欧盟与性别平等
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摘要
本文是关于欧盟女性决策参与发展的初步研究,除了探讨欧盟制度对于其内部女性决策参与发展的影响,也力图对女性政治参与发展的影响因素进行探索。本文在欧洲一体化的背景下,运用文献分析、定性分析与定量分析相结合、案例分析等研究方法,以女性决策参与为例,对欧洲一体化过程中欧盟制度在纠正决策过程中不平等的性别关系上发挥的作用做了较为深入的分析。
随着经济和社会的发展,消除基于性别的一切形式的歧视和改善女性地位已成为大多数国家社会、经济和政治发展日程上的重要事项,1995年联合国第四次世界妇女大会再次强调了男女平等的重要意义,性别平等成为人权问题和社会正义的条件以及平等、发展与和平的先决条件。与此同时,伴随着性别平等的全面展开,女性同男性平等参与决策过程也成为性别平等的重要内容和性别平等实现状况的重要量度。正因为与公正和民主紧密相关,在任何决策层面缺少女性的积极参与和女性视角的融入,平等、发展与民主的目标都是无法实现的。因此,可以说保证女性平等进入权力和决策机构当中,并提高女性参与决策的能力和作为领导者的能力不仅是民主的必然要求也是民主国家必须要承担的责任。随着区域化和全球化的发展,参与推动女性决策参与发展的行为者也超越了民族国家的界限发展到跨国和国际层面。其中,由于具有区别于其他国际组织的独特性,欧盟在女性决策参与发展中起到的作用相对于其他组织和机构更为引人注目。
伴随着欧洲一体化的不断深入,欧盟制度对于成员国制度的影响力也逐渐增大,其发挥影响的范围也由最初的经济领域扩展到社会领域。尽管建立共同社会政策的进程进展缓慢,但作为社会政策的一个重要组成部分的性别政策却得到了较为充分的发展。进入20世纪90年代,在女性主义运动的推动下,欧盟将一体化之初对女性职业生活领域平等的关注扩大到社会和政治领域,与此同时,女性决策参与对于欧盟继续发展的重要性的加强也促使欧盟开始关注决策过程中的性别平等,并提出和实施了一些相关构想和措施,欧盟制度成为影响其内部女性决策参与的重要因素之一。而欧盟制度之所以将女性决策参与列入议事日程主要基于以下背景:一是20世纪90年代以来女性主义理论及运动策略由“远离”政治制度与政治机构转变为重新关注女性在决策机构中的代表、力图排除决策过程中由性别而产生的歧视。作为一种外在的推动力量,女性主义战略的变化使女性决策参与问题作为一个新的关注点出现在欧盟(共同体)成员国的议事日程上,进而又提升到超国家层面,不仅对欧盟委员会、欧洲议会以及欧盟理事会产生了一定程度的压力,也在女性决策参与问题上赋予超国家机构以更多的期待。二是女性决策参与状况的改善对于欧盟的发展也具有重要的意义,不仅有利于增强民主性,还有助于实现人力资源的有效利用等等。
在这一背景下,欧盟制度从法律、机构和政策三个层面对女性决策参与的发展做出了推动。在立法上,除了在基本条约中对性别平等给予规定,为女性平等参与决策建立坚实的法律基础,还制定了部分二级立法和大量的软法,对欧盟层面和成员国层面女性决策参与发展给予框架上的指导;在机构层面,欧盟超国家层面机构的建立和发展为女性决策参与提供了重要的政治空间和政治机会,并通过在欧盟主要机构中建立的负责性别平等事务的部门的活动积极推动欧盟机构内部的性别平等;在政策层面,欧盟为了提高女性决策参与水平制定了一系列直接和间接的政策,直接政策包括资金支持、数据收集、监督成员国行动、性别主流化等,间接政策主要包括在能够对女性决策参与起到积极推进作用的就业、家庭角色分工和教育培训中促进性别平等的政策。
经过十几年的努力,欧盟制度对于女性决策参与的推动作用也逐步显现出来。对于欧盟制度推动效用的考察主要从两个相互关联的层面进行:一是从欧盟层面,以整体上的经验性数据和个例研究分析欧盟相关制度的建立和发展是否带来女性决策参与水平的变化。二是从成员国制度层面,即分析欧盟制度是否对成员国制度产生了影响。通过分析我们发现,20世纪90年代以后无论是成员国还是欧盟层面参与决策过程的女性数量都有了一定程度的增长,并且在女性决策参与问题上,欧盟制度的确引起了部分成员国立法和政策方面出现某些变化,欧盟机构的行动及其推进女性决策参与的立法、政策已经在欧盟范围内塑造了一种有利的氛围,为女性同男性平等参与决策提供了非正式制度因素的力量支持。总体来看,20世纪90年代以来的欧盟制度建设与同期女性决策参与发展之间体现出了一种正相关的关系。尽管如此,女性决策参与的现状仍无法达到同男性平等的水平,而女性决策参与问题本身的复杂性、欧盟制度上存在的问题以及欧盟立法、政策落实过程中存在的障碍则是导致上述结果的主要原因。
从结构上来讲,全文共分三个部分,第一部分为导言,对问题的提出及研究意义的阐释、国内外研究现状的总结、研究对象与基本概念界定以及论文框架等作出介绍。之后的主体部分分为三章,从欧盟制度推动女性决策参与发展的背景,欧盟制度推动女性决策参与发展的具体行动以及欧盟制度推动女性决策参与的效用及存在的问题进行了深入探讨。最后一部分是结论,结论部分除了对本文的研究作以总结外,也对本文的研究结论给予进一步的经验性分析和理论解释。
The thesis is the primary study about the women's participation in decision-making. The purpose of the thesis is exploring not only the effect of EU institution in promoting women's participation in decision-making within it but also the influencing factors of women's political participation in order to meet the demand of gender equality. Depending on the background of European integration, this study makes a comprehensive research about the effects of EU institution in making the unequal gender relation right in the process of decision-making.
With the gradual development of economy and society, eliminating all kinds of discriminations based on Gender and improving women's position in society have became important issues on the social, economic and political development agendas in many countries of the world. The United Nations Fourth World Conference on Women held in 1995 emphasized the significance of the equality between men and women, and then gender equality became the condition of human rights and social justice and the precondition of equality, development and peace. At the same time, women's participation in decision-making process equally to men has become an important content of gender equality and important indicator of the realization of gender equality following the totally launch of gender equality. Just because of the close connection with justice and democracy, the aim of equality, development and democracy can not be realized without women's participation and perspective in any decision-making level. So it is a truth that guaranteeing women's participation in power and decision-making and improving women's ability to be a leader are not only the demands of democracy but also the responsibilities of nation states. With the development of regionalization and globalization, the actors who participate in promoting women's participation in decision-making are both within nation states and on transactional, international level. Among these, the effect of EU institution is more notable than other institutions and agents because of its specificity different from other international organization.
