反垄断法律责任制度研究
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摘要
法律规范所调整的社会关系和所构建的法律秩序,离不开具体权利义务规范的创设,更需要构建健全的责任制度以保障法律的实施。设置科学合理的法律责任制度,约束、制裁违法行为者,确保法律规范得以贯彻、遵守与实施,这是法律制度不可或缺的重要组成部分,是维护秩序和实现正义的必要环节因素。强制性的法律制裁和责任追究机制更是法律制度得以存在的重要条件。法律责任在约束和遏制国家权力滥用的同时,还表达了对个体行为自由的限制与否定,也彰显了对个体行为自由的维护、保障和尊重。法律责任制度的根本目的在于实现立法的核心内容与基本理念,具体责任制度在反垄断法中占据着不可忽略的地位。自由公正的竞争秩序是市场经济良性运行的基本前提,是提升国家整体经济实力的重要保障,更是反垄断法所追求的基本立法目标。若无完整统一、科学可行的反垄断法律责任制度,反垄断法实体规范和程序规则将难以切实遵循,反垄断立法目标将无法得以实现而逐步沦为一纸空文。综合全面、完善合理的反垄断法律责任制度有利于保障反垄断立法目标的实现,在很大程度上,反垄断法的权威地位取决于其责任制度的精心设计和具体安排。
     衡量与评价反垄断立法价值和制度内容的恰当与否,主要体现于反垄断法所反映与维护的法权意志和利益取向。然而垄断行为扭曲市场竞争机制,破坏经济良性运行,损害相关市场主体的经济收益,特别是使消费者丧失公平交易权、自由选择权等权益而不能成为真正的市场选择者和评判者,减损社会整体的消费者福利。反垄断法实施效果的评价与其责任制度的构建息息相关,如何将白纸黑字的反垄断法条文真正变成阻隔垄断行为的利剑,其关键因素是对反垄断法律责任制度的完善与适用。反垄断法律责任制度对违法垄断行为提供适当的、灵活的救济措施。反垄断法律责任不仅仅是对托拉斯和垄断行为的谴责、阻却和遏制,更重要地是运用强制性、法定性的制裁手段阻却实质性限制竞争行为,对受害者的损失提供合适救济,威慑其他潜在违法行为者,预防、避免和减少其他市场主体从事垄断行为的意图,以维护自由公正的竞争秩序。
     目前,世界上100多个国家和地区都相继颁布了反垄断法,并相应设置了反垄断法的责任制度。我国反垄断法第七章专门对垄断行为法律责任作出具体规定,但反垄断法律责任制度尚存在许多不完善的地方,主要体现为关于反垄断民事法律责任方面、反垄断行政法律责任方面、反垄断刑事法律责任方面等多层次、多领域的责任问题。垄断行为一般接受反垄断民事责任、反垄断行政责任和反垄断刑事责任等综合性法律制度的调整,其制裁方式分别为民事制裁、行政制裁和刑事制裁三种情形,但原则性、宽泛性的反垄断法律责任制度并不能实现各责任制度之间的合理衔接、充分协调,也不能有效实现其价值目标。因此,构建我国科学合理、协调统一的反垄断法律责任制度体系,需从多个方面入手进行探讨。首先,应运用科学可行的方法对反垄断法律责任制度进行研究。具体研究方法主要包括唯物辩证法、比较分析方法、逻辑推理法、历史分析法、案例分析法、图表数据法、经济分析法、整体主义分析法等,尽量做到法学研究方法与专门研究方法的结合。其次,应从历史发展角度对各主要国家和地区的反垄断法律责任制度进行具体描述、深入分析,努力寻求可兹借鉴的立法经验。最后,应对反垄断法律责任制度体系、反垄断法律责任制度的执行方式进行深入探讨。特别展开对民事责任、行政责任和刑事责任的全面阐述,并提出完善我国反垄断法律责任制度的具体建议。
     以损害赔偿为核心的民事责任,以行政罚款为重点的行政责任,以及以刑事监禁为中心的刑事责任共同构成了我国反垄断法律责任的基本体系。反垄断法民事责任以民事法律责任为理论前提和内容基础,有着其自身的特殊性和显著不同于民事法律责任的特征,是民事法律责任的细化与延伸。我国反垄断法民事责任应引入惩罚性损害赔偿制度并不断完善受害者实施反垄断民事责任制度的激励机制。惩罚性损害赔偿制度的功能在于惩罚、报复垄断行为者的恶性行为,并预防未来相似垄断行为的再次发生。完善反垄断私人诉讼制度,特别应明确反垄断私人诉讼中原告资格范围,原告资格的主体范围不应只限于与违法行为有直接利害关系的经营者,还应赋予其他受竞争影响市场主体的诉权。反垄断民事责任制度的设置应采用成本收益比例原则和动态量化原则,对市场主体或其他经营者因损害行为而连续遭受的损害结果应在最高额度内给予赔偿,从而激励受损的市场主体提起反垄断损害赔偿诉讼,以维护各类市场主体的竞争利益。
     我国反垄断法行政责任应不断规范与优化行政制裁责任。反垄断行政法律责任主要是针对垄断行为者设置的,既包括一般经营者、竞争者等市场主体所应承担的行政制裁责任,还涉及行政机构实施限制性竞争行为所应承担的行政法律责任,但并不包括其相应的民事责任和刑事责任。对垄断行为设置行政责任,强化各类行政制裁措施,规范反垄断执法机构的职责与权限,阻却、威慑和遏制各类违法行为者,以实现反垄断法社会公共价值目标。应强化反垄断执法机构实施行政罚款的威慑力,特别应提高其对垄断行为的发现机率,以增加行政罚款责任的实施效力。从最优威慑理论可知,行政罚款数额与罚款责任实际承担的可能性(被处罚的可能性)之间往往是紧密联系、相互补充的,应科学计算行政罚款的限额范围。应进一步明确责任承担主体的范围,应增强行政制裁责任内容的宽度和力度,还应适当增设行政责任制裁的方式和手段。应明确将行政性垄断行为纳入行政诉讼的受案范围,构建其具体的司法审查程序,特别还要规定一定位阶条件下的限制竞争的抽象行政行为应允许接受司法审查并承担相应责任。
     我国反垄断法刑事责任应进行合理创建并做到适用谨慎。世界上多数国家反垄断法设置刑事责任制度的做法逐渐得到普遍接受。追究严重垄断行为刑事责任是不可避免的,创设刑事责任制度可提升刑罚制裁的可预见性,最具威慑性、严厉性的刑事处罚措施可最大限度遏制、阻却甚至预防垄断行为对社会的危害。刑罚谦抑性要求在社会生活中应尽量减少刑罚的适用范围,只有在其他法律责任手段不足以制裁违法行为时,才有必要动用刑罚制裁措施。刑事责任制度重点制裁的对象不是垄断状态而是垄断行为,特别是严重违法的垄断行为。刑罚制裁的责任范围应严格限制在那些具有严重性、明确性的垄断行为身上,特别应表现为固定价格、分割市场、限制产量等本身违法的联合限制竞争行为、滥用市场支配地位及行政垄断等,刑罚制裁对象应只限于违法性明显、破坏性严重的垄断行为,而不包括一般性、非重要性、非本身违法的垄断行为。应借鉴发达国家反垄断法垄断行为“应刑罚性”理念,采取严重垄断行为入罪的立法措施,进一步明确与细化垄断行为罪与非罪的界限,大力增强刑事责任制裁的力度。
