-reductionis and the status of biology in science, it also make sense to investigate how new disciplines such as biophysics and biochemistry emerges from cross disciplinary researches. Further effort is to achieve more understanding about the gap between natural sciences and humanistic sciences and seeking for possible methodological solutions.
Secondly, it is doubtful to see the failure of Logical Empiricism as the end of philosophy of science, since the Logical Empiricism is regarded only the generalization of physics. Many philosophers of special sciences unwilling to follow the Historicism take the position of Neo-positivism. After the flourish of life sciences, many philosophers take the failure of positivism as the result of law notion. It is well known, unlike physics, there is lack of law in biology and other special sciences, but take mechanistic form of explanation.
Thus, the conception of mechanism and mechanistic inquiry according the context of the practices of special sciences will be the main goal of new mechanisic philosophy in my dissertation. This goal is comprised of two tasks, one is about the conception of mechanism, and the other is about the mechanistic explantion. The first question is quiet simple. It is achieved by comparison between different definitions and modified by case study from neurobiology. The second task is about the question how biologists generalize mechanistic explanation from biological phenomena, and why such a transition is possible. New questions are also answered about the nature of the difference between observations and phenomena, characters of mechanistic models, difference between pragmatic mechanism and mechanism in special sciences, reduction and determination in mechanism, and so on.
According the aforementioned goals, this dissertation contains six chapters. Chapter one raise the problem, questions and methodology for the whole dissertation commit to solve, viz. how mechanism, mechanistic explantion and mechanistic inquiry really are in biology. Chapter two reviews the relationship between mechanism and the scientific revolusion, and the limits of mechanism particularly on chemistry and biology after the17th century. Chapter three focuses on conceptions of mechanism and their problems, and modified the definition of mechanism by the case conception. Chapter four engages in the characters of mechanistic explanation and the differences of the causations it contains from that of law based explanations. Chapter five inquires the construction of mechanisms and characters of the methods applied by mechanistic sciences, including methodological meaning of comparative researches in different levels. Chapter six devotes to reveal the problem in the connection between mental phenomena and neural mechanisms. Neurophenomenology as a methodological remedy for the problem will be discussed, especially on the relationship between empirical data and transcendental analysis.
Conclusionally, mechanism is an important concept for special sciences especilly in modern biology. Mechanism philosophy will increase our understanding of the nature of biology and biological explanations. Mechanistic notion is a very useful tool in biological discovery, and applied as limited reduction that is always mixed with wholism in the practice of biology. Many differences are revealed between pragmatic universal mechanism and anthropic mechanism, especially on their metaphysics.
The most important inovation in this dissertation is that it is the first systematic study on mechanism in special sciences among domestic doctoral dissertations.
A supposed value of this dissertation is the improvement of our understanding of life sciences, inculding scientific model, explanation levels, causations, scientific revolution and scientific discovery. Such improvement will add new knowledge about the differences between classical sciences and special sciences.
引文
①康德(1988).自然科学的形而上学基础.北京：三联书店.第2-3页
① Darden, L. (2008). Thinking again about biological mechanisms. Philosophy of Science,75, 958-969. p.958
②科学哲学重新关注机械论可以从《认识》、 《科学哲学》、 《综合》和《大不列颠科学哲学期刊》(,, & )这四种科学哲学主流期刊中机制论文的数量上可窥一斑。例如《Philosophy of Science》,在2008年刊登了6篇机制哲学的论文,占据了很大的篇幅。
③张志伟(2002).西方哲学史.北京：中国人民大学出版社.第289-299页
④理查德.S.韦斯特福尔.(2000).近代科学的建构：机械论与力学.彭万华译.上海：复旦大学出版社.第31页
① Krikorian, Y. H. (1943). Life, mechanism and purpose. Philosophy of Science,10 (3),184-190. p.184
②传导机制概念详见以下论著：陆前进.(2007).中国货币政策传导机制研究.上海：立信会计出版社.宋立.(2005).中国货币政策传导机制与金融体系重构.北京：中国计划出版社.
③ Ross, N. (2008). On mechanism in Hgel's social and political philosophy. New York:Routledge.
④ D' Aspremont, C. (ed.) (1999). Social organization and mechanism design:Proceedings of the second Francqui colloquium (10-11 June 1996). Brussels. De Boeck Universite Press. p.5
⑤ Ibid. p.5
⑥ Hedstrom, P. & Ylikoski, P. (2010). Causal mechanisms in the social sciences. Annual Review of Sociology,36,49-67.
①达马西奥,安东尼奥.R.(2007).笛卡尔的错误：情绪、推理和人脑.北京：教育科学出版社.
②作者个人认为科学的三个基本主张是不可分割的。对于科学主张以及之间的关系在机制解释一章里得到更多的阐述。
③ Mirowski, M. (1988). Against mechanism:Protect economics from science. Lanham:Rowman & Littlefield.
④卡洛,P.(1982).生物机器：研究生命的控制论途径.汪云九,陈德高译.北京：科学出版社.第10页
①卡洛,P.(1982).生物机器：研究生命的控制论途径.汪云九,陈德高译.北京：科学出版社.第11页
②转引自：Holmes, F. L. (1983). Vitlism reexamined. Science (New Series),221 (4606),146-147.
③ Ibid. p.147
④ Skipper, R. A., & Millstein, R. L. (2005). Thinking about evolutionary mechanisms:Natural selection. Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences,36, 327-347.
① Delehanty, M. (2005). Emergent properties and the context objection to reduction. Biology and Philosophy,20,715-734. Fehr, C. (2004). Feminism and science:Mechanism without reductionism. NWSA Journal 16, 136-156. Thagard, P. (2008). Mental illness from the perspective of theoretical neuroscience. Perspectives in Biology and Medicine,51,335-352.
② Psillos, S. (2004). A glimpse of the secret connexion:Harmonizing mechanisms with counterfactuals. Perspectives on Science,12,288-319. Weber, M. (2008). Causes without mechanisms:Experimental regularities, physical laws, and neuroscientific explanation. Philosophy of Science,75,995-1007. Persson, J. (2010). Activity-based Aaccounts of mechanism and the threat of polygenic effects. Erkenntnis,72,135-146. p.143 Leuridan, B. (2010). Can mechanisms really replace laws of nature? Philosophy of Science,77, 317-340. Sirtes, D. (2010). A pragmatic-ontic account of mechanistic explanation. (互联网资源)
③这里所说的特殊的自然现象,指实验室里(或者由科学家这样特殊观察者所经历的)带双引号的自然现象。
④ Darden, L. (2008). Thinking again about biological mechanisms. Philosophy of Science,75, 958-969. p.958
① Bechtel, W. (2008). Mental mechanisms:Philosophical perspectives on cognitive neuroscience. Routledge:New York & London. p.18
② Salmon, W. (1984). Scientific explanation and the causal structure of the world. Princeton: Princeton University Press.转引自：Glennan, S. S.(2002). Rethinking mechanistic explanation. Philosophy of Science,69, S342-S353. S343
① Bechtel, W. (2008). Mental mechanisms:Philosophical perspectives on cognitive neuroscience. Routledge:New York & London. p.18
② Bechtel, W. (2008). Mental mechanisms:Philosophical perspectives on cognitive neuroscience. Routledge:New York & London. p.239
①虽然在航天、发动机、精密仪器、刀具等技术领域,材料问题一直关系着功能最终是否实现的问题。但是,机械观念和机械过程对于材料确实存在着某种程度上的独立性。
② Woodward, J. (2002). What is a mechanism? A counterfactual account. Philosophy of Science,69 (3), S366-S377.
③ Tabery, G. J. (2004). Synthesizing activities and interactions in the concept of a mechanism, Philosophy of Science,71,1-15.
④ Tabery, J. (2009). Difference mechanisms:Explaining variation with mechanisms, Biology and Philosophy,24,645-664.
⑤ Ramsey, J. L. (2008). Mechanisms and their explanatory challenges in organic chemistry. Philosophy of Science,75,970-982.
①Barros, D. B. (2008). Natural selection as a mechanism. Philosophy of Science,75,306-322.
② Bechtel, W. (2008). Mechanisms in cognitive psychology:What are the operations? Philosophy of Science,75,983-994.
③Paslaru, V. (2009). Ecological explanntion between manipulation and mechanism description. Philosophy of Science,76:821-837.
④Von Eckardt,B. & Poland,J,S.(2004).Mechanism and explanation in cognitive neuroscience. Philosophy of Science,71(5),972-984.
① Pasnau, R. (2004). Form, substance, and mechanism. The Philosophical Review,113(1),31-88.
② Chen, X. (2003). Object and event concepts:A cognitive mechanism of incommensurability. Philosophy of Science,70 (5),962-974.
③Crave, C. F. (2007). Explaining what? Review of explaining the brain:mechanisms and the mosaic unity. Clarendon Press & Oxford University Press.
④ Illari, P. Y. & Williamson, J. (2010). Function and organization:comparing the mechanisms of protein synthesis and natural selection. Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences,41,279-291.
⑤ Bogen, J. (2009).'Saving the phenomena'and saving the phenomena. Synthese, Published online.
⑥ Marraffa, M., De Caro, M. & Ferretti, F. (eds.) (2007).Cartograpies of the mind:Philosophy and psychology in intersection. New York:Springer. (摘要)
⑦Akeroyd, F. M. (2008). Mechanistic explanation versus deductive-nomological explanantion. Foundation of Chemistry,10,39-48.
① Piccinini, G. (2007). Computing mechanisms. Philosophy of Science,74,501-526.
② Reydon, T. (2009). How to fix kind membership:A problem for HPC theory and a solution. Philosophy of Science,76,724-736.
③ Cheng, K. (2002). Generalisation:Mechanistic and functional explanations. Animal Cognition,5, 33-40.
④ Morrell, L. J. & Kokko, H. (2005). Bridging the gap between mechanistic and adaptive explantions of territory formation. Behav Ecol Sociabiology,57,381-390.
⑤ Nervi, M. (2010). Mechanisms, malfunction and explanation in medicine. Biology and Philosophy,25,215-228.
⑥ Gerrans, P. (2007). Mechanisms of madness:Evolutionary psyciatry without evolutionary psychology. Biologoy and Philosophy,22,35-56.
①Turner,P.,Mclennan,A.,Bates,A. & White,M.(2010).分子生物学(第三版).刘进元,刘文颖译.北京：科学出版社.第51页
①根据量子力学理论,某些层面上的观察影响被观察对象,从而改变其结果。
②西斯蒙多,瑟乔(2007).科学技术学导论.许为民等译.上海：上海科技教育出版社.第72页
③对操作和理论之间关系的进一步研究可以参考皮克林的《实践冲撞》。
④ Torres, J. P. (2009). A modified conception of mechanism. Erkenntnis,71,233-251. p.236
⑤ Woodward, J. (2002). What is a mechanism? A counterfactual account. Philosophy of Science (Suppl.),69, S366-S377.