Along with the deepening and expanding of European integration, the influence of EU institution has also been greatly enhanced, the range of its effect has expended from economic domain to social domain. Although the process of establishing the social policy in EU was very slow, gender policy as a main part of social policy got sufficient development. Since entering 21th century, EU has expended its attention from the equality of women in career to social and political field. At the same time, the increase about importance of women's participation in decision-making process for the continuous development of EU promoted EU to pay close attention to gender equality in decision-making process and raise, implement some relevant idea and measures. EU institution became one of the key factors which can affect the condition of women's participation in decision-making. The main background of the promotion for women's participation in decision-making contains two sides. The first is that the strategy of feminism has changed from deviating to paying more attention to the representation of female in decision-making agencies and trying to eliminate the discrimination in the decision-making process. The change made women's participation in decision-making emerge on the calendar of EU member states as a new point then raise to EU level. The second is that women's participation in decision-making is important for the development of EU and favorable for a strong democracy and effective utilization human resources.
In this context EU institution promote women's participation in decision-making from legal, institution and policy dimension. In legislation, EU gives framework guidance to member states by making some secondary legislations and many soft laws excepted the regulating for women's equal right to participate in the decision-making by EC Treaties. In institutions, the setting up and development of EU institutions afford important power position and political opportunities to Women's participation in decision-making and pushing forward the equality within EU institutions by the actions of main agencies which in charge of gender equality issues. In policy dimension, EU formulates a series of direct and indirect policies to improve women's participation in decision-making process. The direct policies include financial support, collecting data, supervising actions of member states, gender mainstreaming and so on. The indirect policies include the gender equality policies of employment, men and women's role in family, education and training that have positive effects to women's participation in decision-making.
After more than ten years efforts, the effects of EU institution in promoting women's participation in decision-making are appearing gradually. The evaluation for effectiveness of EU institution in promoting will be launched from EU and member states level. We can conclude from the analysis that the condition of women's participation in decision-making on both level has raised to a certain extent from 1990s and on the question of women's participation in decision-making EU institution really has led to some changes in member states. At the same time the EU institution has shaped a positive environment which affords an informal effect within EU. In general, after 1990s there is a positive correlation between the construction of EU institution and the situation of women's participation in decision-making. For all that, the current situation of women's participation in decision-making still can not meet the challenge of gender equality. There are three main reasons which lead to the result. The first is that the issue- women's participation in decision-making is complex; the second is that there are some limitations existing in EU institutions and, the third one is that there are some obstacles in the process of putting EU legislations and policies into practice.
Seen from the framework, the essay is composed of three parts: the first part is the introduction, which gives a presentation on the raising of questions, the significance of research, and reviews of the present research status at home and abroad, the research aim, major research methods and basic concepts, the framework of the thesis. Then the second part is the body which includes three chapters provides a deep discussion about the basic problems from three aspects. Those are the background of the promoting action of EU institution in women's participation in decision-making, the concrete actions of EU institution, the effectiveness of EU institution in promoting and some existing problems. The last part is the conclusion. It includes a deep analysis for the research result on experienced and theoretical perspective excepting the conclusion on the research.
随着经济和社会的发展,消除基于性别的一切形式的歧视和改善女性地位已成为大多数国家社会、经济和政治发展日程上的重要事项,1995年联合国第四次世界妇女大会再次强调了男女平等的重要意义,性别平等成为人权问题和社会正义的条件以及平等、发展与和平的先决条件。与此同时,伴随着性别平等的全面展开,女性同男性平等参与决策过程也成为性别平等的重要内容和性别平等实现状况的重要量度。正因为与公正和民主紧密相关,在任何决策层面缺少女性的积极参与和女性视角的融入,平等、发展与民主的目标都是无法实现的。因此,可以说保证女性平等进入权力和决策机构当中,并提高女性参与决策的能力和作为领导者的能力不仅是民主的必然要求也是民主国家必须要承担的责任。随着区域化和全球化的发展,参与推动女性决策参与发展的行为者也超越了民族国家的界限发展到跨国和国际层面。其中,由于具有区别于其他国际组织的独特性,欧盟在女性决策参与发展中起到的作用相对于其他组织和机构更为引人注目。
伴随着欧洲一体化的不断深入,欧盟制度对于成员国制度的影响力也逐渐增大,其发挥影响的范围也由最初的经济领域扩展到社会领域。尽管建立共同社会政策的进程进展缓慢,但作为社会政策的一个重要组成部分的性别政策却得到了较为充分的发展。进入20世纪90年代,在女性主义运动的推动下,欧盟将一体化之初对女性职业生活领域平等的关注扩大到社会和政治领域,与此同时,女性决策参与对于欧盟继续发展的重要性的加强也促使欧盟开始关注决策过程中的性别平等,并提出和实施了一些相关构想和措施,欧盟制度成为影响其内部女性决策参与的重要因素之一。而欧盟制度之所以将女性决策参与列入议事日程主要基于以下背景:一是20世纪90年代以来女性主义理论及运动策略由“远离”政治制度与政治机构转变为重新关注女性在决策机构中的代表、力图排除决策过程中由性别而产生的歧视。作为一种外在的推动力量,女性主义战略的变化使女性决策参与问题作为一个新的关注点出现在欧盟(共同体)成员国的议事日程上,进而又提升到超国家层面,不仅对欧盟委员会、欧洲议会以及欧盟理事会产生了一定程度的压力,也在女性决策参与问题上赋予超国家机构以更多的期待。二是女性决策参与状况的改善对于欧盟的发展也具有重要的意义,不仅有利于增强民主性,还有助于实现人力资源的有效利用等等。
在这一背景下,欧盟制度从法律、机构和政策三个层面对女性决策参与的发展做出了推动。在立法上,除了在基本条约中对性别平等给予规定,为女性平等参与决策建立坚实的法律基础,还制定了部分二级立法和大量的软法,对欧盟层面和成员国层面女性决策参与发展给予框架上的指导;在机构层面,欧盟超国家层面机构的建立和发展为女性决策参与提供了重要的政治空间和政治机会,并通过在欧盟主要机构中建立的负责性别平等事务的部门的活动积极推动欧盟机构内部的性别平等;在政策层面,欧盟为了提高女性决策参与水平制定了一系列直接和间接的政策,直接政策包括资金支持、数据收集、监督成员国行动、性别主流化等,间接政策主要包括在能够对女性决策参与起到积极推进作用的就业、家庭角色分工和教育培训中促进性别平等的政策。
经过十几年的努力,欧盟制度对于女性决策参与的推动作用也逐步显现出来。对于欧盟制度推动效用的考察主要从两个相互关联的层面进行:一是从欧盟层面,以整体上的经验性数据和个例研究分析欧盟相关制度的建立和发展是否带来女性决策参与水平的变化。二是从成员国制度层面,即分析欧盟制度是否对成员国制度产生了影响。通过分析我们发现,20世纪90年代以后无论是成员国还是欧盟层面参与决策过程的女性数量都有了一定程度的增长,并且在女性决策参与问题上,欧盟制度的确引起了部分成员国立法和政策方面出现某些变化,欧盟机构的行动及其推进女性决策参与的立法、政策已经在欧盟范围内塑造了一种有利的氛围,为女性同男性平等参与决策提供了非正式制度因素的力量支持。总体来看,20世纪90年代以来的欧盟制度建设与同期女性决策参与发展之间体现出了一种正相关的关系。尽管如此,女性决策参与的现状仍无法达到同男性平等的水平,而女性决策参与问题本身的复杂性、欧盟制度上存在的问题以及欧盟立法、政策落实过程中存在的障碍则是导致上述结果的主要原因。
从结构上来讲,全文共分三个部分,第一部分为导言,对问题的提出及研究意义的阐释、国内外研究现状的总结、研究对象与基本概念界定以及论文框架等作出介绍。之后的主体部分分为三章,从欧盟制度推动女性决策参与发展的背景,欧盟制度推动女性决策参与发展的具体行动以及欧盟制度推动女性决策参与的效用及存在的问题进行了深入探讨。最后一部分是结论,结论部分除了对本文的研究作以总结外,也对本文的研究结论给予进一步的经验性分析和理论解释。