The adjustment of social relations and the construction of law order are inseparable from the establishment of specific norms of rights and obligations, but also depend on the building of a sound liability system to protect law enforcement. To maintain order and justice in a country, it is most essential for its legal systems to set a scientific and rational legal liability system, for the purpose of restraining, punishing violations, and ensuring the legal norms to be implemented, complied and enforced. A mandatory legal sanction and accountability system is even one of the Prerequisites for the existence of a legal system. Accompanied by the functions of constraining and curbing the abuse of state power, legal responsibility also expresses a restriction, denial, protection, security and respect for the individual behavior freedom. The fundamental purpose of the legal liability system is to achieve the core content of the legislation and basic concepts, whose detailed responsibility systems are an indispensible part of the anti-trust law systems. A free and fair competition order is the basic premise for the sound operation of the market economy, a security for the enhancement of a country's overall national economic strength, and fundamental goal of antitrust laws. Without a complete, scientific and feasible antitrust liability system, antitrust Substantive norms and procedural rules will be difficult to strictly adhere to and anti-monopoly legislation targets will not be truly achieved. Therefore, it can be seen that the construction of a comprehensive, complete and rational antitrust liability system will help protect the goals of anti-monopoly legislation, more conducive to the effective implementation of anti-monopoly law. Even, we can say that, the authoritative status of antitrust law, to a large extent, originates from the well-design and specific arrangements of its liability systems.
     In a market economy, the antitrust law is the patron saint of economic freedom and democracy is an important initiative in regulating the market competition order. Measurement and evaluation of the value and appropriateness of the anti-monopoly legislation contents are mainly embodied in reflected in the legal will and interest orientation reflected and protected by the anti-trust law. However, monopolistic behaviors tend to distort market competition mechanism, undermine the healthy operation of the economy, and damage the economic benefits of market players involved, causing, particularly, consumers'loss of the rights of fair trade right and free choice as to fail to play their roles as a market selector and jury, and the impairment of the overall social consumer welfare. Evaluation of the implementation of AML system is closely related to the construction of its liability system, and how to convert a black-and-white anti-monopoly provisions into a sharp sword to block monopolistic behavior, the key factors are the improvement and implementation of antitrust law liability systems. And any anti-competitive practice in the market should bear its corresponding responsibility. For the illegal monopoly behaviors, antitrust liability systems provide the corresponding appropriate, flexible relief measures. The functions performed by the antitrust liability systems are the condemnation, negation, and containment of trust and monopoly behaviors, and more importantly, is the use of mandatory and law-based sanction measures to negate substantial restriction competition behaviors, and to provide appropriate relief to the loss of the victims, and deter other potential violation players and to prevent, avoid and reduce the monopoly of other market players so as to maintain a free and fair competition order.