⑥李珍(2009).反事实与因果机制.自然辩证法研究25(9):33-38.p.33
① Torres, J. P. (2009). A modified conception of mechanism. Erkenntnis,71,233-251. p.240
② Machamer, P., Darden, L. & Craver, C. (2000). Thinking about mechanisms. Philosophy of Science,67,1-25. p.12
②Boogerd, F. C., Bruggeman, F. J., Hofmeyr, J.-H. S., Westerhoff, H. V. (2008).系统生物学：哲学基础.孙之荣等译.北京：科学出版社.第227页
① Woodward, J. (2000). Explanation and invariance in the special sciences. The British Journal for the Philosophy of Science,51,197-254. p.197
① Bechtel, W. (2006). Discovering cell mechanisms:the creation of modern cell biology. Cambridge University Press. p.20
② Ibid. p.20
③张志伟(2002).西方哲学史.北京：中国人民大学出版社.第116页
④ Bechtel, W. (2006). Discovering cell mechanisms:The creation of modern cell biology. Cambridge University Press. p.20
① Bechtel, W. (2006). Discovering cell mechanisms:The creation of modern cell biology. Cambridge University Press. p.21
①理查德.s.韦斯特福尔(2000).近代科学的建构：机械论与力学.彭万华译.上海：复旦大学出版社.第42页
②Ibid.第42页
③Ibid.第42页
④这种因果观念不同于牛顿的“力”以及后文所述的MDC二元论机制概念中的“活性”(activity)所体现的因果性。
①理查德.S.韦斯特福尔(2000).近代科学的建构：机械论与力学.彭万华译.上海：复旦大学出版社.第43页
② Ibid.第152-153页
③ Newton, I. (2005). Newton's philosophy of nature:Selections from his writings. Mineola, NY, USA:Dover Publicatons. p.112
④理查德.S.韦斯特福尔(2000).近代科学的建构：机械论与力学.彭万华译.上海：复旦大学出版社.第154页
①牛顿(2001).牛顿自然哲学著作选.王福山等译.上海：上海译文出版社.第6页
②理查德.S.韦斯特福尔(2000).近代科学的建构：机械论与力学.彭万华译.上海：复旦大学出版社.第86页
③ Ibid.第168页
④ Bechtel, W. (2006). Discovering cell mechanisms:The creation of modern cell biology. Cambridge University Press. p.22
⑤理查德.S.韦斯特福尔(2000).近代科学的建构：机械论与力学.彭万华译.上海：复旦大学出版社.第51页
①马格纳,Z.洛伊斯(2009).生命科学史(第三版).刘学礼等译.上海：上海人民出版社.第149页
②Ibid.第174页
①转引自：Bechtel, W. (2006). Discovering cell mechanisms:The creation of modern cell biology. Cambridge University Press. p.23
②理查德.S.韦斯特福尔(2000).近代科学的建构：机械论与力学.彭万华译.上海：复旦大学出版社.第112页
①卡洛,P.(1982).生物机器：研究生命的控制论途径.汪云九,陈德高译.北京：科学出版社.第5页
②马格纳,Z.洛伊斯(2009).生命科学史(第三版).刘学礼等译.上海：上海人民出版社.第179页
③ Boden, M. A. (2000). Autopoiesis and life. Cognitive Science Quarterly,1,117-145.
④ Varela, F. (1972). Mechanism and biological explanation. Philosophy of Science,39(3),378-382. p.378
①理查德.S.韦斯特福尔(2000).近代科学的建构：机械论与力学.彭万华译.上海：复旦大学出版社.第111页
②马格纳,Z.洛伊斯(2009).生命科学史(第三版).刘学礼等译.上海：上海人民出版社.第174页
③Ibid.
④Bechtel, W. (2006). Discovering cell mechanisms:The creation of modern cell biology. Cambridge University Press. p.29
⑤理查德.S.韦斯特福尔(2000).近代科学的建构：机械论与力学.彭万华译.上海：复旦大学出版社.第100-101页
①张志伟(2002).西方哲学史.北京：中国人民大学出版社.第427页
②笛卡尔认为造物主创造了三种“奇迹”：从无到有,自由决定和人类的上帝观念(Tria mirabilia fecit Dominus:res ex nihilo, liberum arbitrium, et hominem deum)。前两者都涉及到笛卡尔的因果理论(引自Schmaltz, T. M. (2008). Descartes on causation. New York: Oxford University Press. p.178)。
③该问题将在第四章详述。
①Bechtel, W., & Abrahamsen, A. (2005). Explanation:A mechanist alternative. Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences,36,421-441. Bechtel, W. (2006). Discovering cell mechanisms:the creation of modern cell biology. Cambridge University Press, p.26
②潘恩荣.技术人工物的结构与功能之间的关系.浙江大学博士论文.第4页(转引自：Kroes, P. (1998). Technological explanations:The relation between structure and function of technological objects. Society for Philosophy and Technology,3(3),18-34.)
Ibid.第65页
① Glennan, S. S. (1996). Mechanisms and the nature of causation. Erkenntnis,44 (1),49-71. p.52
② Glennan, S. S. (2002). Rethinking mechanistic explanation. Philosophy of Science,69(3), S342-S353. S344.
③ Ibid. S344.
④ Woodward, J. (2000). Explanation and invariance in the special sciences. The British Journal for the Philosophy of Science,51,197-254.
⑤ Machamer, P., Darden, L. & Craver, C. (2000). Thinking about mechanisms. Philosophy of Science,67,1-25. p.12
① Machamer, P., Darden, L. & Craver, C. (2000). Thinking about mechanisms. Philosophy of Science,67,1-25. p.11
② Tabery, G. J. (2004). Synthesizing activities and interactions in the concept of a mechanism. Philosophy of Science,71,1-15. p.10
① Torres, J. P. (2009). A modified conception of mechanism. Erkenntnis,71,233-251. p.243
② Machamer, P., Darden, L., & Craver, C. (2000). Thinking about mechanisms. Philosophy of Science,67,1-25. pp.3-5
① Bechtel, W. (2006). Discovering cell mechanisms:the creation of modern cell biology. Cambridge University Press, p.26
② Ibid. p.26
③ Torres, J. P. (2009). A modified conception of mechanism. Erkenntnis,71,233-251.p.240
①转引自：马格纳,Z.(2009).洛伊斯生命科学史(第三版).刘学礼等译.上海：上海人民出版社.第198页
① Persson, J. (2010). Activity-based Aaccounts of mechanism and the threat of polygenic effects. Erkenntnis,72,135-146. (Mill, J. S. (1893). A system of logic. London:Longmans, Green, & Co.)
② Newton,Ⅰ. (2005). Newton's philosophy of nature:Selections from his writings. Mineola, N.Y., USA:Dover Publicatons. p.13
① Newton, I. (2005). Newton's philosophy of nature:Selections from his writings. Mineola, N.Y., USA:Dover Publicatons. p. ⅹⅴ.(更早期的中文版没有这部分评语(牛顿(2001).牛顿自然哲学著作选.王福山等译.上海：上海译文出版社.)
① Torres, J. P. (2009). A modified conception of mechanism. Erkenntnis,71,233-251. p.248
② Ibid. p.242
①转引自：Torres, J. P. (2009). A modified conception of mechanism. Erkenntnis,71,233-251.
① Torres, J. P. (2009). A modified conception of mechanism. Erkenntnis,71,233-251. p.245
② Ibid. p.247
③ Craver, C. F. (2007). Explanining the brain:Mechanism and the mosaic unity of neuroscience. Oxford:Clarendon Press. p.253
①Oliver, M. J. & Bewley, J. D. (1996). Desiccation tolerance of plant tissues:A mechanistic overview. Horticulture Review,18,171-213.
②Crowe H. J. (1971). Anhydrobiosis:an unsolved problem. The American Naturalist,105(946), 563-573.
① De Castro, A. G., Tunnacliffe, A. (2000). Intracellular trehalose improves osmotolerance but not desiccation tolerance in mammalian cells. FEBS Letters,487,199-202.
② Tanford, C. (1978). The hydrophobic effect and the organization of living matter, Science,200, 1012-1018.
① Ingram, J. & Bartels, D. (1996). The molecular basis of dehydration tolerance in plants. Annual Review of Plant Physiolology and Plant Molecular Biology,47,377-403. Bartels, D., Chandler, J., Bockel, C., Frank, W., Kleines, M., Rodrigo, M. J., Phillips, J. Mariaux, J-B. Furini, A. & Salamini, F. (1997). Investigating the molecular basis of desiccation tolerance using the resurrection plant Craterostigma plantagineum as an experimental system. Acta Physiol. Plant,19,399-403.
①转引自：Danks, H.V. et al. (2000). Dehydration in dormant insects. Journal Insect Physiology,46, 837-852.
② Ibid.
③ Ibid.
④转引自：Browne, J., Tunnacliffe, A. & Burnell, A. (2002). Plant desiccstion gene found in a nematode. Nature,416,38.
① De Castro, A. G., Tunnacliffe, A. (2000). Intracellular trehalose improves osmotolerance but not desiccation tolerance in mammalian cells. FEBS Letters,487,199-202.
② Higa, L. M. & Womersley, C. Z. (1993). New insights into the anhydrobiotic phenomenon:the effects of trehalose content and differential rates of evaporative water loss on the survival of Aphelenchus avenae. Journal of Experimental Zoology,267,120-129. De Castro, A. G., Tunnacliffe, A. (2000). Intracellular trehalose improves osmotolerance but not desiccation tolerance in mammalian cells. FEBS Letters,487,199-202.
③ De Castro, A. G., Tunnacliffe, A. (2000). Intracellular trehalose improves osmotolerance but not desiccation tolerance in mammalian cells. FEBS Letters,487,199-202.
④ Bagnasco, S. M., Uchida, S., Balaban, R. S., Kador, P. F. & Burg, M. B. (1987). PNAS,84, 1718-1720.
⑤Browne, J., Tunnacliffe, A., Burnell, A. (2002). Plant desiccstion gene found in a nematode. Nature,416,38.
① Browne, J., Tunnacliffe, A., Burnell, A. (2002). Plant desiccstion gene found in a nematode. Nature,416,38.
② Ibid.
③转引自：Browne, J., Tunnacliffe, A. & Burnell, A. (2002). Plant desiccstion gene found in a nematode. Nature,416,38.
④ Ibid.
⑤ Crowe, J. H., Hoekstra, F. A. & Crowe, L. M. (1992). Anhydrobiosis. Annual Review of Physiology,54,579-599.
⑥ Wolkers, W. F., McCready, S., Brandt, W. F., Lindsey, G. G., Hoekstra, F. A. (2001). Biochemica et Biophysica Acta,1544,196-206.
① Nicholson, W. L., Munakata, N., Horneck, G., Melosh, H. J., & Setlow, P. (2000). Resistance of bacillus endospores to extreme terrestrial and extraterrestrial environments. Microbiology and Molecular Biology Review,9,548-572.
② Higa, L. M. & Womersley, C. Z. (1993). New insights into the anhydrobiotic phenomenon:The effects of trehalose content and differential rates of evaporative water loss on the survival of Aphelenchus avenae. Journal of Experimental Zoology,267,120-129.
③ Hoekstra, F. A., Golovina, E. A. & Buitink, J.(2001). Mechanisms of plant desiccation tolerance, TRENDS in Plant Science,6,431-438.
④ Ibid.
①Hoekstra, F. A., Golovina, E. A. & Buitink, J.(2001). Mechanisms of plant desiccation tolerance, TRENDS in Plant Science,6,431-438.
②Setlow, P.1995. Mechanisms for the prevention of damage to DNA in spores of Bacillus species. Annu. Rev. Microbiol.49,29-54. Setlow, P. (1999). Bacterial spore resistance. In G. Storz & R. Hengge-Aronis (eds.), Bacterial stress responses (pp.217-230), Washington DC:American Society for Microbiology.