The thesis is the primary study about the women's participation in decision-making. The purpose of the thesis is exploring not only the effect of EU institution in promoting women's participation in decision-making within it but also the influencing factors of women's political participation in order to meet the demand of gender equality. Depending on the background of European integration, this study makes a comprehensive research about the effects of EU institution in making the unequal gender relation right in the process of decision-making.
With the gradual development of economy and society, eliminating all kinds of discriminations based on Gender and improving women's position in society have became important issues on the social, economic and political development agendas in many countries of the world. The United Nations Fourth World Conference on Women held in 1995 emphasized the significance of the equality between men and women, and then gender equality became the condition of human rights and social justice and the precondition of equality, development and peace. At the same time, women's participation in decision-making process equally to men has become an important content of gender equality and important indicator of the realization of gender equality following the totally launch of gender equality. Just because of the close connection with justice and democracy, the aim of equality, development and democracy can not be realized without women's participation and perspective in any decision-making level. So it is a truth that guaranteeing women's participation in power and decision-making and improving women's ability to be a leader are not only the demands of democracy but also the responsibilities of nation states. With the development of regionalization and globalization, the actors who participate in promoting women's participation in decision-making are both within nation states and on transactional, international level. Among these, the effect of EU institution is more notable than other institutions and agents because of its specificity different from other international organization.
Along with the deepening and expanding of European integration, the influence of EU institution has also been greatly enhanced, the range of its effect has expended from economic domain to social domain. Although the process of establishing the social policy in EU was very slow, gender policy as a main part of social policy got sufficient development. Since entering 21th century, EU has expended its attention from the equality of women in career to social and political field. At the same time, the increase about importance of women's participation in decision-making process for the continuous development of EU promoted EU to pay close attention to gender equality in decision-making process and raise, implement some relevant idea and measures. EU institution became one of the key factors which can affect the condition of women's participation in decision-making. The main background of the promotion for women's participation in decision-making contains two sides. The first is that the strategy of feminism has changed from deviating to paying more attention to the representation of female in decision-making agencies and trying to eliminate the discrimination in the decision-making process. The change made women's participation in decision-making emerge on the calendar of EU member states as a new point then raise to EU level. The second is that women's participation in decision-making is important for the development of EU and favorable for a strong democracy and effective utilization human resources.
In this context EU institution promote women's participation in decision-making from legal, institution and policy dimension. In legislation, EU gives framework guidance to member states by making some secondary legislations and many soft laws excepted the regulating for women's equal right to participate in the decision-making by EC Treaties. In institutions, the setting up and development of EU institutions afford important power position and political opportunities to Women's participation in decision-making and pushing forward the equality within EU institutions by the actions of main agencies which in charge of gender equality issues. In policy dimension, EU formulates a series of direct and indirect policies to improve women's participation in decision-making process. The direct policies include financial support, collecting data, supervising actions of member states, gender mainstreaming and so on. The indirect policies include the gender equality policies of employment, men and women's role in family, education and training that have positive effects to women's participation in decision-making.
After more than ten years efforts, the effects of EU institution in promoting women's participation in decision-making are appearing gradually. The evaluation for effectiveness of EU institution in promoting will be launched from EU and member states level. We can conclude from the analysis that the condition of women's participation in decision-making on both level has raised to a certain extent from 1990s and on the question of women's participation in decision-making EU institution really has led to some changes in member states. At the same time the EU institution has shaped a positive environment which affords an informal effect within EU. In general, after 1990s there is a positive correlation between the construction of EU institution and the situation of women's participation in decision-making. For all that, the current situation of women's participation in decision-making still can not meet the challenge of gender equality. There are three main reasons which lead to the result. The first is that the issue- women's participation in decision-making is complex; the second is that there are some limitations existing in EU institutions and, the third one is that there are some obstacles in the process of putting EU legislations and policies into practice.
Seen from the framework, the essay is composed of three parts: the first part is the introduction, which gives a presentation on the raising of questions, the significance of research, and reviews of the present research status at home and abroad, the research aim, major research methods and basic concepts, the framework of the thesis. Then the second part is the body which includes three chapters provides a deep discussion about the basic problems from three aspects. Those are the background of the promoting action of EU institution in women's participation in decision-making, the concrete actions of EU institution, the effectiveness of EU institution in promoting and some existing problems. The last part is the conclusion. It includes a deep analysis for the research result on experienced and theoretical perspective excepting the conclusion on the research.