     At present, more than 100 countries and regions have enacted anti-monopoly laws, and accordingly set their liability regimes. In China, Chapter VII of its anti-monopoly law just specifies in antitrust liability, but there are still many imperfections in it. The problems are mainly reflected on the aspect of civil liability, of administrative liability, of criminal liability, and other multi-level, multi-areas of liability. Monopoly behaviors usually receive adjustment from the comprehensive anti-monopoly legal system such as civil liability, administrative liability and criminal liability, the sanction forms including civil sanction, administrative sanction, and criminal sanction. However, if the liability system just stays in the principle and broad-nature level, it will not achieve the rational, well-coordinated link between the liability systems, and its value targets either. Therefore, to build our scientific and rational, coherent liability systems of antitrust law, we should start off from the following aspects. First, in doing the research, scientific and feasible research methods should be applied. The Specific research methods adopted in this paper include dialectical materialism, comparative analysis, logical reasoning, historical analysis, case analysis, chart data, economic analysis, holism analysis, with a combination of the specialized research methods and law research methods. Secondly, specific and in-depth description and analysis of the anti-monopoly law liability systems from major countries and regions should be made, from the perspective of the historical development, for the advantage of learning from the legislative experience of other countries. Finally, discussions on current China' antitrust law liability system and its implementation forms are done, including an in-depth and comprehensive exposition in its civil, administrative and criminal liabilities, and concrete suggestions on how to improve China's current anti-monopoly law liability systems.
     Antitrust law possesses property of private and public law fusion, which determines the liability system has the features of being integrated, comprehensive, systematic, compensatory, deterrent, punitive. The damage compensation-cored civil liability, the administrative fine-cored administrative liability, and the criminal detention-cored criminal liability together constitute the basic system of our country's antitrust liability systems. Antitrust civil liability, with civil liability as its theoretical premise and content base, has its own characteristics and significantly differs from the characteristics of civil liability, and is a refinement and extension of the civil liability. China's anti-monopoly law civil liability should introduce the punitive damage compensation system and continue to improve the incentives of victim implementation antitrust civil system. The function of punitive damage compensation system is to punish and retaliate malignant monopolistic behaviors and prevent any future recurrence of the similar kinds. To improve the private antitrust litigation, the scope of the plaintiff should be specified, and the plaintiff' main qualifications should not be limited to the operators who are directly offended by the violations, and appeal right should also be given to other market players who have been affected by the monopoly action. The design of the antitrust civil liability should follow cost-benefit ratio principle and dynamic quantification principle and the compensations for the market players or other operators who have suffered consecutive damages should be within the maximum compensation amount, so as to encourage market players bring the damaged antitrust action for damages and to protect the competitive interests of various market players.
     In its administrative liability part, China's anti-monopoly law should continue to regulate and optimize its administrative sanction responsibility. Antitrust administrative liability is mainly for monopoly actors, and includes both administrative sanction responsibility to be assumed by common managers and competitors and administrative liability to be assumed by administrative bodies who have performed restrictive competitive practices, but excludes their matching civil liability and criminal liability. The functions of administrative liability are to strengthen various types of administrative sanctions, to regulate the duties and powers of the anti-monopoly law enforcement agencies, and to negate, deter and contain various types of violations, in order to achieve the social and public value goals of antitrust law. The deterrence should be strengthened of anti-monopoly law enforcement agencies to implement administrative penalty, and in particular, their probability of discovery of monopolistic behavior improved, to increase the effectiveness of the administrative fine implementation. Generally speaking, excessive administrative fines exceeding the damage caused by monopoly behavior may be considered unfair, but if the fine is only for part of the monopoly actors, it may also be considered unconscionable. We know from the theory of Optimal Deterrence that the amount of administrative fines and the possibility for penalties actually being enforced (the possibility of punishment) are often closely related to and complemented with each other, so the maximum range of administrative fines should be computed and set scientifically. The scope of responsibility undertaking body should be clarified, and the width and intensity of the administrative sanction responsibility content be strengthened, and ways and means of sanctions be properly expanded. Acts of administrative monopoly should also be explicitly included in the scope of administrative litigation cases, with its specific judicial review procedures to be built, and in particular, to the abstract administrative acts restricting competition under certain positioning order should be clearly defined to be subject to judicial review.