③转引自：Nicholson, W. L., Munakata, N., Horneck, G., Melosh, H. J., & Setlow, P. (2000). Resistance of bacillus endospores to extreme terrestrial and extraterrestrial environments. Microbiology and Molecular Biology Review,9,548-572. p.553
①转引自：Nicholson, W. L., Munakata, N., Horneck, G., Melosh, H. J., & Setlow, P. (2000). Resistance of bacillus endospores to extreme terrestrial and extraterrestrial environments. Microbiology and Molecular Biology Review,9,548-572. p.553
②Koonin, E. V., Aravind, L. & Galperin, M. Y. (2000). A comparativegenomic view of the microbial stress response. In G. Storz & R. Hengge-Aronis (eds.), Bacterial stress responses (pp.417-444), Washington DC:ASM Press.
③ Mattimore, V., Battista, J. R. (1996). Radioresistance of Deinococcus radiodurans:Functions necessary to survive ionizing radiation are also necessary to survive prolonged desiccation. Journal of Bacteriology,178(3),633-637. Battista, J. R., Park, M. J., McLemore, A. E. (2001). Inactivation of two homologues of proteins presumed to be involved in the desiccation tolerance of plants sensitizes Deinococcus radiodurans R1 to desiccation. Cryobiology,43(2),133-139.
①Crowe, H. J. (1971). Anhydrobiosis:an unsolved problem. The American Naturalist,105 (946), 563-573. p.564
② Tanford, C. (1978). The hydrophobic effect and the organization of living matter. Science,200, 1012-1018.
③Ricci, C. & Caprioli, M. (1998). Stress during dormancy:Effect on recovery rates and life-history traits of anhydrobiotic animals. Aquatic Ecology,32,353-359.
④ Hand, S. C., Jones, D., Menze, M. A. & Witt, T. L. (2007). Life without water:Expression of plant LEA genes by an anhydrobiotic arthropod. Journal of Experimental Zoology,307A, 62-66. p.62
⑤ Grelet, J., Benamar, A., Teyssier, E. et al. (2005). Identification in pea seed Mitochondria of a late-embryogenesis abundant protein able to protect enzymes from drying. Plant Physiology, 137(1),157-167. Hand, S. C., Jones, D., Menze, M. A. & Witt, T. L. (2007). Life without water:Expression of plant LEA genes by an anhydrobiotic arthropod. Journal of Experimental Zoology,307A, 62-66.
① Goyal, K., Walton, L. J. & Tunnacliffe, A. (2005). LEA proteins prevent protein aggregation due to water stress. Biochemical Journal,388,151-157.
② Schill, R. O., Mali, B., Dandekar, T., Schnolzer, M., Reuter, D., Frohme, M. (2009). Molecular mechanisms of tolerance in tardigrades:New perspectives for preservation and stabilization of biological material. Biotechnology Advances,27,348-352. p.351
③Torres, J. P. (2009). A modified conception of mechanism. Erkenntnis,71,233-251. p.139
① Darden, L. (2006). Reasoning in biological discoveries:Essays on mechanisms, interfiled relations, and anomaly resolution. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, p.278
②Torres J. P. (2009). A modified conception of mechanism. Erkenntnis,71,233-251. p.241
③“能力”是含糊而抽象的词,有时候甚至可以等同于可能或几率。这些含糊的“力”的概念,正是机制说明所要解释和取代的。
④Glennan, S. S. (1996). Mechanisms and the nature of causation. Erkenntnis,49-71.
⑤ Machamer, P., Darden, L. & Craver, C. (2000). Thinking about mechanisms. Philosophy of Science,67,1-25. p.5
① Machamer, P., Darden, L. & Craver, C. (2000). Thinking about mechanisms. Philosophy of Science,67,1-25. p.3
② Ibid. p.5 Machamer P. (2004). Activities and causation:The metaphysics and epistemology of mechanisms, International Studies in the Philosophy of Science,18(1),27-39. p.29
③曼彻莫认为活性不同于结构属性,后者依附于部件实体(详细论述可参考：Machamer, P. (2004). Activities and causation:The metaphysics and epistemology of mechanisms. International Studies in the Philosophy of Science,18 (1),27-39. p.29)
④ Xie, G. & Timasheff, S. N.(1997). The thermodynamic mechanism of protein stabilization by trehalose. Biophysical Chemistry,64,25-43. p.33
①事实上,科普兰德(Copeland)就曾建议过对抑制因子进行“结构——活性关系研究”(SAR, structure-activity relationship) (Copeland 1996, p.291)
② Strand, A. & Oftedal, G. (2009). Functional Stability and Systems Level Causation. Philosophy of Science,76,809-820.
③Paslaru, V. (2009). Ecological explanntion between manipulation and mechanism description. Philosophy of Science,76:821-837.
④ Machamer, P., Lindley Darden & Carl Craver (2000). Thinking about mechanisms. Philosophy of Science,67,1-25. p.22
① Thagard, P. (2006). What is a medical theory? In R. Paton & L. A. McNamara (eds.), Multidisciplinary approaches to theory in medicine (pp.47-62). Amsterdam:Elsevier. p.56
① Bechtel, W. (2006). Discvering cell mechanism:The creation of modern cell biology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p.57
① Glennan, S. S. (2010). Ephemeral mechanisms and historical explanation. Erkenntnis,72, 251-266. p.251
②石里克(1984).自然哲学.北京：商务印书馆.第19页 (转引自：Glennan (2002). Glennan, S. S. (2002). Rethinking mechanistic explanation. Philosophy of Science,69, S342-S353. S342)
①转引自Glennan, S. S. (2010). Ephemeral Mechanisms and Historical Explanation. Erkenntnis, 72,251-266. pp.253-254
② Glennan (2002). Glennan, S. S. (2002). Rethinking mechanistic explanation. Philosophy of Science,69, S342-S353. S343
① Ibid. S342
② Glennan, S. S. (2010). Ephemeral Mechanisms and Historical Explanation. Erkenntnis,72, 251-266. p.254
③ http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/reduction-biology/
①格莱南认为20世纪的经验主义者倾向于认为休谟不相信存在规则背后的力量,而斯特劳森(1989)则认为休谟认为我们只是还未发现规则背后的神秘力量。(转引自：Glennan, S. S. (1996). Mechanisms and the nature of causation. Erkenntnis,49-71. p.68)
②转引自：Glennan, S. S. (1996). Mechanisms and the nature of causation. Erkenntnis,49-71. p.49
③ Glennan, S. S. (1996). Mechanisms and the nature of causation. Erkenntnis,49-71. p.49
④17世纪的机械主义因果观认为宇宙中任何现象都能用微粒的机械运动进行解释。
⑤ Glennan, S. S. (1996). Mechanisms and the nature of causation. Erkenntnis,49-71.
① Glennan, S. S. (1996). Mechanisms and the nature of causation. Erkenntnis,49-71. p.51
② Book Reviews (2007). Journal of the History of Biology,40,185-206. p.185
③转引自：Bechtel, W. (2006). Discovering cell mechanisms:the creation of modern cell biology. Cambridge University Press. p.26 (Bechtel, W. & Richardson, R. (1993). p.17)
①Newton, I. (2005). Newton's philosophy of nature:Selections from his writings. Mineola, N.Y., USA:Dover Publicatons. p.13
②Weinert, F. (2005). The scientist as philosopher:Philosophical consequences of great scientific discoveries. Berlin:Springer-Verlag. pp.62-74
① Woodward, J. (2000). Explanation and invariance in the special sciences. The british journal for the philosophy of science,51,197-254.
② Dieks, D., Gonzalez, W. J., Hartmann, S., Uebel, T., Weber, M. (2011). Explanation, Prediction, and Confrimation:The Philosophy Of Science In A European Perspective. London & New York:Springer Dordrecht Heidelberg. p.128
③ Bechtel, W. (2006). Discovering cell mechanisms:the creation of modern cell biology. Cambridge University Press. p.26
①Illari, P. M. & Williamson, J. (2010). Function and organization:comparing the mechanisms of protein synthesis and natural selection. Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences,41,279-291. p.279
② Matthen, M. & Ariew, A. (2009). Selection and causation. Philosophy of Science,76,201-224.
③转引自：Weber, M. (2008). Causes without mechanisms:Experimental regularities, physical laws, and neuroscientific explanation. Philosophy of Science,75,995-1007.
①Weber, M. (2008). Causes without mechanisms:Experimental regularities, physical laws, and neuroscientific explanation. Philosophy of Science,75,995-1007.
②Chalmers, D. J. (2003). Consciousness and its place in nature. In Stephen P. Stich & Ted A. Warfield (eds.), The Blackwell Guide to Philosophy of Mind (pp.102-142.). Maiden:Blackwell Publishing Ltd. p.125.
① Leuridan, B. (2010). Can mechanisms really replace laws of nature? Philosophy of Science,77, 317-340.
②王巍(2009).因果机制与定律说明.自然辩证法研究26(2)：98-101.p.98
③ Leuridan, B. (2010). Can mechanisms really replace laws of nature? Philosophy of Science,77, 317-340.
④王巍(2009).因果机制与定律说明.自然辩证法研究26(2)：98-101.p.98
①转引自：Bechtel, W. (2006). Discovering cell mechanisms:The creation of modern cell biology. Cambridge University Press. pp.22-23
①威尔逊(1985).新的综合：社会生物学.成都：四川人民出版社.
①亲属关系通常被认为是社会形成的主要原因,是结构主义、功能主义、精神分析学等多学派的社会学核心概念(弗伊(1997).社会生物学.北京：商务印书馆出版社.)
② Bechtel, W. (2008). Mental mechanisms:Philosophical perspectives on cognitive neuroscience. Routledge:New York & London. p.1
③ Marjorie, G. (1978). Sociobiology and the human mind. Society,15 (6),23-27.
①转引自：Boogerd, F. C., Bruggeman, F. J., Hofmeyr, J.-H. S., Westerhoff, H. V. (2008).系统生物学：哲学基础.孙之荣等译.北京：科学出版社.第33页
② Strand, A. & Oftedal, G. (2009). Functional Stability and Systems Level Causation. Philosophy of Science,76,809-820.
①认识论中关于自然和社会关系的争论,主要体现于主张SSK的柯林斯和倡导后SSK的拉图尔之间。
②Jevons, William Stanley, The Principles of Science:A Treatise on Logic and Scientific Method, Macmillan & Co., London,1874,2nd ed.1877,3rd ed.1879. Reprinted with a foreword by Ernst Nagel, Dover Publications:New York, NY,1958. p.702
③ Boogerd, F. C., Bruggeman, F. J., Hofmeyr, J.-H. S., Westerhoff, H. V. (2008).系统生物学：哲学基础.孙之荣等译.北京：科学出版社.第40-42页
④ O'Malley, M. A. & Dupre, P. (2005). Fundamental issues in systems biology. BioEssays,27 (12), 1270-1276.