引文
[1]参见1995年联合国第四次世界妇女大会《行动纲领》。http://www.un.org/womenwatch/directory/women_in_power_and_decision_making_3007.htm[2007-08-21]
[2]非政府组织“妇女论坛”总召集人坤仁·素帕达拉·马斯蒂特在参加1995年联合国第四次世界妇女大会时的发言,参见 http://news.sina.com.cn/o/2005-08-31/19036829793s.shtml[2006-08-11]
[1][德]劳伦斯·威尔特:《现代欧洲社会主义》,达莫斯特出版社,1994年版,第98-113页。
[2]叶宗奎、王杏芳:《国际组织概论》,中国人民大学出版社,2001年版,第52页。
[3]参见国际议会联盟网站http://www.ipu.org/wmn-e/arc/world300405.htm[2006-05-12]
[4]根据国际议会联盟2005年4月数据统计,欧洲以外在其他地区女性议员平均比例分别为亚洲15.2%、撒哈拉以南非洲地区15%、美洲18.8%、阿拉伯国家8.8%,太平洋地区11.2%。参见国际议会联盟网站http://www.ipu.org/wmn-e/arc/world300405.htm[2006-05-12]
[5]在国际议会联盟网站的统计数据基础上经过笔者整理计算得出的结果。具体数据参见 http://www.ipu.org/wmn-e/classif-arc.htm[2006-05-12]
[1]Mariagrazia Rossili(ed),Gender Policies in the European UnioN,New York:Peter Lang Publishing,2000.
[2]Ibid.,p.70.
[1]Robert R.Geyer,Exploring European Social Policy,Cambrige:Polity,2000.
[2]Linda Hantrais,Social Policy and European Union,Basingstoke and New York:Palgrave Macmillan and St Martin's Press,2000.
[3]Stephan Leibfried and Paul Pierson,European social policy:between fragmentation and integration,Washington D.C:Brookings Institution Press,1995.
[4]Mona Len aKrook,"Promoting gender balanced decision-making in the European Union:International and transnational strategies for parity democracy",paper presented at the European Community Studies Association International Conference Madison,WI,May 31-June2,2001.
[5]Jane Lewis,"Work/family reconciliation,equal opportunities and social policies:the interpretation of policy trajectories at the EU level and the meaning of gender equality".Journal of European Public Policy,2006,13(3),pp.420-437.
[6]此类研究成果主要包括:Elaine S.Weiner,"The Gender Politics of the European Union's Eastward Expansion:Equal Opportunity Policies in the Czech Republic",paper prepared for "Postcommunist State and Society" seminar Maxwell School,Syracuse University http://www.maxwell.syr.edu/moynihan/programs/ces/pcconfpdfs/Weiner.pdf [2007-02-11]Myra Marx Ferree,"Framing Equality:The Politics of Race,Class,Gender in the US,Germany,and the Expanding European Union",http://www.ssc.wisc.edu/～mferree/documents/Penn-EUbook-final-1006.pdf[2007-09-22]
[1]Raquel Pastor Yuste,"The gender bias in parliamentary action:The Spanish Case",paper presented at the 2nd ECPR-Conference,Marburg,18-21 September 2003 Section No.2 "Gender and politics" Panel No.2-3 "Translating Political Equality into Practice Ⅱ".http://www.essex.ac.uk/ecpr/[2005-07-25]
[2]Pippa Norris,Joni Lovenduski and Rosie Campbell,"Closing the Activism Gap:Gender and Political Participation in Britain" http://ksghome.harvard.edu/～pnorris/Acrobat/Electoral%20Commission%20Draft%[2005-10-06]
[3]Dolores Mornodo,The situation of women in Hungary,Poland and the Czech Republic,European Parliament Division for Social Affairs and Employment,Public Health and Consumer Protection,Women's Rights,Culture,Youth,Education and the Media,Luxembourg:European Parliament,1998.
[4]Richadr E.Matland,,"Enhancing Women's Political Participation:Legislative Recruitment and Electoral Systems",http://www.idea.int/women/[2006-05-22]
[5]David M.Farrell,"Studying Electoral Institutions and their Consequences:Electoral Systems and Electoral Laws",http://repositories.cdlib.org/csd/01-05/[2006-02-02]
[6]Mona Lena Krook,"Candidate Gender Quotas:A Framework for Analysis",http://www.essex.ac.uk/ecpr/events/generalconference/marburg/papers/2/5/Krook.pdf[2007-07-21]
[7]Stina Larserud and Rita Taphorn,"Designing for Equality-Best-fit,medium-fit and non-favourable combinations of electoral systems and gender quotas",http://tinyurl.com/2tqe2d[2007-08-01]
[8]Lenita Freidenvall,"Women's Political Representation and Gender Quotas -the Swedish Case",paper presented at the ECRP conference in Marburg,Germany,September 18-21,2003.http://www.statsvet.su.se/quotas/l_freidenvall_wps_2003_2.pdf[2003-09-18]
[9]Azza Karam and Joni lovenduski,"Women in Parliament:Making a Difference",.in Azza Karam(ed.),Women in Parliament:Beyond Numbers.http://www.idea.int/women/[2005-08-23]
[10]"The Participation of Women and Men in Decision-Making:The Parliamentary Dimension",http://www.ipu.org/wmn-e/classif-arc.htm[2008-03-22]
[1]Petra Meier,Emanuela Lombardo,Maria Bustelo and Maro Pantelidou Maloutas,"Women in political decision-making and gender mainstreaming:obvious partners?" paper presented at the 2nd Pan-European Conference on EU Politics of the ECPR Standing Group on the EU Bologna 24-26 June 2004 http://www.mageeq.net/docs/magpap05.pdf[2007-03-15]
[2]近年来,国内外女性主义研究的成果颇多,例如Judith Squires,Gender in Political Theory,Malden:Polity Press,1999.John Hoffman and Blind Alley,“Defining Feminism",Politics,2001,21(4),pp.193-199.