     In its criminal liability part, China's anti-monopoly law criminal liability should be reasonably made and carefully applied. It has become a widely-accepted practice for a country to set its anti-monopoly criminal liability system. Criminal accountability for serious monopoly acts is inevitable, and the creation of criminal sanctions can improve the predictability of criminal penalty, and the most deterrent and severe criminal penalties can, to the maximum extent, curb, negate and even prevent the harm to society caused by monopolistic behaviors. Penalty Modesty principle with the criminal law requires the minimization of the scope of criminal penalty, and is only applied when other means of legal responsibility fail to achieve the intended effect. Focus object of criminal liability sanction is not the monopolistic state, but the behavior, especially serious illegal monopolistic behavior. Responsibility scope with criminal penalties should be strictly limited to those with a serious, clear nature of monopolistic behaviors, in particular, to those such as joint restricting competition expressed as a fixed price, market division, output restriction, abuse of dominant market position, and the administrative monopoly. The sanction object should be limited to those with obviously illegal, destructive and serious monopolistic behaviors, but not the general, non-important, and non-illegal monopoly behaviors. Besides, we should learn from developed countries'concept of Deserving Penalty, take legislative measures of serious monopoly acts deserving serious and further clarify and refine the boundaries of crime monopoly and non-crime monopoly, so as to enhance the intensity of criminal sanctions.
引文
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    (?) See Richard A Posner. Antitrust Law, second edition[M].The University of Chicago Press, Chicago and London, 2001:268.
    ① See Richard A Posner. Antitrust Law, second edition[M].The University of Chicago Press, Chicago and London, 2001:314-315.
    ①漆多俊著.经济法基础理论(第4版)[M].北京:法律出版社,2008:140.
    ①陈洪玲,李万涛,邢延龄.论国外反垄断法的法律责任制度[Jl.当代法学,2001(9):37-38.
    行政罚款完全是以经济利益的调节为基础,因为违法行为所得经济利益完全由企业获得,而罚款这种制裁的机理是通过处以等于或超过违法行为所得非法收入额的罚款,使得违法者得不偿失,理性的经济人-般会对其行为的经济效益进行评估然后才采取行动,只要企业违法的成本高于违法的收益,它自然会作出理性选择:不从事违法行为。参见李国海.反垄断法实施机制研究[M].北京:中国方正出版社,2006:196.
    ②参见林山田著.刑法学[M].台北:台湾商务印书馆,1992:28.
    ③民事责任主要指民事法律规范针对违法行为者所施加的、与民事制裁措施密切相关的、以恢复受害者所遭受损害的强制责任形式。参见余能斌,马俊驹主编.现代民法学[M].武汉:武汉大学出版社,1995:659.
    See Julian O. Von Kalinowski (general editor). World Law of Competition[J]. Gordon Kaiser, Vol.1,1999:3-144.
    刘宁元.论反垄断法实施体制的政策目标和运作原则[J].华东政法学院学报,2005(5):40-46.
    ②[美]马歇尔·C·霍华德.美国反托拉斯法与贸易法规[M].孙南申译.北京:中国社会科学出版社,1991:1.
    See 15 U. S. C 1.Amendments [EB/OL]. available at http://uscode.house.gov/search/criteria.shtml,2010-09-26.
    ②吴玉岭.扼制市场之恶:美国反垄断政策解读[M].南京:南京大学出版社,2007:282.
    ③参见白雪洁.当代竞争政策的影响因素及其对我国反垄断法的启示[J].云南社会科学,2008(1):118-122.
    ①吴玉岭.扼制市场之恶:美国反垄断政策解读[M].南京:南京大学出版社,2007:156.
    ①焦海涛.论《反垄断法》中经营者的认定标准[J].东方法学,2008(5):146-153.
    ①[日]根岸哲,舟田正之著.日本禁止垄断法概论》(第三版)[M].王为农,陈杰译.北京:中国法制出版社,2007:127.
    ①徐昕.法律的私人执行[J].法学研究,2004(1):18-29.
    李国海.反垄断法实施机制研究[M].北京:中国方正出版社,2006:32.
    ②See Lawrence J.Private Antlitrust Litigation[M].MIT Press,White(edited),2001:11.
    ① See Gary S. Becker. Crime and Punishment: An Economic Approach[J]. Journal of Political Economy,1968: 76-169.
    ②参见邱兴隆著.关于惩罚的哲学——刑罚根据论[M].北京:法律出版社,2000:1-9.
    ② See W. D. Ross. The Right and The Good[M]. Clarendon Press,1930:56-64.
    ① See Donald Dewey. The Economic Theory of Antitrust: Science or Religion? [M]. In Richard E. Low (ed.), The Economic of Antitrust,1968:71.
    ① See Richard A Posner. Antitrust Law(second edition)[M].The University of Chicago Press, Chicago and London,2001:267.
    ②[美]罗伯特·考特,托马斯·尤伦著.法和经济学[M].张军等译.北京:上海三联书店,上海人民出版社,1994:714.
    ③邱兴隆.关于惩罚的哲学——刑罚根据论[M].北京:法律出版社,2000:1-9.
    (?)[日]铃木满著.日本反垄断法解说[M].武晋伟,王玉辉译.郑州:河南大学出版社,2004:116.