① De Jong, H. L. (2002). Levels of explanation in biological psychology. Philosophical Psychology,15(4),441-462. (abstract)
② Gaulin, J. C. S. (1987). A logical structure for human sociobiology. Philosophy of science,2, 75-86. (abstract)
① Bechtel, W. (2006). Discovering cell mechanisms:Ehe creation of modern cell biology, Cambridge University Press. p.27
②转引自：Bechtel. W. (2006). Discovering cell mechanisms:the creation of modern cell biology. Cambridge University Press. p.27
③ Ibid. p.27
④舒伟光,邱仁忠主编(2007).当代西方科学哲学述评(第2版).北京：中国人民大学出版社.第45页
①除了一些单独发生的事件或现象,例如恐龙灭绝。理论中存在的宇宙大爆炸,虽然是单-事件却不是现象。
②转引自：Bechtel. W. (2006). Discovering cell mechanisms:the creation of modern cell biology. Cambridge University Press. pp.27-28
①按照生物学习惯,实验材料(material)通常指经过处理的研究对象,而不是亚里士多德主义的质料。
② Bechtel. W. (2006). Discovering cell mechanisms:The creation of modern cell biology. Cambridge University Press. p.27.
①转引自：Machamer, P., Darden, L. & Craver, C. (2000). Thinking about mechanisms. Philosophy of Science,67,1-25. p.16
①刘明海(2008).还原论研究.华中科技大学博士论文.第5页(资料来源：CNKI博士论文数据库)
① Craver, C. F. (2003). The making of a memory mechanism. Journal of the History of Biology, 36(1),153-195. p.153这里所说的机制方法应该指狭义的机械论方法,即通过决定论观点的因果推理进行考察。
② Richardson, R.C. & Stephan, A. In:Boogerd, F.C.(2008)系统生物学：哲学基础.孙之荣等译.北京：科学出版社.第94页
③ R.C. Richardson and A. Stephan (2008). In Fred C. Boogerd (eds.),系统生物学：哲学基础.孙之荣等译.北京：科学出版社.p.93
①Bechtel, W. (2006). Discovering cell mechanisms:The creation of modern cell biology. Cambridge University Press. p.20
①Farris, S. M. & Sinakevitch, I. (2003). Development and evolution of the insect mushroom bodies:Towards the understanding of conserved developmental mechanisms in a higher brain center. Arthropod Structure & Development,32,79-101. p.80
① Premack, D. (2007). Human and animal cognition:Continuity and discontinuity. PNAS 104 (35), 13861-13867. p.13861.
② Premack, D. (2007). Human and animal cognition:Continuity and discontinuity. PNAS 104 (35), 13861-13867.
①转引自:Bechtel, W. (2006). Discovering cell mechanisms:The creation of modern cell biology. Cambridge University Press. p.12
② Ibid. p.13
① Bechtel, W. (2008). Mental mechanisms:Philosophical perspectives on cognitive neuroscience. New York:Routledge. p.14
②松本修文(2007).心灵之谜多面观：脑与心理的生物物理学意识的生物物理学.上海：上海科学技术出版社.第53页
③ Bechtel, W. (2008). Mental mechanisms:Philosophical perspectives on cognitive neuroscience. New York:Routledge. p.49
① Darden, L. (2006). Flow of information in molecular biological mechanisms, BiologicalTheory, 1(3),280-287.
②刘大椿.(2006).科学哲学.北京：中国人民大学出版社.第216页
③ Ibid第220页
① Darden, L. (2006). Reasoning in biological discoveries:Essays on mechanisms, interfield relations and anomaly resolution. Cambridge University Press.
②西斯蒙多,瑟乔(2007).科学技术学导论.许为民等译.上海：上海科技教育出版社.第70-71页
③ Elliott, K. C. & McKaughan, D. J. (2009). How values in scientific discovery and pursuit alter theory appraisal. Philosophy of Science,76,598-611.
④ De Bono, E. (1990). The mechanism of mind. Penguin. p.9
① Friedman,M.(1974).Explanation and scientific understanding.Journal of Philosophy,7,5-19.
① Bechtel, W. (2009). Generalization and discovery by assuming conserved mechanisms: Cross-species research on circadian oscilators. Philosophy of Science,76,762-773.
② Bechtel, W. (2009). Generalization and discovery by assuming conserved mechanisms: Cross-species research on circadian oscilators. Philosophy of Science,76,762-773.
③ Darden, L. (2002). Strategies for discovering mechanisms:Schema instantiation, modular subassembly. Philosophy of Science,69, S354-S365.
④ Bechtel, W. (2006). Discovering cell mechanisms:The creation of modern cell biology. Cambridge University Press. pp.64-117
①Machamer, P., Darden, L. & Craver C. (2000). Thinking about mechanisms. Philosophy of Science,67,1-25.
② Rosenberg, A. (1985). The Structure of Biological Science. New York:Cambridge University Press.
③ Resnik, D. B. (1995). Functional language and biological discovery. Journal for General Philosophy of Science,26 (1),119-134.
④ Ibid. p.119
① Hudson, R. G. (2001). Discoveries, when and by whom. British Journal on Philosophy of Science,52,75-93. p.77
② Ibid. p.87
③张志林(2010).因果观念与休谟问题.北京：中国人民大学出版社.第171页
①张志林(2010).因果观念与休谟问题.北京：中国人民大学出版社.第170页
②Ibid.第173页
① Bechtel, W. (2009). Generalization and discovery by assuming conserved mechanisms: Cross-species research on circadian oscilators. Philosophy of Science,76,762-773. p.763
① Bechtel, W. (2008). Mental mechanisms:Philosophical perspectives on cognitive neuroscience. Routledge:New York & London. p.ix
② Dennett, D. (1978). Two Approaches to Mental Images. In D.C. Dennett (ed.), Brainstorms. Philosophical Essays on Mind and Psychology (pp.174-189). Cambridge:MIT Press.
① Bechtel, W. (2008). Mental mechanisms:Philosophical perspectives on cognitive neuroscience. New York:Routledge. p.129
② Varela, F., Thompson, E. & Rosch, E. (1991). The embodied mind:Cognitive science and human experience. Cambridge:MIT Press.
③ Thompson, E., Varela, F. (2001). Radical embodiment:Neural dynamics and consciousness. Trends in Cognitive Sciences,5,418-425. Thompson, E. (forthcoming). Neurophenomenology and contemplative experience. In P. Clayton (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Science and Religion. (互联网资源).
④ Varela, F. J., Thompson, E. & Rosch, E. (1993). Embodied mind:Cognitive science and human experience. MIT Press. p.15
⑤ De Jong, H. L. (2002). Levels of explanation in biological psychology. Philosophical Psychology,15(4),441-462. (abstract)
① De Jong, H. L. (2002). Levels of explanation in biological psychology. Philosophical Psychology,15(4),441-462. p.441
② Dreyfus, H. L. (1971). Phenomenology and mechanism. Nous,5(1),81-96. p.81
③ Ibid. p.82
④ Petitot, J., Varela, F., Pachoud, B. & Roy, J. (1999). Naturalizing phenomenology. Stanford and Cambridge:Stanford University Press.
① Varela, F., Thompson, E. & Rosch, E. (1991). The embodied mind:Cognitive science and human experience. Cambridge:MIT Press.
②异现象学(heterophenomenology),简而言之就是指“研究他人的现象”(phenomenology of another not oneself),因此与神经现象学在方法论上有所不同。异现象学显然不同于笛卡尔式自我反思的传统现象学,将主观权威性仅仅是关于“事情对于自身‘显得’的像什么”。丹尼尔·丹尼特(Daniel C.Dennett)认为异现象学并没有抛弃第一人称视角,而仅仅将它加上括弧,使它得到经验方式的主体间检验。
③ Thompson, E., Lutz, A. & Cosmelli, D. (forthcoming). Neurophenomenology:An introduction for neurophilosophers. In A. Brook & K. Akins (eds.), Cognition and the Brain:The Philosophy and Neuroscience Movement. New York and Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
④ Thompson, E., Lutz, A. & Cosmelli, D. (forthcoming). Neurophenomenology:An introduction for neurophilosophers. In A. Brook & K. Akins (eds.), Cognition and the Brain:The Philosophy and Neuroscience Movement. New York and Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
① Varela, F. (1996). Neurophenomenology:A methodological remedy for the hard problem. Journal of Consciousness Studies (Special Issues on the Hard Problems),3(4),330-349.
② Thompson, E., Lutz, A. & Cosmelli, D. (forthcoming). Neurophenomenology:An introduction for neurophilosophers. In A. Brook & K. Akins (eds.), Cognition and the Brain:The Philosophy and Neuroscience Movement. New York and Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
① Thompson, E., Lutz, A. & Cosmelli, D. (forthcoming). Neurophenomenology:An introduction for neurophilosophers. In A. Brook & K. Akins (eds.), Cognition and the Brain:The Philosophy and Neuroscience Movement. New York and Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
② Varela, F. (1996). Neurophenomenology:A methodological remedy for the hard problem. Journal of Consciousness Studies (Special Issues on the Hard Problems),3(4),330-349.
③ Thompson, E., Lutz, A. & Cosmelli, D. (forthcoming). Neurophenomenology:An introduction for neurophilosophers. In A. Brook & K. Akins (eds.), Cognition and the Brain:The Philosophy and'Neuroscience Movement. New York and Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
④ Thompson, E. (2006). Neurophenomenology and contemplative experience. In P. Clayton (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Science and Religion (pp.).:Press. Krippner, S. & Combs, A. (2002). The neurophenomenology of shamanism--An essay review. Journal of Consciousness Studies,9(3),77-82. Kirmayer, L. (2009). Nightmares, neurophenomenology and the cultural logic of trauma.Cult Med Psychiatry,33,323-331. Lutz, A. (2002). Toward a neurophenomenology as an account of generative passages:A first empirical case study. Phenomenology and the Cognitive Sciences,1,133-167.
① Krippner, S. & Combs, A. (2002). The neurophenomenology of shamanism--An essay review. Journal of Consciousness Studies,9(3),77-82.
② Thompson, E. (2006). Neurophenomenology and Contemplative Experience. In P. Clayton (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Science and Religion (pp.).:Press
③ Lutz, A. (2007). Neurophenomenology and the study of self-consciousness. Consciousness and Cognition,16,765-767.
④ Lutz, A. (2002). Toward a neurophenomenology as an account of generative passages:A first empirical case study. Phenomenology and the Cognitive Sciences,1,133-167.
① Bayne, T. (2004). Closing the gap? Some questions for neurophenomenology. Phenomenology and the Cognitive Sciences,3,349-364.
② Lutz, A. (2002). Toward a neurophenomenology as an account of generative passages:A first empirical case study. Phenomenology and the Cognitive Sciences,1,133-167. Bayne, T. (2004). Closing the gap? Some questions for neurophenomenology. Phenomenology and the Cognitive Sciences,3,349-364. Thompson, E., Noe, A. & Pessoa, L. (1999). Perceptual completion:A case study in phenomenology and cognitive science. In J. Petitot, F. Varela, B. Pachoud & J. M. Roy (eds.), Naturalizing Phenomenology (pp.161-195). Stanford CA:Stanford University Press.
③转引自：Varela, F., Thompson, E. & Rosch, E. (1991). The embodied mind:Cognitive science and human experience. Cambridge:MIT Press.
① Braddock, G. (2001). Beyond reflection in naturalized phenomenology. Journal of Consciousness Studies,8(11),3-16.
② Bayne, T. (2004). Closing the gap? Some questions for neurophenomenology. Phenomenology and the Cognitive Sciences,3,349-364.
① Varela, F., Thompson, E. & Rosch, E. (1993). The embodied mind:Cognitive science and human experience. Cambridge:MIT Press.