[英]玛丽·沃斯通克拉夫特著,王蓁译:《女权辩护》,商务印书馆,1995年版。
[加]巴巴拉·阿内尔著,郭夏娟译:《政治学与女性主义》,东方出版社,2005年版。
何佩群:“德里达解构理论与女性主义政治学”,《复旦学报》(社科版),2001年第4期,第82-86页。
徐雅芬、董建辉:“女性主义与权力--政治人类学视野下的西方女性主义研究评述”,《国外社会科学》,2004年第4期,第26-31页。
董丽敏:“女性主义:本土化及其纬度”,《南开学报》(哲社版),2005年第2期,第7-12页。
[1]此类研究成果还包括:厦门大学2005年吴玲硕士论文《中国妇女参政及其影响因素分析》。“妇女与参政”,《妇女研究论丛》,2003年第3期。
荣维毅:“关于参政妇女需求的研究报告”,《妇女研究论丛》增刊2001年6月。
郭砾:“建立中国妇女参政指标体系的构想”,《学术交流》,2001年第6期等。
[2]此类研究成果主要有:张迎红:“试析欧洲国家提高妇女参政的‘最低比例制'”,《欧洲研究》,2004年第3期。
张迎红:“最低比例制”对妇女参政的影响,《中华女子学院学报》2003年第6期。
曲宏歌:“欧盟女性议会参与:选举制度视角”,《欧洲研究》,2007年第6期。
[1]刘文秀:“界定欧盟政体性质的几个因素”,《欧洲研究》,2004年第1期,第84页。
[2]刘光华、闵凡祥、舒小昀编著:《运行在国家和超国家之间:欧盟的立法制度》,江西高校出版社,2006年版,第4页。
[1]刘光华、闵凡祥、舒小昀编著:《运行在国家和超国家之间:欧盟的立法制度》,江西高校出版社,2006年版,第44页。
[2]一般来讲,欧盟法与欧共同法两个概念可以通用,欧盟法由欧共体法发展而来,但在严格的意义上,欧盟法的范畴要大于欧共体法。欧共体法是指以《欧洲共同体条约》为基础形成的法律制度,包括共同体机构的立法。欧盟法除包括欧洲共同体法之外还包括其他两个支柱的法律。欧共体法具有超国家特征,而其他两个支柱的法律具有政府间国际合作的性质。
[3]金炯烈、朴贞子:《政策学概论》,延边大学出版社,2003年版,第4页。
[4]姚勤华著:《欧洲联盟集体身份的建构(1951-1995)》,上海社会科学院出版社,2003年版,第162-163页。
[1]陶东明、陈明明:《当代中国政治参与》,浙江人民出版社,1998年版,第104页。
[2]参见张秀娥:“世界妇女参政新趋势”,《国际资料信息》,2006年第4期。
王瑞芹:“妇女参政行为与政治行为文明”,《妇女研究论丛》,2005年第4期。
李沂靖:“中外妇女参政现状与国家政策比较研究”,《中华女子学院山东分院学报》,2002年第2期等。
[3]参见1995年北京联合国第四次世界妇女大会《北京宣言》、《行动纲领》。http://www.china-gad.org/uploadfile/200510141502[2007-08-21]
[4]参见欧盟官方网站http://ec.europa.eu/employment_social/women_men_stats/links_en.htm[2006-08-20]
[5]此概念主要来源于欧盟委员会促进女性决策参与的政策内容,在具体的项目中,欧盟委员会针对“决策中的女性”的范围作了具体的界定,并在此基础上建立了一系列的数据、网络、研究机构等。具体内容参见欧盟委员会网站http://ec.europa.eu/employment_social/women_men_stats/defcon_en.htm[2007-08-21]
[6]欧盟理事会对于政治、经济、公共管理和司法领域的决策参与给出了具体的考察指标,具体参见本文第一章第 三节内容。
[1]参见欧盟委员会“决策中的男女”数据库:http://ec.europa.eu/employment_social/women_men_stats/out/measures_out436_en.htm[2007-01-11]
[2]郗艳菊:争论中的国际关系“非主流”学派,社科院世经政所“国际政治重点学科理论研讨会”观点综述 参见社科院网站http://sym2005.cass.cn/file/2005053133772.html[2008-07-11]
[1]对女性主义流派的划分也存在很多不同的看法。李银河在《女性主义》一书中提到的“最流行的分法将女性主义分为自由女性主义、礼会主义女性主义、激进女性主义三大家以及新女性主义流派:后现代女性主义”,另有将女性主义理论流派划分为“修正派”和“分配派”,2003年3月《妇女研究动态》第21期载“Claire Moses 讲座内容”提出:传统的对女性主义的划分即自由女性主义、社会主义女性主义、激进女性主义、文化女性主义等都是人为建构的,刻意的区分给理解女性主义思想造成很大的障碍,最好的女性主义理论是参与其他人的想法、是开放而非封闭的。打破传统的对女性主义的划分对研究女性主义理论将是有益的。
[2]Catherine Hoskyns,"Gender Perspective in European Integration Theories",in A.Wiener and T.Diez(eds) European Integration Theory,Oxford University Press,paper presented at EUSA conference,Nashville,Tennessee,27-29 March 2003.
[3]Roberta Guerrina,"Gendered Futures:The Case For a Feminist Theory of European Integration",paper presented at the PSA Annual Conference-Europe and Global Politics University of Bath,April 2007.
[1]Sylvia Walby,"The European Union and Gender Equality:Emergent Varieties of Gender Regime",Social Politics,2004,11(1),p.22.
[1]杨解朴:“欧盟性别政策及其治理体系”,中国社会科学院研究生院2006年博士学位论文,第17页。
[1]1995年联合国第四次世界妇女大会行动纲领,第53页。http://www.china-gad.org/uploadfile/200510141502[2007-08-21]
[2]同上。
[3]1993年欧盟委员会绿皮书中对性别政策提出的三个需要注意的问题有:协调就业与家庭的责任、消除劳动力市场的性别歧视,提高女性的参与决策的角色。参见European Social Policy(1993a),Green Paper,Options for the Union,COM(93)551,p.57.
[1]联合国第四次世界妇女大会确定的12个重大的关切领域包括:女性与贫穷、女性的教育和培训、女性与健康、对女性的暴力行为、女性与武装冲突、女性与经济、女性参与权力和决策、提高女性地位的机制、女性的人权、女性性媒体、女性与环境、女童问题。参见联合国网站http://www.un.org/chinese/esa/progareas/women.html [2008-07-11]
[2]European Commission "Incorporating equal opportunities for women and men into all Community policies and activities",COM(96) 67 final,see in European Commission Directorate-General for Employment,Social Affairs and Equal Opportunities Unit G1,"Women and men In decision-making 2007-Analysis of the situation and trends",Luxembourg:Office for Official Publications of the European Communities,2008,p.17.
[3]欧盟理事会1996年12月《平衡男女在决策中的参与》的建议(OJL319/11 10.12.96)。
[1]European Commission," Report from the Commission to the Council,the European Parliament and the Economic and Social Committee on the implementation of Council Recommendation 96/694 on the balanced participation of women and men in the decision-making process"OJL391,COM(2000)120.
[2][德]B.赫克尔:“欧盟性别民主”,《国外社会科学》,2001年第2期,第93页。
[1]杨解朴:“欧盟性别政策及其治理体系”,中国社会科学院研究生院2006年博士论文,第23页。
[2]European Commission,"Communication from the Commission to the Council and the European Parliament,Framework Strategy on Gender Equality Work Programme for 2002",Brussels,2001,COM(2001) 773 final.
[1]第五次平等机会纲领的计划实施期限是从2001年到2005年,但因为除了性别政策领域的两个行动纲领按原计划执行完毕外,其余的几个欧盟社会事务相关领域的行动纲领都是到2006年底到期,为了便于统一协调,欧盟决定在2004年底通过追加预算将第五次行动纲领延期到2006年12月31日。参见欧盟官方网站: http://ec.europa.eu/emoloyment_social/gender_equality/actions/index_en.html[2007-03-18]
[1]对于是否存在女性利益,女性主义者之间仍存在分歧。本文认为至少在面对共同的性别歧视问题时,不同国家、不同阶层、不同种族女性之间是存在基本一致的利益的,这种“利益”是女性共同愿望和要求的体现,可以成为国内政治动员、甚至跨国政治动员形成的基础。
[2]Catherine Hoskyns,Shirin M.Rai,"Gender,Class and Representation:India and the European Union",The European Journal of Women's Studies,1998,5(3),pp.345-365.