    (?)陈婉玲,曹书.论经济法责任“天平归责原则”的构建[C].载漆多俊主编.经济法论丛(第13卷)[M].北京:中国方正出版社,2007:87.
    ①路德维希·艾哈德(德国著名经济学家)认为,竞争能促进经济发展,并使人们特别是广大消费者从中获得种种实惠和利益,其随着生产力的提开而不断创造出社会繁荣发展的局面。参见[德]路德维希·艾哈德.来自竞争的繁荣[M].祝世康,穆家骥合译.北京:商务印书馆,1983:11.
    ②[美]格伯尔著.二十世纪欧洲的法律与j竞争:捍卫普罗米修斯[M].冯克利,魏志梅译.北京:中国社会科学出版社,2004:1.
    ①王晓晔.《中国人民共和国反垄断法》析评[J].法学研究,2008(4):68-82.
    ① See Ronan P. Harty. United States Chapter, in Getting the Deal Through - Merger Control 2008 [EB/O L].http://www.gettingthedealthrough.com.
    ②如《欧共体条约》第八十六条规定,成员国不得对其国有企业或其他享有专有权、特权的企业采取任何背离欧共体条约及其竞争政策的措施;《欧共体条约》第八十七条规定,成员国不得优待其国内个别企业或者生产部门,危害共同体市场中的自由公正竞争。参见王晓哗.《中国人民共和国反垄断法》析评[J].法学研究,2008(4):68-82.
    ① See Richard Hofstadter. What Happened to the Antitrust Movement? In the Paranoid Style in American Politics and Other Essays[J].Alfred A. Knopf,1965:210-211.
    ②陈兵.本身违法原则的早期特征对我国反垄断立法的启示[J].法学杂志,2006(2):137-139.
    ③余东华.转型期中国反行政性垄断中违法判定原则的选择——从本身违法原则到合理原则[J].天津社会科学,2008(1):80-85.
    ④参见吴汉洪,张晓楹.对反垄断中合理规则的经济学思考[J].中国人民大学学报,2003(6):83-88.
    ⑤ See NCAA v. Board of Regents,468 U.S.85,104(1984).
    (?)伊从宽.竞争政策与与经济发展[C].载王晓哗,伊从宽主编.竞争法与经济发展[M].北京:社会科学文献出版社,2003:5.
    ②王晓哗.我国反垄断行政执法机构多元化的难题[C].载吴志攀主编.经济法学家[M].北京:北京大学出版社,2006:281-283.
    (?)涂崇禹.中国反垄断法中受害人的司法救济程序初探[C].载游劝荣.反垄断法比较研究[M].北京:人民法院出版社,2006:606.
    ②刘桂清.反垄断执法中的非正式执行手段研究[C].载吴志攀主编.经济法学家[M].北京:北京大学出版社,2006:275.
    王先林,何敏.论我国反垄断立法中的调查处理程序制度[J].中国工商管理研究,2006(7):25-27.
    ②程宝山,刘欣然.建立与完善我国反垄断司法机制[C].载吴志攀主编.经济法学家[M].北京:北京大学出版社,2006:290.
    ①李波.公共执法与私人执法的比较经济研究[M].北京:北京大学出版社,2008:25.
    ②陈洪玲,李万涛,邢延龄.论国外反垄断法的法律责任制度[J].当代法学,2001(9):37-38.
    ③反垄断民事法律责任保护的对象为市场上普通经营者、消费者或其他社会组织,与一般民事责任的保护对象相同;反垄断民事法律责任一般有排除侵害与损害赔偿两种责任形式,这也是来自传统民事责任的规定。参见董沛.反垄断法民事责任研究——兼论《反垄断法》第五十条[J].广东商学院学报,2008(2),88-92.
    ①李波.公共执法与私人执法的比较经济研究[M].北京:北京大学出版社,2008:28.
    ② See Bryan A. Gamer.Damages awaked in addition to actual damages when the defendant acted with recklessness, malice, or deceit[M].Black's Law Dictionary(7th ed.),West Group,2000:322.
    ①:王立峰.论惩罚性损害赔偿[C].梁彗星主编.民商法论从(第15期)[M].北京:法律出版社,2000:64.
    ② See John F. Vargo. The American Rule on Attorney Fee Allocation:The Injure Person's Access to Justice[J]. Am. U.L. Rev.,1993(42):1575-1578.
    ③谢邦宇,李静堂.民事责任[M].北京:法律出版社,1991:4.
    ①曾世雄.损害赔偿法原理[M].北京:中国政法大学出版社,2001:7.
    ①美国《谢尔曼法》第七条规定:“任何因反托拉斯法所禁止的事项而遭受财产或营业损害的人,可在被告居住的、被发现的,或有代理机构的区向美国区法院提起诉讼,不论损害大小,一律给予其损害额的三倍赔偿、诉讼费和合理的律师费”。参见尚明主编.主要国家(地区)反垄断法律汇编[M].北京:法律出版社,2004:187.