② Jacqueline Anne Sullivan (2008). Memory consolidation, multiple realizations, and modest reductions. Philosophy of Science,75,501-513. p.502
③ Bechtel, W. (2008). Mental mechanisms:Philosophical perspectives on cognitive neuroscience. Routledge:New York & London. p.2
①De Preester, H. (2006). Naturalism and transcendentalism in the naturalization of phenomenology. New Ideas in Psychology,24(1),41-62.
②Pepperell, R. (2003). Between phenomenology and neuroscience. Journal of Consciousness Studies,10(11),85-88.
③当牛顿说'Upon which account, this vis insita may, by a most significant name, be called 'inertia'(vis inertiae) or'force of inactivity'(Newton, I. (2005). Newton's philosophy of nature: Selections from his writings. Mineola, N.Y., USA:Dover Publicatons. p.13)的时候,我们不知道他是否相信惯性或惰性力(vis inertiae)是固有力(vis insita)的一种,还是仅仅认为固有力就是惯性。
④牛顿(2001).牛顿自然哲学著作选.王福山等译.上海译文出版社.第64页
① De Preester, H. (2006). Naturalism and transcendentalism in the naturalization of phenomenology. New Ideas in Psychology,24(1),41-62.
② De Preester, H. (2006). Naturalism and transcendentalism in the naturalization of phenomenology. New Ideas in Psychology,24(1),41-62.
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http://baike.baidu.com/view/619886.htm
http://class.ibucm.com/yjhx/3/right6_31.htm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanism (philosophv
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special sciences
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/reduction-biolog
http://www.seop.leeds.ac.uk/entries/biologv-philosophy/#2
① Darden, L. (2008). Thinking again about biological mechanisms. Philosophy of Science,75, 958-969. p.958
②科学哲学重新关注机械论可以从《认识》、 《科学哲学》、 《综合》和《大不列颠科学哲学期刊》(
③张志伟(2002).西方哲学史.北京：中国人民大学出版社.第289-299页
④理查德.S.韦斯特福尔.(2000).近代科学的建构：机械论与力学.彭万华译.上海：复旦大学出版社.第31页
① Krikorian, Y. H. (1943). Life, mechanism and purpose. Philosophy of Science,10 (3),184-190. p.184
②传导机制概念详见以下论著：陆前进.(2007).中国货币政策传导机制研究.上海：立信会计出版社.宋立.(2005).中国货币政策传导机制与金融体系重构.北京：中国计划出版社.
③ Ross, N. (2008). On mechanism in Hgel's social and political philosophy. New York:Routledge.
④ D' Aspremont, C. (ed.) (1999). Social organization and mechanism design:Proceedings of the second Francqui colloquium (10-11 June 1996). Brussels. De Boeck Universite Press. p.5
⑤ Ibid. p.5
⑥ Hedstrom, P. & Ylikoski, P. (2010). Causal mechanisms in the social sciences. Annual Review of Sociology,36,49-67.
①达马西奥,安东尼奥.R.(2007).笛卡尔的错误：情绪、推理和人脑.北京：教育科学出版社.
②作者个人认为科学的三个基本主张是不可分割的。对于科学主张以及之间的关系在机制解释一章里得到更多的阐述。
③ Mirowski, M. (1988). Against mechanism:Protect economics from science. Lanham:Rowman & Littlefield.
④卡洛,P.(1982).生物机器：研究生命的控制论途径.汪云九,陈德高译.北京：科学出版社.第10页
①卡洛,P.(1982).生物机器：研究生命的控制论途径.汪云九,陈德高译.北京：科学出版社.第11页
②转引自：Holmes, F. L. (1983). Vitlism reexamined. Science (New Series),221 (4606),146-147.
③ Ibid. p.147
④ Skipper, R. A., & Millstein, R. L. (2005). Thinking about evolutionary mechanisms:Natural selection. Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences,36, 327-347.
① Delehanty, M. (2005). Emergent properties and the context objection to reduction. Biology and Philosophy,20,715-734. Fehr, C. (2004). Feminism and science:Mechanism without reductionism. NWSA Journal 16, 136-156. Thagard, P. (2008). Mental illness from the perspective of theoretical neuroscience. Perspectives in Biology and Medicine,51,335-352.
② Psillos, S. (2004). A glimpse of the secret connexion:Harmonizing mechanisms with counterfactuals. Perspectives on Science,12,288-319. Weber, M. (2008). Causes without mechanisms:Experimental regularities, physical laws, and neuroscientific explanation. Philosophy of Science,75,995-1007. Persson, J. (2010). Activity-based Aaccounts of mechanism and the threat of polygenic effects. Erkenntnis,72,135-146. p.143 Leuridan, B. (2010). Can mechanisms really replace laws of nature? Philosophy of Science,77, 317-340. Sirtes, D. (2010). A pragmatic-ontic account of mechanistic explanation. (互联网资源)
③这里所说的特殊的自然现象,指实验室里(或者由科学家这样特殊观察者所经历的)带双引号的自然现象。
④ Darden, L. (2008). Thinking again about biological mechanisms. Philosophy of Science,75, 958-969. p.958
① Bechtel, W. (2008). Mental mechanisms:Philosophical perspectives on cognitive neuroscience. Routledge:New York & London. p.18
② Salmon, W. (1984). Scientific explanation and the causal structure of the world. Princeton: Princeton University Press.转引自：Glennan, S. S.(2002). Rethinking mechanistic explanation. Philosophy of Science,69, S342-S353. S343
① Bechtel, W. (2008). Mental mechanisms:Philosophical perspectives on cognitive neuroscience. Routledge:New York & London. p.18
② Bechtel, W. (2008). Mental mechanisms:Philosophical perspectives on cognitive neuroscience. Routledge:New York & London. p.239
①虽然在航天、发动机、精密仪器、刀具等技术领域,材料问题一直关系着功能最终是否实现的问题。但是,机械观念和机械过程对于材料确实存在着某种程度上的独立性。
② Woodward, J. (2002). What is a mechanism? A counterfactual account. Philosophy of Science,69 (3), S366-S377.
③ Tabery, G. J. (2004). Synthesizing activities and interactions in the concept of a mechanism, Philosophy of Science,71,1-15.
④ Tabery, J. (2009). Difference mechanisms:Explaining variation with mechanisms, Biology and Philosophy,24,645-664.
⑤ Ramsey, J. L. (2008). Mechanisms and their explanatory challenges in organic chemistry. Philosophy of Science,75,970-982.
①Barros, D. B. (2008). Natural selection as a mechanism. Philosophy of Science,75,306-322.
② Bechtel, W. (2008). Mechanisms in cognitive psychology:What are the operations? Philosophy of Science,75,983-994.
③Paslaru, V. (2009). Ecological explanntion between manipulation and mechanism description. Philosophy of Science,76:821-837.
④Von Eckardt,B. & Poland,J,S.(2004).Mechanism and explanation in cognitive neuroscience. Philosophy of Science,71(5),972-984.
① Pasnau, R. (2004). Form, substance, and mechanism. The Philosophical Review,113(1),31-88.
② Chen, X. (2003). Object and event concepts:A cognitive mechanism of incommensurability. Philosophy of Science,70 (5),962-974.
③Crave, C. F. (2007). Explaining what? Review of explaining the brain:mechanisms and the mosaic unity. Clarendon Press & Oxford University Press.
④ Illari, P. Y. & Williamson, J. (2010). Function and organization:comparing the mechanisms of protein synthesis and natural selection. Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences,41,279-291.
⑤ Bogen, J. (2009).'Saving the phenomena'and saving the phenomena. Synthese, Published online.
⑥ Marraffa, M., De Caro, M. & Ferretti, F. (eds.) (2007).Cartograpies of the mind:Philosophy and psychology in intersection. New York:Springer. (摘要)
⑦Akeroyd, F. M. (2008). Mechanistic explanation versus deductive-nomological explanantion. Foundation of Chemistry,10,39-48.
① Piccinini, G. (2007). Computing mechanisms. Philosophy of Science,74,501-526.
② Reydon, T. (2009). How to fix kind membership:A problem for HPC theory and a solution. Philosophy of Science,76,724-736.
③ Cheng, K. (2002). Generalisation:Mechanistic and functional explanations. Animal Cognition,5, 33-40.
④ Morrell, L. J. & Kokko, H. (2005). Bridging the gap between mechanistic and adaptive explantions of territory formation. Behav Ecol Sociabiology,57,381-390.
⑤ Nervi, M. (2010). Mechanisms, malfunction and explanation in medicine. Biology and Philosophy,25,215-228.
⑥ Gerrans, P. (2007). Mechanisms of madness:Evolutionary psyciatry without evolutionary psychology. Biologoy and Philosophy,22,35-56.
①Turner,P.,Mclennan,A.,Bates,A. & White,M.(2010).分子生物学(第三版).刘进元,刘文颖译.北京：科学出版社.第51页
①根据量子力学理论,某些层面上的观察影响被观察对象,从而改变其结果。
②西斯蒙多,瑟乔(2007).科学技术学导论.许为民等译.上海：上海科技教育出版社.第72页
③对操作和理论之间关系的进一步研究可以参考皮克林的《实践冲撞》。
④ Torres, J. P. (2009). A modified conception of mechanism. Erkenntnis,71,233-251. p.236
⑤ Woodward, J. (2002). What is a mechanism? A counterfactual account. Philosophy of Science (Suppl.),69, S366-S377.
⑥李珍(2009).反事实与因果机制.自然辩证法研究25(9):33-38.p.33
① Torres, J. P. (2009). A modified conception of mechanism. Erkenntnis,71,233-251. p.240
② Machamer, P., Darden, L. & Craver, C. (2000). Thinking about mechanisms. Philosophy of Science,67,1-25. p.12
②Boogerd, F. C., Bruggeman, F. J., Hofmeyr, J.-H. S., Westerhoff, H. V. (2008).系统生物学：哲学基础.孙之荣等译.北京：科学出版社.第227页
① Woodward, J. (2000). Explanation and invariance in the special sciences. The British Journal for the Philosophy of Science,51,197-254. p.197
① Bechtel, W. (2006). Discovering cell mechanisms:the creation of modern cell biology. Cambridge University Press. p.20
② Ibid. p.20
③张志伟(2002).西方哲学史.北京：中国人民大学出版社.第116页
④ Bechtel, W. (2006). Discovering cell mechanisms:The creation of modern cell biology. Cambridge University Press. p.20
① Bechtel, W. (2006). Discovering cell mechanisms:The creation of modern cell biology. Cambridge University Press. p.21
①理查德.s.韦斯特福尔(2000).近代科学的建构：机械论与力学.彭万华译.上海：复旦大学出版社.第42页
②Ibid.第42页
③Ibid.第42页
④这种因果观念不同于牛顿的“力”以及后文所述的MDC二元论机制概念中的“活性”(activity)所体现的因果性。
①理查德.S.韦斯特福尔(2000).近代科学的建构：机械论与力学.彭万华译.上海：复旦大学出版社.第43页
② Ibid.第152-153页
③ Newton, I. (2005). Newton's philosophy of nature:Selections from his writings. Mineola, NY, USA:Dover Publicatons. p.112
④理查德.S.韦斯特福尔(2000).近代科学的建构：机械论与力学.彭万华译.上海：复旦大学出版社.第154页
①牛顿(2001).牛顿自然哲学著作选.王福山等译.上海：上海译文出版社.第6页
②理查德.S.韦斯特福尔(2000).近代科学的建构：机械论与力学.彭万华译.上海：复旦大学出版社.第86页
③ Ibid.第168页
④ Bechtel, W. (2006). Discovering cell mechanisms:The creation of modern cell biology. Cambridge University Press. p.22
⑤理查德.S.韦斯特福尔(2000).近代科学的建构：机械论与力学.彭万华译.上海：复旦大学出版社.第51页
①马格纳,Z.洛伊斯(2009).生命科学史(第三版).刘学礼等译.上海：上海人民出版社.第149页
②Ibid.第174页
①转引自：Bechtel, W. (2006). Discovering cell mechanisms:The creation of modern cell biology. Cambridge University Press. p.23
②理查德.S.韦斯特福尔(2000).近代科学的建构：机械论与力学.彭万华译.上海：复旦大学出版社.第112页
①卡洛,P.(1982).生物机器：研究生命的控制论途径.汪云九,陈德高译.北京：科学出版社.第5页
②马格纳,Z.洛伊斯(2009).生命科学史(第三版).刘学礼等译.上海：上海人民出版社.第179页
③ Boden, M. A. (2000). Autopoiesis and life. Cognitive Science Quarterly,1,117-145.