[1]Charles Tilly,Durable Inequality,Berkeley:University of California press,1998.
[2][英]简·弗里德曼著、雷艳红译:《女权主义》,吉林人民出版社,2007年版,第45页。
[3]Catherine Hoskyns,"The European Women's Lobby",Feminist Review,1991,38(summer),pp.67-70.
[4]Mona Lena Krook,"Promoting Gender-balanced Decision-making:The Role of International Fora and Transnational Networks." In Hilda Roemer Christensen,Beatrice Halsaa and Aino Saarinen(ed.),Crossing Borders Re-mapping Women's Movements at the Turn of the 21st Century,Odense:University Press of Southern Denmark,2004,pp.205-220.
[5]European Commission,"Communication From The Commission,addressed to Member States on the Commission Decision relating to a gender balance within the committees and expert groups established by it Official Journal of the European Communities",C 203 18.7.2000,p.4.
[1]林民旺:“论欧洲联盟的‘民主赤字'问题”,《国际问题研究》,2007年第5期,第42页。
[1]European Commission,"Incorporating equal opportunities for women and men into all Community policies and activities" COM(96) 67 final,see in European Commission Directorate-General for Employment,Social Affairs and Equal Opportunities Unit G1,Women and men In decision-making 2007-Analysis of the situation and trends,Luxembourg:Office for Official Publications of the European Communities,2008,p.17.
[2]田德文:《欧盟社会政策与欧洲一体化》,社会科学文献出版社,2005年版,第396页。
[1]Johan Peterson,"Decision-Making in the European Union:Towrds a Framework for Analysis",Journal of European public Policy,1995,2(1),p.59.
[2]李秋高:“论欧盟宪政中的‘民主赤字'问题”,《北京理工大学学报》,2006年第2期,第32页。
[3]FritzW.Scharpf,Governing in Europe:Effective and Democratic? NewYork:Oxford University Press,1999.
[1]戴维·德勒、雷蒙德·菲斯曼、罗伯塔·盖提:《女性确实是更公平的性别吗--政府中的腐败与女性》,性别与发展政策研究报告,工作报告系列,第4号,发展经济研究小组,华盛顿特区,1999。
[2]除了欧盟层面和成员国国家层面上的女性决策参与,女性决策参与的另一种形式是在成员国内地方议会及政府中的参与,但由于欧盟不断发展壮大,成员国数量在不断增多,分别考察成员国地方女性决策参与的情况存在很大的难度,并且由于数据资料的限制,难以对其进行更为精细的测量和分析,从而难以得到正确地分析结论。从目前获得的资料来看,整体来讲,欧盟成员国扩大前的15国国内地方议会和政府中女性决策参与的水平稍高于成员国国家层面。
[3]对于女性决策参与的具体界定、分类标准以及具体的考察指标参见:欧盟委员会“决策中的男女”数据库http://ec.europa.eu/employment_social/women_men_stats/out/measures__out436_en.htm[2008-11-1]
[4]饶蕾:《欧盟委员会:一个超国家机构的作用》,第35页。欧盟委员会机构中的工作人员的等级分类基本上是根据法国的管理模式进行的。总体来讲分为四级:A级官员是管理的精英层,是具有创造性思维的管理人员;B 级官员主要负责日常管理工作;C级为秘书和一般文员;D级是服务性人员。A级官员分为A1-A8级,通常A1-A2级别的官员担任着各总局局长或局长助理或分局局长的工作,A3级官员常担任各处负责人。总体讲,A3级以上官员的政治性较强。
[1]阎小兵、邝杨:《欧洲议会:对世界上第一个跨国议会的概述与探索》,世界知识出版社,1996年版,第27页。
[2]罗旭升:《国际关系新论》,环球书局,1986年版,第84页。
转引自阎小兵、邝杨:《欧洲议会:对世界上第一个跨国议会的概述与探索》,世界知识出版社,1996年版,第98页。
[1]该数据包括高级、初级两个级别官员中的女性比例。其中高级官员指进入内阁的官员,初级官员则是末进入内阁的官员。此概念的界定参见欧盟委员会就业、社会事务和平等机会委员会网站http://ec.europa.eu/employment_social/women_men_stats/defcon_en.htm#Junior_Minister[2007-02-01]
[1]Elizabeth Meehan,"Sexual Politics and the European Union:The New Feminist Challenge",Australian Journal of Political Science,1997,32(2),a review for R.Amy Elman(ed.),Sexual Politics and the European Union:The New Feminism Challenge,Providence and Oxford:Berghahn Books,1996.
[2]其中,欧盟条约也称作基础法或一级立法,派生法也被称为二级立法。
[1]具体法令所使用的名称并非绝对反映其法律类别。欧洲法院的判例表明,一个法令的类别取决于它的实质而不是它的名称。而且,现实的复杂性使各类法规之间的区别并非总如条约规定的那么明确,尤其是在确认各类法规的直接效力这一重要问题上,各法规间的界限已不很清楚了。一般说来,判断欧盟机构的指令、决定或其他法律法规是否具有直接效力的标准有四个:①内容清楚、准确;②不附任何条件;③不需要成员围或欧盟机构采取进一步的实施措施;④没行结成员国留有判断和处置的自由权。另一个需要注意的问题是,由于欧盟机构的其他一些决议也被欧洲法院当作有约束力的法令,通报(communication)也可能产生一定的法律效力。参见刘光华、闵凡祥、舒小昀编著:《运行在国家和超国家之间:欧盟的立法制度》,江西高校出版社,2006年版,第4页。
[2]戴炳然译:《欧洲共同体条约集》,复旦大学出版社,1993年版,第143页。
[3]《罗马条约》第100条规定理事会可就委员会的提案拟订一些指令来规范成员国的国内法。在为达到欧洲经济共同体的目标而采取必要的行动时,《罗马条约》第235条授予理事会以全体一致表决的方式进行立法的权利。参见《欧洲共同体条约集》,戴炳然译:复旦大学出版社,1993年版,第143页。
[4]杨解朴:“欧盟性别政策及其治理体系”,中国社会科学院研究生院2006年博士学位论文,第8页。
[1]苏明忠译:《欧洲联盟条约》,国际文化出版公司,1999年版,第229-230页。
[2]T.Laeufer(hg.),Vertrag von Amsterdam-Texte des EU-Vertrages und des EG-Vertrages mit den deutschen Begleitesetzen,Bonn:Europa Union Verlag GmbH,1999,pp.56-57.