    ②王利明.美国惩罚性赔偿制度研究[C].载王利明主编.民商法研究(第6辑)[M].北京:法律出版社,2004:633.
    ①时建中主编.反垄断法——法典释评与学理探源[Ml.北京:中国人民大学出版社,2008:468.
    ②赖源河.公平交易法新论[M].台北:月旦出版股份有限公司,1997:460.
    ③韩国2005年《规制垄断与公平交易法》第五十六条规定,个体或组织的市场主体违反本法规定而致使他人遭受损害,应对该受害者承担民事损害赔偿责任,但如能证明自身无过失或故意的市场主体除外。俄罗斯2001年《关于自然垄断的俄罗斯联邦第147号法》第十七条规定,自然垄断实体违反本法作为或不作为造成损失的,包括对另一实体实施掠夺性定价造成损失的,应当依据民事法律的规定进行赔偿。参见时建中主编.反垄断法——法典释评与学理探源[M].北京:中国人民大学出版社,2008:469.
    ④刘宁元.中外反垄断法实施体制研究[M].北京:北京大学出版社,2005:101.
    ⑤朱一飞.论经营者的公平竞争权[J].政法论从,2005(1):65-70.
    ①垄断行为不仅与交易行为紧密相连,还易造成对交易行为构成威胁、损害,在交易过程中极易出现单方的不对等权力,滋生损害的外部性,而经济法责任突出对公共权力的限制和损害赔偿相互结合来提供救济。参见邓峰.论经济法上的责任——公共责任与财务责任的融合[J].中国人民大学学报,2003(3):146-153.
    ② See Dietrich Hoffman, Stefen Schaub. The German Competition Law[M].Kluwer Law & Taxation publishers, 1983:105.
    ③刘迎霜.浅析我国反垄断法中的民事责任[J].南京社会科学,2009(1):105-110.
    ①张守文.经济法理论的重构[M].北京:人民出版社,2004:435-436.
    李俊峰.私人实施反垄断法问题研究[D].上海:华东政法学院博士学位论文,2007:108-109.
    ②王利明.惩罚性赔偿研究[J].中国社会科学,2000(4):112-122.
    ③王健.反垄断私人执行——基本原理与外国法制[M].北京:法律出版社,2008:68.
    ④ See John S. Martin. Private Antitrust Litigation In Europe: Whate Fence is High Enough to Keep out the US Litigation Cowboy[J]. E.L. Rev.2008,33(1):23-43.
    ⑤ See Commission Green Paper. Damages actions for breach of the EC antitrust rules[R].SEC,2005:1732.
    ①该学者认为,美国的绝对三倍损害赔偿制度,日本、韩国的单倍损害赔偿制度,以及我国台湾地区实行的酌定三倍损害赔偿制度,都不应成为我国反垄断法直接借鉴的对象,也不能直接成为我国反垄断法律民事责任形式的最佳方式,反垄断法的双倍损害赔偿制度既符合我国立法的现实选择,也最适合我国反垄断法的立法和实施环境。参见李国海.反垄断法制裁手段研究[C].载漆多俊主编.经济法论丛[M].北京:中国方正出版社,2005:194-195.
    ②李国海.反垄断法实施机制研究[M].北京:中国方正出版社,2006:205.
    ③董沛.反垄断法民事责任研究——兼论《反垄断法》第五十条[J].广东商学院学报,2008(2):88-92.
    ①《谢尔曼法》第七条和《克莱顿法》第四条规定,任何因反托拉斯法所禁止的事项而遭受财产或营业损害的人,可在被告居住的、被发现的、或有代理机构的区向美国区法院提起诉讼,不论损害大小,一律给予其损害额的三倍赔偿诉讼费和合理的律师费。《谢尔曼法》第七条A和《克莱顿法》第四条A规定,无论何时美国因反托拉斯法所禁止的事项而遭受财产及事业损害时,美国可在被告居住的、被发现的、或有代理机构的区向美国区法院提起诉讼,不论损害数额大小一律予以赔偿其遭受的实际损失和诉讼费。参见尚明主编.主要国家(地区)反垄断法律汇编[M].北京:法律出版社,2004:187.
    ②《克莱顿法》第四条C规定,州司法长还可以作为政府监护人,代表其州内自然人的利益,可以本州的名义,向对被告有司法管辖权的美国区法院提起民事诉讼,以确保其自然人因他人违反《谢尔曼法》所遭受的损害得到金钱救济,可以请求损害额的三倍赔偿。参见尚明主编.主要国家(地区)反垄断法律汇编[M].北京:法律出版社,2004:190.
    ③参见高菲著.论美国反托拉斯法及其域外适用[Ml.广州:中山大学出版社,1993:33.
    ④ See Ernest Gellhorn, William, E. Kovacic. Antitrust Law and Economics[M].West publishing Co.4th edition,1994:462.