④ Varela, F. (1972). Mechanism and biological explanation. Philosophy of Science,39(3),378-382. p.378
①理查德.S.韦斯特福尔(2000).近代科学的建构：机械论与力学.彭万华译.上海：复旦大学出版社.第111页
②马格纳,Z.洛伊斯(2009).生命科学史(第三版).刘学礼等译.上海：上海人民出版社.第174页
③Ibid.
④Bechtel, W. (2006). Discovering cell mechanisms:The creation of modern cell biology. Cambridge University Press. p.29
⑤理查德.S.韦斯特福尔(2000).近代科学的建构：机械论与力学.彭万华译.上海：复旦大学出版社.第100-101页
①张志伟(2002).西方哲学史.北京：中国人民大学出版社.第427页
②笛卡尔认为造物主创造了三种“奇迹”：从无到有,自由决定和人类的上帝观念(Tria mirabilia fecit Dominus:res ex nihilo, liberum arbitrium, et hominem deum)。前两者都涉及到笛卡尔的因果理论(引自Schmaltz, T. M. (2008). Descartes on causation. New York: Oxford University Press. p.178)。
③该问题将在第四章详述。
①Bechtel, W., & Abrahamsen, A. (2005). Explanation:A mechanist alternative. Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences,36,421-441. Bechtel, W. (2006). Discovering cell mechanisms:the creation of modern cell biology. Cambridge University Press, p.26
②潘恩荣.技术人工物的结构与功能之间的关系.浙江大学博士论文.第4页(转引自：Kroes, P. (1998). Technological explanations:The relation between structure and function of technological objects. Society for Philosophy and Technology,3(3),18-34.)
Ibid.第65页
① Glennan, S. S. (1996). Mechanisms and the nature of causation. Erkenntnis,44 (1),49-71. p.52
② Glennan, S. S. (2002). Rethinking mechanistic explanation. Philosophy of Science,69(3), S342-S353. S344.
③ Ibid. S344.
④ Woodward, J. (2000). Explanation and invariance in the special sciences. The British Journal for the Philosophy of Science,51,197-254.
⑤ Machamer, P., Darden, L. & Craver, C. (2000). Thinking about mechanisms. Philosophy of Science,67,1-25. p.12
① Machamer, P., Darden, L. & Craver, C. (2000). Thinking about mechanisms. Philosophy of Science,67,1-25. p.11
② Tabery, G. J. (2004). Synthesizing activities and interactions in the concept of a mechanism. Philosophy of Science,71,1-15. p.10
① Torres, J. P. (2009). A modified conception of mechanism. Erkenntnis,71,233-251. p.243
② Machamer, P., Darden, L., & Craver, C. (2000). Thinking about mechanisms. Philosophy of Science,67,1-25. pp.3-5
① Bechtel, W. (2006). Discovering cell mechanisms:the creation of modern cell biology. Cambridge University Press, p.26
② Ibid. p.26
③ Torres, J. P. (2009). A modified conception of mechanism. Erkenntnis,71,233-251.p.240
①转引自：马格纳,Z.(2009).洛伊斯生命科学史(第三版).刘学礼等译.上海：上海人民出版社.第198页
① Persson, J. (2010). Activity-based Aaccounts of mechanism and the threat of polygenic effects. Erkenntnis,72,135-146. (Mill, J. S. (1893). A system of logic. London:Longmans, Green, & Co.)
② Newton,Ⅰ. (2005). Newton's philosophy of nature:Selections from his writings. Mineola, N.Y., USA:Dover Publicatons. p.13
① Newton, I. (2005). Newton's philosophy of nature:Selections from his writings. Mineola, N.Y., USA:Dover Publicatons. p. ⅹⅴ.(更早期的中文版没有这部分评语(牛顿(2001).牛顿自然哲学著作选.王福山等译.上海：上海译文出版社.)
① Torres, J. P. (2009). A modified conception of mechanism. Erkenntnis,71,233-251. p.248
② Ibid. p.242
①转引自：Torres, J. P. (2009). A modified conception of mechanism. Erkenntnis,71,233-251.
① Torres, J. P. (2009). A modified conception of mechanism. Erkenntnis,71,233-251. p.245
② Ibid. p.247
③ Craver, C. F. (2007). Explanining the brain:Mechanism and the mosaic unity of neuroscience. Oxford:Clarendon Press. p.253
①Oliver, M. J. & Bewley, J. D. (1996). Desiccation tolerance of plant tissues:A mechanistic overview. Horticulture Review,18,171-213.
②Crowe H. J. (1971). Anhydrobiosis:an unsolved problem. The American Naturalist,105(946), 563-573.
① De Castro, A. G., Tunnacliffe, A. (2000). Intracellular trehalose improves osmotolerance but not desiccation tolerance in mammalian cells. FEBS Letters,487,199-202.
② Tanford, C. (1978). The hydrophobic effect and the organization of living matter, Science,200, 1012-1018.
① Ingram, J. & Bartels, D. (1996). The molecular basis of dehydration tolerance in plants. Annual Review of Plant Physiolology and Plant Molecular Biology,47,377-403. Bartels, D., Chandler, J., Bockel, C., Frank, W., Kleines, M., Rodrigo, M. J., Phillips, J. Mariaux, J-B. Furini, A. & Salamini, F. (1997). Investigating the molecular basis of desiccation tolerance using the resurrection plant Craterostigma plantagineum as an experimental system. Acta Physiol. Plant,19,399-403.
①转引自：Danks, H.V. et al. (2000). Dehydration in dormant insects. Journal Insect Physiology,46, 837-852.
② Ibid.
③ Ibid.
④转引自：Browne, J., Tunnacliffe, A. & Burnell, A. (2002). Plant desiccstion gene found in a nematode. Nature,416,38.
① De Castro, A. G., Tunnacliffe, A. (2000). Intracellular trehalose improves osmotolerance but not desiccation tolerance in mammalian cells. FEBS Letters,487,199-202.
② Higa, L. M. & Womersley, C. Z. (1993). New insights into the anhydrobiotic phenomenon:the effects of trehalose content and differential rates of evaporative water loss on the survival of Aphelenchus avenae. Journal of Experimental Zoology,267,120-129. De Castro, A. G., Tunnacliffe, A. (2000). Intracellular trehalose improves osmotolerance but not desiccation tolerance in mammalian cells. FEBS Letters,487,199-202.
③ De Castro, A. G., Tunnacliffe, A. (2000). Intracellular trehalose improves osmotolerance but not desiccation tolerance in mammalian cells. FEBS Letters,487,199-202.
④ Bagnasco, S. M., Uchida, S., Balaban, R. S., Kador, P. F. & Burg, M. B. (1987). PNAS,84, 1718-1720.
⑤Browne, J., Tunnacliffe, A., Burnell, A. (2002). Plant desiccstion gene found in a nematode. Nature,416,38.
① Browne, J., Tunnacliffe, A., Burnell, A. (2002). Plant desiccstion gene found in a nematode. Nature,416,38.
② Ibid.
③转引自：Browne, J., Tunnacliffe, A. & Burnell, A. (2002). Plant desiccstion gene found in a nematode. Nature,416,38.
④ Ibid.
⑤ Crowe, J. H., Hoekstra, F. A. & Crowe, L. M. (1992). Anhydrobiosis. Annual Review of Physiology,54,579-599.
⑥ Wolkers, W. F., McCready, S., Brandt, W. F., Lindsey, G. G., Hoekstra, F. A. (2001). Biochemica et Biophysica Acta,1544,196-206.
① Nicholson, W. L., Munakata, N., Horneck, G., Melosh, H. J., & Setlow, P. (2000). Resistance of bacillus endospores to extreme terrestrial and extraterrestrial environments. Microbiology and Molecular Biology Review,9,548-572.
② Higa, L. M. & Womersley, C. Z. (1993). New insights into the anhydrobiotic phenomenon:The effects of trehalose content and differential rates of evaporative water loss on the survival of Aphelenchus avenae. Journal of Experimental Zoology,267,120-129.
③ Hoekstra, F. A., Golovina, E. A. & Buitink, J.(2001). Mechanisms of plant desiccation tolerance, TRENDS in Plant Science,6,431-438.
④ Ibid.
①Hoekstra, F. A., Golovina, E. A. & Buitink, J.(2001). Mechanisms of plant desiccation tolerance, TRENDS in Plant Science,6,431-438.
②Setlow, P.1995. Mechanisms for the prevention of damage to DNA in spores of Bacillus species. Annu. Rev. Microbiol.49,29-54. Setlow, P. (1999). Bacterial spore resistance. In G. Storz & R. Hengge-Aronis (eds.), Bacterial stress responses (pp.217-230), Washington DC:American Society for Microbiology.
③转引自：Nicholson, W. L., Munakata, N., Horneck, G., Melosh, H. J., & Setlow, P. (2000). Resistance of bacillus endospores to extreme terrestrial and extraterrestrial environments. Microbiology and Molecular Biology Review,9,548-572. p.553
①转引自：Nicholson, W. L., Munakata, N., Horneck, G., Melosh, H. J., & Setlow, P. (2000). Resistance of bacillus endospores to extreme terrestrial and extraterrestrial environments. Microbiology and Molecular Biology Review,9,548-572. p.553
②Koonin, E. V., Aravind, L. & Galperin, M. Y. (2000). A comparativegenomic view of the microbial stress response. In G. Storz & R. Hengge-Aronis (eds.), Bacterial stress responses (pp.417-444), Washington DC:ASM Press.
③ Mattimore, V., Battista, J. R. (1996). Radioresistance of Deinococcus radiodurans:Functions necessary to survive ionizing radiation are also necessary to survive prolonged desiccation. Journal of Bacteriology,178(3),633-637. Battista, J. R., Park, M. J., McLemore, A. E. (2001). Inactivation of two homologues of proteins presumed to be involved in the desiccation tolerance of plants sensitizes Deinococcus radiodurans R1 to desiccation. Cryobiology,43(2),133-139.
①Crowe, H. J. (1971). Anhydrobiosis:an unsolved problem. The American Naturalist,105 (946), 563-573. p.564
② Tanford, C. (1978). The hydrophobic effect and the organization of living matter. Science,200, 1012-1018.
③Ricci, C. & Caprioli, M. (1998). Stress during dormancy:Effect on recovery rates and life-history traits of anhydrobiotic animals. Aquatic Ecology,32,353-359.