[3]Permanent Representative Committee,"Presidency report:Review of implementation by Member States and the European Union of the Beijing Platform for Action",Brussels:Council of the European Union.1999,p.2.
[4][德]B.赫克尔:“欧盟性别民主”,《国外社会科学》2001年第2期,第93页。
[1]曾令良:《欧洲联盟法总论》,武汉大学出版社,2007年版,第155-156页。
[2]同上。
[3][德]B.赫克尔:“欧盟性别民主”,《国外社会科学》,2001年第2期,第93页。
[1]表2-1、2-2、2-3部分参考了社会科学院杨解朴博士2006年博士论文“欧盟性别政策及其治理体系”第10-13页对相关法律文件的整理。
[1]John Peterson and Elizabeth Bomberg,Decision-making in the European Union,New York:St.Martin Press,1999,pp.38-42.
转引自田德文:《欧盟社会政策与欧洲一体化》,社会科学文献出版社,2005年版,第77页。
[2]参见欧盟网站关于G司结构表http://europa.eu.int/comm/dgs/employment_social/staffgui/org_en.pdf[2008-03-22]
[3]在性别领域的立法中,欧盟采取“共决程序”,即欧盟理事会和欧洲议会同时享有立法权。在理事会内部,采用特定多数的表决方式。特定多数的表决方式要求:一是达到成员国总数的多数,某些情况可达到三分之二的多数,二是在总321票中得到232票(72.3%)以上,同时要求决议达到代表欧盟总人口62%的标准,如没有达到,决议就不能通过。具体参见欧盟理事会网站。
[1]阎小兵、邝杨:《欧洲议会:对世界上第一个跨国议会的概述与探索》,世界知识出版社,1996年版,第98页。
[2]参见欧洲议会妇女权利和性别平等委员会网站http://www.europarl.eu.int/committees/femm_home_en.htm [2006-11-6]
[3]"Presentation of the Commission proposal for the creation of a European Institute for Gender Equality Brussels",13 September 2005,p.6.
[4]European Commission,"Feasibility Study for a European Gender Institute",conducted by PLS Ramboll Management,DK,2002.
[1]European Parliament,"Role of a Future European Institute",a study for the European Parliament,Final report,2004.http://www.unidadgenero.com/documentos/Creacion_IEIG.pdf[2008-10-11]
[2]European Commission,"Proposal for a Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council Establishing a European Institute for Gender Equality",COM(2005) 81 final,p.13.
[3]Ibid.,pp.13-14.
[4]Ibid.
[1]王明进:“合法性与欧洲议会的创立于发展”,《国际关系学院学报》,2004年第6期,第20页。
[2]刘文秀:“欧洲议会的权力及其运行机制”,《欧洲》,2000年第3期,第43页。
[3]“开放式协调法”正式提出于2000年里斯本高峰会议,在2001年3月斯德哥尔摩高峰会议上再次提及“开放协 调法”对于就业协调的重要性,希望藉此提高欧洲国家的就业参与率。欧盟委员会在2003年报告中便明确指出这点:“开放协调法被视为弹性的治理模式,补充既有的共同体方法以及条约为基础的过程...。基于辅助性原则,其目标为帮助成员国渐进发展自身的政策。”参见施世骏:“欧盟新治理模式与社会政策发展”,《台湾社会福利学刊》第4卷第1期,以及CEC(2003a),"Strengthening the Social Dimension ofthe Lisbon Strategy:Streamlining Open Coordination in the Field of Social Protection",Brussels.2003.
[1][德]贝娅特·科勒-科赫、金玲译:“对欧盟治理的批判性评价”,《欧洲研究》,2008年第2期,第95页。
[1]参见欧盟委员会“决策中的男女”数据库http://ec.europa.eu/employment_social/women_men_stats/out/measures_out436_en.htm[2008-04-20]
[2]参见欧洲工会联合会网站:http://www.etuc.org/a/680[2008-03-04]
[3]周弘:“福利国家向何处去”,《中国社会科学》,2001年第3期,第102页。
[1]Mieke Verloo,Anther Velvet Revolution.Gender Mainstreaming And The Politics Of Implementation",IWM Working Paper No.5,2001,p.3.
[2]AP:Action Programme.
[3]Linda Hantrais,Social Policy in the European Union,New York:Palgrave Macmillan and St Martin's Press,2000,pp.122-123.
[1]European commission(1993a),"Green Paper-European Social Policy-Options for the Union",COM(93)551,1993,p.57.
[2]意思是充分体现民主需要所有公民的参与,男女以同样的方式参与并且在经济、决策、社会、文化和公民生活中平等地被代表。参见杨解朴:“欧盟性别政策及其治理体系”,中国社会科学院研究生院2006年博士学位论文,第23页。
[1]在欧盟的官方统计中,聚合基金与前三项“结构基金”一般分开统计。
[2]欧盟结构基金三大目标中,目标一主要内容为促进区域发展,适用地区包括人均国内生产总值低于欧盟平均水平75%的落后地区、边远地区、芬兰和瑞典的人口稀少地区,参与基金类别为欧洲社会基金、区域发展基金、农业指导基金;目标二主要内容为支持面临困难的地区,适用地区包括工业与服务业部门调整变化的地区、衰败的农业地区、困难的城市地区、严重依赖渔业的经济衰退地区,参与基金类别为欧洲社会基金、区域发展基金;目标三的适用地区为所有目标一没有包括的地区。参见http://europa.eu.int/comm/employ_social/esf2000/glossary_en.htm#Ob1.[2004-08-23]
[3]European Commission,"General Budget of the European Union for the Financial Year",2004,p.18.http://europa.eu.int/comm./budget/pdf/budget/syntchi2004/en.pdf.[2007-07-07]
[4]欧洲妇女游说团资金的80%来自欧盟委员会,2006年主要财政预算为937500欧元,参见欧洲妇女游说团网站参见欧洲妇女游说团网站http://www.womenlobby.org/[2006-12-26]
[1]参见欧盟委员会就业、社会事务和平等机会总司官方网站http://ec.europa.eu/employments_social/gender_equality/gender_mainstreaming/general_overview_en.html[2008-06-14]转引自杨解朴:“欧盟性别政策及其治理体系”,中国社会科学院研究生院2006年博士学位论文,第25页。1997年6月,联合国经济及社会理事会给社会性别主流化下了定义,所谓社会性别主流化是指在各个领域和各个层面上评估所有有计划的行动(包括立法、政策、方案)对男女双方的不同含义。作为一种策略方法,它使男女双方的关注和经验成为设计、实施、监督和评判政治、经济和社会领域所有政策方案的有机组成部分,从而使男女双方受益均等,不再有不平等发生。纳入主流的最终目标是实现男女平等。参见联合国网站http://www.un.org/chinese/esa/women/mainstreaming.htm[2007-08-11]另外还有其他对“性别主流化”概念的定义,参见Alison E.Woodward,"Gender Mainstreaming in European Policy:Innovation or Deception?"http://skylla.wz-berlin.de/pdf/2001/i01-103.pdf[2008-01-11]
[2]田德文:《欧盟社会政策与欧洲一体化》,社会科学文献出版社,2005年版,第58页。
[3]European commission(2000a),"Communication from the Commission concerning Towards ACommunity Framework Strategy on Gender Equality(2001-2005)",COM(2000)335.final,2000.