    ④[美]马歇尔·C·霍华德.美国反托拉斯法与贸易法规[M].孙南申译.北京:中国社会科学出版社,1991:58.
    ①[日]栗田诚著.反垄断法的民事救济制度[C].张军建译.载漆多俊主编.经济法论从(第6卷)[M].北京:中国方正出版社,2002:30.
    ②《克莱顿》第十四条规定:“授权美国区法院行使司法权来防止和限制违反本法,各区的检察官,依据司法部长的指示,在其各自区内提起衡平诉讼,以防止和限制违反本法行为。起诉可以诉状形式要求禁止违法行为。”《克莱顿》第十五条规定:“对违反反托拉斯法造成的威胁性损失或受害,任何人、商号、公司、联合会都可向对当事人有管辖权的法院起诉和获得禁止性救济。”参见尚明主编.主要国家(地区)反垄断法律汇编[M].北京:法律出版社,2004:203.
    ③向立力.美国反托拉斯法律责任介评[C].载李明发主编.安徽大学法律评论(总第17辑)[M].合肥:安徽人民出版社,2010:54.
    ①[日]栗田诚著.反垄断法的民事救济制度[C].张军建译.载漆多俊主编.经济法论丛[M].北京:中国方正出版社,2002:31.
    ②参见吴秀明,梁哲玮:德国限制竞争防止法——最新修正内容及全文翻译(1)[J].台北大学法学论从,第64期,194-195.
    ①参见吴秀明,梁哲玮.德国限制竞争防止法——最新修正内容及全文翻译(1)[J].台北大学法学论从,第64期,196-197.
    ②参见李国海.反垄断法实施机制研究[M].北京:中国方正出版社,2006:214-215.
    (?)李国海著.英国竞争法研究[M].北京:法律出版社,2008:98.
    ② See Clifford A. Jones. Private Enforcement of Antitrust Law in the EU, UK, and USA[M].Oxford University Press,1999:136-137.
    ① See Department of Trade and Industry. Productivity and Enterprise: A World Class Competition Regime[R]. 2001, Para.8.
    ②李国海著.英国竞争法研究[Ml.北京:法律出版社,2008:259.
    ③ See Mark Furse. Competition and the Enterprise Act 2002[M].Jordans,2003:159.
    ④日本《禁止垄断法》第六十七条规定,法院可根据公正交易委员会的要求,在紧急情况时,对某些有违法嫌疑的事业者颁发暂时停止该行为的命令、暂时停止公司业务执行的命令以及变更、取消该命令。参见李国海.反垄断法实施维度论析[Jl.法治研究,2007(5):36-40.
    ⑤日本《禁止垄断法》第二十四条(停止请求)规定,因违反第八条第一款第五项的规定而致使利益遭受侵害或可能遭受侵害的当事方可向侵害或可能侵害其利益的事业人团体提出预防或停止该侵害的请求。参见王玉辉.日本反垄断法损害赔偿制度探讨[J].现代财经,2005(7):60-64.
    参见李国海.反垄断法实施机制研究[M].北京:中国方正出版社,2006:216.
    ①[日]栗田诚著.反垄断法的民事救济制度[C].张军建译.载漆多俊主编.经济法论从[M].北京:中国方正出版社,2002:43.
    ②有关惩罚性损害赔偿的规定,在中世纪之前的法典中均可见其踪迹,如十二木表法、罗马法时期等等,详细的历史起源,参见陈聪富.美国法上之损害赔偿制度[J].台大法学论丛,第31卷第5期,167.
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    ③ See J. Truett Payne Co. v. Chrysler Motors Corp.,451 U. S.566(1981).
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    ①行政法律责任简称为“行政责任”,它并非基于政治原则或道德规范而产生,而基于国家制定的行政法律规范产生,是一种法律责任。参见梁津明.论行政机关及其公务员行政法律责任[J].法学家,1999(4):25-33.
    ②参见应松年主编.行政法与行政诉讼法词典[M].北京:中国政法大学出版社,1992:209.
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    ①一个救济体系的基本目标是威慑人们不敢违反法律。另一个目标是对违法行为的受害者进行补偿,但这是一个次要的目标,因为,一个规划合理的威慑休系将把违法的机率降低到一个很低的水平,而且,像我们将要看到的那样,作为副产品,这样一个体系将会保证充分的补偿,除非补偿的执行成本高得无法承受。参见[美]理查德·A·波斯纳著.反托拉斯法(第一二版)[M].孙秋宁译.北京:中国政法大学出版社,2003:313.
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    ④ See Anne Marie G. Whittemore. Compliance with Divestiture Orders under Section 7 of the Clayton Act: An Analysis of the Relief Obtained[J]. Antitrust Bulletin,1972:17-19.
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    ①1999年阿姆斯特丹条约生效后,原欧共体条约序号发生变化,其第八十五、八十六条变为现在的第八十、八十二条。参见李国海.论反垄断法制裁手段及其范围[J].中南大学学报(社会科学版),2005(2):193-198.