④ Hand, S. C., Jones, D., Menze, M. A. & Witt, T. L. (2007). Life without water:Expression of plant LEA genes by an anhydrobiotic arthropod. Journal of Experimental Zoology,307A, 62-66. p.62
⑤ Grelet, J., Benamar, A., Teyssier, E. et al. (2005). Identification in pea seed Mitochondria of a late-embryogenesis abundant protein able to protect enzymes from drying. Plant Physiology, 137(1),157-167. Hand, S. C., Jones, D., Menze, M. A. & Witt, T. L. (2007). Life without water:Expression of plant LEA genes by an anhydrobiotic arthropod. Journal of Experimental Zoology,307A, 62-66.
① Goyal, K., Walton, L. J. & Tunnacliffe, A. (2005). LEA proteins prevent protein aggregation due to water stress. Biochemical Journal,388,151-157.
② Schill, R. O., Mali, B., Dandekar, T., Schnolzer, M., Reuter, D., Frohme, M. (2009). Molecular mechanisms of tolerance in tardigrades:New perspectives for preservation and stabilization of biological material. Biotechnology Advances,27,348-352. p.351
③Torres, J. P. (2009). A modified conception of mechanism. Erkenntnis,71,233-251. p.139
① Darden, L. (2006). Reasoning in biological discoveries:Essays on mechanisms, interfiled relations, and anomaly resolution. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, p.278
②Torres J. P. (2009). A modified conception of mechanism. Erkenntnis,71,233-251. p.241
③“能力”是含糊而抽象的词,有时候甚至可以等同于可能或几率。这些含糊的“力”的概念,正是机制说明所要解释和取代的。
④Glennan, S. S. (1996). Mechanisms and the nature of causation. Erkenntnis,49-71.
⑤ Machamer, P., Darden, L. & Craver, C. (2000). Thinking about mechanisms. Philosophy of Science,67,1-25. p.5
① Machamer, P., Darden, L. & Craver, C. (2000). Thinking about mechanisms. Philosophy of Science,67,1-25. p.3
② Ibid. p.5 Machamer P. (2004). Activities and causation:The metaphysics and epistemology of mechanisms, International Studies in the Philosophy of Science,18(1),27-39. p.29
③曼彻莫认为活性不同于结构属性,后者依附于部件实体(详细论述可参考：Machamer, P. (2004). Activities and causation:The metaphysics and epistemology of mechanisms. International Studies in the Philosophy of Science,18 (1),27-39. p.29)
④ Xie, G. & Timasheff, S. N.(1997). The thermodynamic mechanism of protein stabilization by trehalose. Biophysical Chemistry,64,25-43. p.33
①事实上,科普兰德(Copeland)就曾建议过对抑制因子进行“结构——活性关系研究”(SAR, structure-activity relationship) (Copeland 1996, p.291)
② Strand, A. & Oftedal, G. (2009). Functional Stability and Systems Level Causation. Philosophy of Science,76,809-820.
③Paslaru, V. (2009). Ecological explanntion between manipulation and mechanism description. Philosophy of Science,76:821-837.
④ Machamer, P., Lindley Darden & Carl Craver (2000). Thinking about mechanisms. Philosophy of Science,67,1-25. p.22
① Thagard, P. (2006). What is a medical theory? In R. Paton & L. A. McNamara (eds.), Multidisciplinary approaches to theory in medicine (pp.47-62). Amsterdam:Elsevier. p.56
① Bechtel, W. (2006). Discvering cell mechanism:The creation of modern cell biology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p.57
① Glennan, S. S. (2010). Ephemeral mechanisms and historical explanation. Erkenntnis,72, 251-266. p.251
②石里克(1984).自然哲学.北京：商务印书馆.第19页 (转引自：Glennan (2002). Glennan, S. S. (2002). Rethinking mechanistic explanation. Philosophy of Science,69, S342-S353. S342)
①转引自Glennan, S. S. (2010). Ephemeral Mechanisms and Historical Explanation. Erkenntnis, 72,251-266. pp.253-254
② Glennan (2002). Glennan, S. S. (2002). Rethinking mechanistic explanation. Philosophy of Science,69, S342-S353. S343
① Ibid. S342
② Glennan, S. S. (2010). Ephemeral Mechanisms and Historical Explanation. Erkenntnis,72, 251-266. p.254
③ http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/reduction-biology/
①格莱南认为20世纪的经验主义者倾向于认为休谟不相信存在规则背后的力量,而斯特劳森(1989)则认为休谟认为我们只是还未发现规则背后的神秘力量。(转引自：Glennan, S. S. (1996). Mechanisms and the nature of causation. Erkenntnis,49-71. p.68)
②转引自：Glennan, S. S. (1996). Mechanisms and the nature of causation. Erkenntnis,49-71. p.49
③ Glennan, S. S. (1996). Mechanisms and the nature of causation. Erkenntnis,49-71. p.49
④17世纪的机械主义因果观认为宇宙中任何现象都能用微粒的机械运动进行解释。
⑤ Glennan, S. S. (1996). Mechanisms and the nature of causation. Erkenntnis,49-71.
① Glennan, S. S. (1996). Mechanisms and the nature of causation. Erkenntnis,49-71. p.51
② Book Reviews (2007). Journal of the History of Biology,40,185-206. p.185
③转引自：Bechtel, W. (2006). Discovering cell mechanisms:the creation of modern cell biology. Cambridge University Press. p.26 (Bechtel, W. & Richardson, R. (1993). p.17)
①Newton, I. (2005). Newton's philosophy of nature:Selections from his writings. Mineola, N.Y., USA:Dover Publicatons. p.13
②Weinert, F. (2005). The scientist as philosopher:Philosophical consequences of great scientific discoveries. Berlin:Springer-Verlag. pp.62-74
① Woodward, J. (2000). Explanation and invariance in the special sciences. The british journal for the philosophy of science,51,197-254.
② Dieks, D., Gonzalez, W. J., Hartmann, S., Uebel, T., Weber, M. (2011). Explanation, Prediction, and Confrimation:The Philosophy Of Science In A European Perspective. London & New York:Springer Dordrecht Heidelberg. p.128
③ Bechtel, W. (2006). Discovering cell mechanisms:the creation of modern cell biology. Cambridge University Press. p.26
①Illari, P. M. & Williamson, J. (2010). Function and organization:comparing the mechanisms of protein synthesis and natural selection. Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences,41,279-291. p.279
② Matthen, M. & Ariew, A. (2009). Selection and causation. Philosophy of Science,76,201-224.
③转引自：Weber, M. (2008). Causes without mechanisms:Experimental regularities, physical laws, and neuroscientific explanation. Philosophy of Science,75,995-1007.
①Weber, M. (2008). Causes without mechanisms:Experimental regularities, physical laws, and neuroscientific explanation. Philosophy of Science,75,995-1007.
②Chalmers, D. J. (2003). Consciousness and its place in nature. In Stephen P. Stich & Ted A. Warfield (eds.), The Blackwell Guide to Philosophy of Mind (pp.102-142.). Maiden:Blackwell Publishing Ltd. p.125.
① Leuridan, B. (2010). Can mechanisms really replace laws of nature? Philosophy of Science,77, 317-340.
②王巍(2009).因果机制与定律说明.自然辩证法研究26(2)：98-101.p.98
③ Leuridan, B. (2010). Can mechanisms really replace laws of nature? Philosophy of Science,77, 317-340.
④王巍(2009).因果机制与定律说明.自然辩证法研究26(2)：98-101.p.98
①转引自：Bechtel, W. (2006). Discovering cell mechanisms:The creation of modern cell biology. Cambridge University Press. pp.22-23
①威尔逊(1985).新的综合：社会生物学.成都：四川人民出版社.
①亲属关系通常被认为是社会形成的主要原因,是结构主义、功能主义、精神分析学等多学派的社会学核心概念(弗伊(1997).社会生物学.北京：商务印书馆出版社.)
② Bechtel, W. (2008). Mental mechanisms:Philosophical perspectives on cognitive neuroscience. Routledge:New York & London. p.1
③ Marjorie, G. (1978). Sociobiology and the human mind. Society,15 (6),23-27.
①转引自：Boogerd, F. C., Bruggeman, F. J., Hofmeyr, J.-H. S., Westerhoff, H. V. (2008).系统生物学：哲学基础.孙之荣等译.北京：科学出版社.第33页
② Strand, A. & Oftedal, G. (2009). Functional Stability and Systems Level Causation. Philosophy of Science,76,809-820.
①认识论中关于自然和社会关系的争论,主要体现于主张SSK的柯林斯和倡导后SSK的拉图尔之间。
②Jevons, William Stanley, The Principles of Science:A Treatise on Logic and Scientific Method, Macmillan & Co., London,1874,2nd ed.1877,3rd ed.1879. Reprinted with a foreword by Ernst Nagel, Dover Publications:New York, NY,1958. p.702
③ Boogerd, F. C., Bruggeman, F. J., Hofmeyr, J.-H. S., Westerhoff, H. V. (2008).系统生物学：哲学基础.孙之荣等译.北京：科学出版社.第40-42页
④ O'Malley, M. A. & Dupre, P. (2005). Fundamental issues in systems biology. BioEssays,27 (12), 1270-1276.
① De Jong, H. L. (2002). Levels of explanation in biological psychology. Philosophical Psychology,15(4),441-462. (abstract)
② Gaulin, J. C. S. (1987). A logical structure for human sociobiology. Philosophy of science,2, 75-86. (abstract)
① Bechtel, W. (2006). Discovering cell mechanisms:Ehe creation of modern cell biology, Cambridge University Press. p.27
②转引自：Bechtel. W. (2006). Discovering cell mechanisms:the creation of modern cell biology. Cambridge University Press. p.27
③ Ibid. p.27
④舒伟光,邱仁忠主编(2007).当代西方科学哲学述评(第2版).北京：中国人民大学出版社.第45页
①除了一些单独发生的事件或现象,例如恐龙灭绝。理论中存在的宇宙大爆炸,虽然是单-事件却不是现象。
②转引自：Bechtel. W. (2006). Discovering cell mechanisms:the creation of modern cell biology. Cambridge University Press. pp.27-28
①按照生物学习惯,实验材料(material)通常指经过处理的研究对象,而不是亚里士多德主义的质料。
② Bechtel. W. (2006). Discovering cell mechanisms:The creation of modern cell biology. Cambridge University Press. p.27.
①转引自：Machamer, P., Darden, L. & Craver, C. (2000). Thinking about mechanisms. Philosophy of Science,67,1-25. p.16
①刘明海(2008).还原论研究.华中科技大学博士论文.第5页(资料来源：CNKI博士论文数据库)
① Craver, C. F. (2003). The making of a memory mechanism. Journal of the History of Biology, 36(1),153-195. p.153这里所说的机制方法应该指狭义的机械论方法,即通过决定论观点的因果推理进行考察。
② Richardson, R.C. & Stephan, A. In:Boogerd, F.C.(2008)系统生物学：哲学基础.孙之荣等译.北京：科学出版社.第94页
③ R.C. Richardson and A. Stephan (2008). In Fred C. Boogerd (eds.),系统生物学：哲学基础.孙之荣等译.北京：科学出版社.p.93
①Bechtel, W. (2006). Discovering cell mechanisms:The creation of modern cell biology. Cambridge University Press. p.20
①Farris, S. M. & Sinakevitch, I. (2003). Development and evolution of the insect mushroom bodies:Towards the understanding of conserved developmental mechanisms in a higher brain center. Arthropod Structure & Development,32,79-101. p.80
① Premack, D. (2007). Human and animal cognition:Continuity and discontinuity. PNAS 104 (35), 13861-13867. p.13861.