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    ①[西]安德雷斯·冯特·葛拉雷兹(Andres Font Galarza)等著.欧盟企业合并控制制度:法律、经济与实践分析[M].解琳,叶军译.北京:法律出版社,2009:348.
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    ⑥ [EB/OL].http://www.bundeskartellamt.de/wEnglisch/index.php (Bundes K.artellamt),2007-09-16.
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    《1/2003条例》第二十四条规定,委员会可以作出决定,对企业或企业协会处以日罚款,即从决定作出之日起迟延一天,征收不超过其上一经营年度日平均营业额5%的罚款。参见时建中.反垄断法——法典解释与与学理探源[M].北京:中国人民大学出版社,2008:432.
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    全称即EC Commission Guidelines on the method of setting fines imposed pursuant to Art.15(2),of Re gulation No.17 and Art.65(5) of the EC Treaty,以下简称为欧共体1998年行政罚款指南。
    ②唐要家、唐春晖.卡特尔罚金的确定方法及其效能[J].中国物价,2009(7):16-19.
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    ④简称为2006减免通知,See Europe Commission. Commission Notice on Immunity From Fines and Reduction of Fines in Cartel Cases[R]. O. J. C298/17(2006).
    ⑤参考郑鹏程著.反垄断法专题研究[M].北京:法律出版社,2008:220-224.
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    ①有学者提出,违法行为是否具备应刑罚性,应考察其是否具备一定的要素条件标准:其一、破坏法益是否达到一定的限度、程度或价值金额,是否破坏重大法益;其二、是否具有侵害社会客体的严重危险性或危害性;其三、是否具有良心主观上的可谴责性;其四,是否具有不可避免性。参见赖源河.公平交易法新论[M].北京:中国政法大学出版社,2002:462-465.
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    ③刑罚只足其他法律制裁手段之补充手段,而非对抗不法行为之主要或唯一手段。故若以其他手段,亦能达成防止不法行为发生之效果,即应优先采用其他手段。只在别无选择时,才动用刑罚。参见赖河源编审.公平交易法新论[M].北京:中国政法大学出版社,2002:464.
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    ②李国海著.反垄断法实施机制研究[M].北京:中国方正出版社,2006:156.
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    ①See Sir Jeremy Lever Q. C.; John Pike. Cartel Agreements, Criminal Conspiracy and the Statutory "Cartel Offence"----Part 1[J]. E. C. L. R., Issue 2,3,2005.
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    ②参见邱兴隆.撩开刑罚的面纱——刑罚功能论[J].法学研究,1998(6):56-75.
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    (?)尚明.主要国家(地区)反垄断法律汇编[M].北京:法律出版社,2004:816.
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    ①王健.威慑理念下的反垄断法刑事制裁制度——兼评《中华人民共和国反垄断法(修改稿)》的相关规定[J].法商研究,2006(1):3-11.
    ②参见[荷兰]伍特·威尔思.欧洲共同体竞争法中的罚款处罚[C].李国海译.载漆多俊主编.经济法论从(第5卷)[M].北京:中国方正出版社,2001:276.
    ③参见邵建东.我国反垄断法应当设置刑事制裁制度[J].南京大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2004(4):14-18.
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    ③这7家公司是F. Hoffmann-Laroche(5亿美元,1999年)BASF AG(2.25亿美元,1999年);Infineon Technologies AG(1.60亿美元,2004年)SGI, Carbon AG(1.35亿美元,1999年);Mitsubishi Corp (1.34亿美元,2001年);UCAR(1.10亿美元,1998年);ADM(1亿美元,1996年)。参见郑鹏程著.反垄断法专题研究[M].北京:法律出版社,2008:247.
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    ①在英国法学家边沁所著《立法理论——刑法典原理》和我国台湾地区学者林山田所著《刑罚学》中都有权威论述,本处不再赘述。参见李国海.反垄断法实施机制研究[M].北京:中国方正出版社,2006:165.
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    ③具体是指1999年证监会发布的《关于不得限制中介机构跨地区执行证券相关业务的通知》和2001年国家烟草专卖局发布的《关于禁止卷烟经营实行地区封锁的规定》。参见郭宗杰.行政垄断之问题与j规制[M].北京:法律出版社,2007:154-159.
    (?)孙晋.我国《反垄断法》法律责任制度的缺失及其完善fJl.法律适用,2009(11):39-49.
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    ①李俊峰.垄断损害赔偿倍率问题研究——兼论我国反垄断法草案的相关制度选择[J].比较法研究,2007(4):105-114.
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    ②在欧洲,未实施反竞争协议最多可以减少10%或20%的罚款,而不会从1000万元或1亿元人民币减少到200万元人民币。参见[希腊]乔治·麦塔沙克斯.中国反垄断法草案中的法律责任——比较法的评论[J].载王晓哗主编.反垄断立法热点问题[M].北京:社会科学文献出版社,2007:168.
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