② Premack, D. (2007). Human and animal cognition:Continuity and discontinuity. PNAS 104 (35), 13861-13867.
①转引自:Bechtel, W. (2006). Discovering cell mechanisms:The creation of modern cell biology. Cambridge University Press. p.12
② Ibid. p.13
① Bechtel, W. (2008). Mental mechanisms:Philosophical perspectives on cognitive neuroscience. New York:Routledge. p.14
②松本修文(2007).心灵之谜多面观：脑与心理的生物物理学意识的生物物理学.上海：上海科学技术出版社.第53页
③ Bechtel, W. (2008). Mental mechanisms:Philosophical perspectives on cognitive neuroscience. New York:Routledge. p.49
① Darden, L. (2006). Flow of information in molecular biological mechanisms, BiologicalTheory, 1(3),280-287.
②刘大椿.(2006).科学哲学.北京：中国人民大学出版社.第216页
③ Ibid第220页
① Darden, L. (2006). Reasoning in biological discoveries:Essays on mechanisms, interfield relations and anomaly resolution. Cambridge University Press.
②西斯蒙多,瑟乔(2007).科学技术学导论.许为民等译.上海：上海科技教育出版社.第70-71页
③ Elliott, K. C. & McKaughan, D. J. (2009). How values in scientific discovery and pursuit alter theory appraisal. Philosophy of Science,76,598-611.
④ De Bono, E. (1990). The mechanism of mind. Penguin. p.9
① Friedman,M.(1974).Explanation and scientific understanding.Journal of Philosophy,7,5-19.
① Bechtel, W. (2009). Generalization and discovery by assuming conserved mechanisms: Cross-species research on circadian oscilators. Philosophy of Science,76,762-773.
② Bechtel, W. (2009). Generalization and discovery by assuming conserved mechanisms: Cross-species research on circadian oscilators. Philosophy of Science,76,762-773.
③ Darden, L. (2002). Strategies for discovering mechanisms:Schema instantiation, modular subassembly. Philosophy of Science,69, S354-S365.
④ Bechtel, W. (2006). Discovering cell mechanisms:The creation of modern cell biology. Cambridge University Press. pp.64-117
①Machamer, P., Darden, L. & Craver C. (2000). Thinking about mechanisms. Philosophy of Science,67,1-25.
② Rosenberg, A. (1985). The Structure of Biological Science. New York:Cambridge University Press.
③ Resnik, D. B. (1995). Functional language and biological discovery. Journal for General Philosophy of Science,26 (1),119-134.
④ Ibid. p.119
① Hudson, R. G. (2001). Discoveries, when and by whom. British Journal on Philosophy of Science,52,75-93. p.77
② Ibid. p.87
③张志林(2010).因果观念与休谟问题.北京：中国人民大学出版社.第171页
①张志林(2010).因果观念与休谟问题.北京：中国人民大学出版社.第170页
②Ibid.第173页
① Bechtel, W. (2009). Generalization and discovery by assuming conserved mechanisms: Cross-species research on circadian oscilators. Philosophy of Science,76,762-773. p.763
① Bechtel, W. (2008). Mental mechanisms:Philosophical perspectives on cognitive neuroscience. Routledge:New York & London. p.ix
② Dennett, D. (1978). Two Approaches to Mental Images. In D.C. Dennett (ed.), Brainstorms. Philosophical Essays on Mind and Psychology (pp.174-189). Cambridge:MIT Press.
① Bechtel, W. (2008). Mental mechanisms:Philosophical perspectives on cognitive neuroscience. New York:Routledge. p.129
② Varela, F., Thompson, E. & Rosch, E. (1991). The embodied mind:Cognitive science and human experience. Cambridge:MIT Press.
③ Thompson, E., Varela, F. (2001). Radical embodiment:Neural dynamics and consciousness. Trends in Cognitive Sciences,5,418-425. Thompson, E. (forthcoming). Neurophenomenology and contemplative experience. In P. Clayton (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Science and Religion. (互联网资源).
④ Varela, F. J., Thompson, E. & Rosch, E. (1993). Embodied mind:Cognitive science and human experience. MIT Press. p.15
⑤ De Jong, H. L. (2002). Levels of explanation in biological psychology. Philosophical Psychology,15(4),441-462. (abstract)
① De Jong, H. L. (2002). Levels of explanation in biological psychology. Philosophical Psychology,15(4),441-462. p.441
② Dreyfus, H. L. (1971). Phenomenology and mechanism. Nous,5(1),81-96. p.81
③ Ibid. p.82
④ Petitot, J., Varela, F., Pachoud, B. & Roy, J. (1999). Naturalizing phenomenology. Stanford and Cambridge:Stanford University Press.
① Varela, F., Thompson, E. & Rosch, E. (1991). The embodied mind:Cognitive science and human experience. Cambridge:MIT Press.
②异现象学(heterophenomenology),简而言之就是指“研究他人的现象”(phenomenology of another not oneself),因此与神经现象学在方法论上有所不同。异现象学显然不同于笛卡尔式自我反思的传统现象学,将主观权威性仅仅是关于“事情对于自身‘显得’的像什么”。丹尼尔·丹尼特(Daniel C.Dennett)认为异现象学并没有抛弃第一人称视角,而仅仅将它加上括弧,使它得到经验方式的主体间检验。
③ Thompson, E., Lutz, A. & Cosmelli, D. (forthcoming). Neurophenomenology:An introduction for neurophilosophers. In A. Brook & K. Akins (eds.), Cognition and the Brain:The Philosophy and Neuroscience Movement. New York and Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
④ Thompson, E., Lutz, A. & Cosmelli, D. (forthcoming). Neurophenomenology:An introduction for neurophilosophers. In A. Brook & K. Akins (eds.), Cognition and the Brain:The Philosophy and Neuroscience Movement. New York and Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
① Varela, F. (1996). Neurophenomenology:A methodological remedy for the hard problem. Journal of Consciousness Studies (Special Issues on the Hard Problems),3(4),330-349.
② Thompson, E., Lutz, A. & Cosmelli, D. (forthcoming). Neurophenomenology:An introduction for neurophilosophers. In A. Brook & K. Akins (eds.), Cognition and the Brain:The Philosophy and Neuroscience Movement. New York and Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
① Thompson, E., Lutz, A. & Cosmelli, D. (forthcoming). Neurophenomenology:An introduction for neurophilosophers. In A. Brook & K. Akins (eds.), Cognition and the Brain:The Philosophy and Neuroscience Movement. New York and Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
② Varela, F. (1996). Neurophenomenology:A methodological remedy for the hard problem. Journal of Consciousness Studies (Special Issues on the Hard Problems),3(4),330-349.
③ Thompson, E., Lutz, A. & Cosmelli, D. (forthcoming). Neurophenomenology:An introduction for neurophilosophers. In A. Brook & K. Akins (eds.), Cognition and the Brain:The Philosophy and'Neuroscience Movement. New York and Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
④ Thompson, E. (2006). Neurophenomenology and contemplative experience. In P. Clayton (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Science and Religion (pp.).:Press. Krippner, S. & Combs, A. (2002). The neurophenomenology of shamanism--An essay review. Journal of Consciousness Studies,9(3),77-82. Kirmayer, L. (2009). Nightmares, neurophenomenology and the cultural logic of trauma.Cult Med Psychiatry,33,323-331. Lutz, A. (2002). Toward a neurophenomenology as an account of generative passages:A first empirical case study. Phenomenology and the Cognitive Sciences,1,133-167.
① Krippner, S. & Combs, A. (2002). The neurophenomenology of shamanism--An essay review. Journal of Consciousness Studies,9(3),77-82.
② Thompson, E. (2006). Neurophenomenology and Contemplative Experience. In P. Clayton (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Science and Religion (pp.).:Press
③ Lutz, A. (2007). Neurophenomenology and the study of self-consciousness. Consciousness and Cognition,16,765-767.
④ Lutz, A. (2002). Toward a neurophenomenology as an account of generative passages:A first empirical case study. Phenomenology and the Cognitive Sciences,1,133-167.
① Bayne, T. (2004). Closing the gap? Some questions for neurophenomenology. Phenomenology and the Cognitive Sciences,3,349-364.
② Lutz, A. (2002). Toward a neurophenomenology as an account of generative passages:A first empirical case study. Phenomenology and the Cognitive Sciences,1,133-167. Bayne, T. (2004). Closing the gap? Some questions for neurophenomenology. Phenomenology and the Cognitive Sciences,3,349-364. Thompson, E., Noe, A. & Pessoa, L. (1999). Perceptual completion:A case study in phenomenology and cognitive science. In J. Petitot, F. Varela, B. Pachoud & J. M. Roy (eds.), Naturalizing Phenomenology (pp.161-195). Stanford CA:Stanford University Press.
③转引自：Varela, F., Thompson, E. & Rosch, E. (1991). The embodied mind:Cognitive science and human experience. Cambridge:MIT Press.
① Braddock, G. (2001). Beyond reflection in naturalized phenomenology. Journal of Consciousness Studies,8(11),3-16.
② Bayne, T. (2004). Closing the gap? Some questions for neurophenomenology. Phenomenology and the Cognitive Sciences,3,349-364.
① Varela, F., Thompson, E. & Rosch, E. (1993). The embodied mind:Cognitive science and human experience. Cambridge:MIT Press.
② Jacqueline Anne Sullivan (2008). Memory consolidation, multiple realizations, and modest reductions. Philosophy of Science,75,501-513. p.502
③ Bechtel, W. (2008). Mental mechanisms:Philosophical perspectives on cognitive neuroscience. Routledge:New York & London. p.2
①De Preester, H. (2006). Naturalism and transcendentalism in the naturalization of phenomenology. New Ideas in Psychology,24(1),41-62.
②Pepperell, R. (2003). Between phenomenology and neuroscience. Journal of Consciousness Studies,10(11),85-88.
③当牛顿说'Upon which account, this vis insita may, by a most significant name, be called 'inertia'(vis inertiae) or'force of inactivity'(Newton, I. (2005). Newton's philosophy of nature: Selections from his writings. Mineola, N.Y., USA:Dover Publicatons. p.13)的时候,我们不知道他是否相信惯性或惰性力(vis inertiae)是固有力(vis insita)的一种,还是仅仅认为固有力就是惯性。
④牛顿(2001).牛顿自然哲学著作选.王福山等译.上海译文出版社.第64页
① De Preester, H. (2006). Naturalism and transcendentalism in the naturalization of phenomenology. New Ideas in Psychology,24(1),41-62.
② De Preester, H. (2006). Naturalism and transcendentalism in the naturalization of phenomenology. New Ideas in Psychology,24(1),41-62.
① Kolen Filip & De Vijver G. V., (2007). Philosophy of biology:Naturalistic or transcendental. Acta Biotheoretica,55,35-46. pp36-37.
② Gazzaniga, M.S. (1998)认知神经科学.沈政等译.上海：上海教育出版社.第1页北京大学心理系、视觉听觉信息处理国家重点实验室的沈政教授在《认知神经科学》的总论中如此总结。
③ Premack, D. (2007). Human and animal cognition:Continuity and discontinuity. PNAS,104 (35), 13861-13867. p.13861
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