[1]Teresa Rees,Mainstreaming equality in the European Union,London:Routledge,1998,p.52.
[2]在1997年欧盟首脑会议制定的《阿姆斯特丹条约》和卢森堡特别首脑会议的精神下,欧盟委员会于1998年起草制定了第一份有关欧盟就业的文件,即欧盟《就业指南》。《就业指南》确定将就业能力(employability)企业家的地位和职能(entrepreneurship),适应能力(adaptability)以及平等的就业机会作为欧盟共同就业政策的支柱和基本框架,其他相关政策的制定必须以这四项支柱为基础,并给其特殊的优先地位。
[3]European Commission(2000b)," Impact Evalution of the EES-Equal Opportunities for women and women",2000.http://europa.eu.int/comm/employment_social/news/2002/may/equ_opp_en.pdf[2007-3-23]
[1]“家庭友好政策”是在福利国家体制之下实行的帮助身为父母的就业者协调家庭与工作矛盾的社会政策,如产假、父母假与儿童照料服务等,参见J.Hecht,and H.Leridon,"Fertility Policies:a Limited Influence?" in D.Noin and Woods R.(eds.),The Changing Population of Europe,Oxford:Blackwell,1993,pp.62-75.转引自吕亚军:“欧盟家庭友好政策的性别视角分析”,《妇女研究论丛》2008年第1期,第59页。
[2]Council of the European Communities,"Council Recommendation 92/241/EEC of 31 March 1992 on childcare",OJL123/16 8.5.1992.
[3]European commission,"A White Paper-European Social Policy.A way forward for the Union",COM(94)333final,1994.
[1]European Commission,"Women and Statistics and Indicators".http://ec.europa.eu/research/science-society/pdf/she_figures_2006_en.pdf.[2007-09-17].
[2]"Women among Academic Staff by Field of Science 1998-2002".http://ec.europa.eu/research/science-society/women/wssi/pdf/8_academicstaff_field.pdf.[2007-09-16]
[3]CEC,"Annex 1:Women and Science Statistics:are We Successful in Closing the Gender Gap in Science and Engineering?".http://ec.europa.eu/research/science-society/pdf/documents_women_sec2_en.pdf.[2007-09-17]
[1]European Platform of Women Scientists.http://www.epws.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=55&Itemid=4574[2007-09-17]
[1]赵叶珠、傅春晖:“欧盟促进女性参与科技创新的政策与措施述评”,《妇女研究论丛》,2008年第1期,第67-71页。
[1]牟杰,杨诚虎:《公共政策评估--理论与方法》,中国社会科学出版社,2006年版,第134页。
[2]根据一般性的政策效果评估理论,政策效果评估一般包括两办面内容,即政策目标与实际效果之间的差距以及实施政策前后状态之间的差距。前者是衡量实现目标程度的指标,后者是衡量政策实际效果的指标。二者都可以通过一系列具体的量化标准来进行和完成。参见牟杰,杨诚虎:《公共政策评估--理论与方法》,中国社会科学出版社,2006年版,第131页。
[1]European Commission,"Report From The Commission to the Council,the European Parliament and the Economic and Social Committee on theImplementation of Council Recommendation 96/694 on the Balanced Participatation of Women and Men in the Decision-making Process",COM(2000) 120 final.
[2]"Studiy of DG Empl Committees",http://europa.eu.int/comm/dg05/equ.opp/index-en.htm[2008-09-22]
[3]European Commission,"Commission Decision 2000/407/EC Relating to Gender Balance within the Committees and Expert Groups Established by it",OJ L 154,27.6.2000,p.34.
[4]European Commission,"Communication From The Commission to the Council,the European Parliament:Framework Strategy on Gender Equality Work Programme for 2002",COM(2001) 773 final,p.4.
[1]European Commission,"Communication from the Commission to the Council and the European Parliament Framework Strategy on Gender Equality Work Programme for 2002",COM(2001) 773 final.p.5.
[2]Marie Mushaben,"The Politics of Critical Acts:Women,Leadership and Democraatic Deficits in the European Union"The European Studies Journal 1998,15(2),pp.51-91.
[3]参见国际议会联盟(Inter-parliamentary Union),http://www.ipu.org/wmn-e/world.htm[2005-04-10]
[1]此处分类的依据是女性决策参与的经验性数据,但由于决策参与本身涉及三个重要的领域,同时不同领域又包括众多的部门、职位,难以进行综合性的评比,因此,此处的分类主要依据女性议会参与的数据,并且属于整体概括性的分析。尽管如此,此分类仍基本符合其他领域以及职位上的参与情况,但不能否定个别国家、个别情况的存在。
[2]在国际议会联盟网站的统计数据基础上经过笔者整理计算得出的结果。具体数据参见http://www.ipu.org/wmn-e/classif-arc.htm[2007-02-03]
[1]European Commission(2002b),"Impact Evaluation of the EES-Equal Opportunities for Women and Men",2002.http://europa.eu.int/comm/employment_social/news/2002/may/equ_opp_en.pdf[2007-03-23]
[1]欧盟现行法律包括源与欧盟条约和法律的所有权利与义务,其中包括基本法、二级立法和软法。参见CEC (2000c),Enlargement Strategy Paper:Report on Progress towards Accession by Each of theCandidate Countries,2000.http://europa.eu.int.[2006-07-22]
[2]参见欧盟官方网站http://ec.europa.eu/enlargement/the-policy/conditions-for-enlargement/index_en.htm[2007-06-11]
[3]Dagmar Lorenz-Meyer,"Policy Initiatives and Tools to Promote the Participation of Women and Gender Equality in the Process of the Czech Republic's Accession to the European Union",p.71.This publication stems from work on the project "Constructing Supranational Political Spaces:The European Union,Eastern Enlargement and Women's Agency".Funding has been provided by the NationalScience Foundation,USA(grant no.BCS-0137954;project co-ordinator Joanna Regulska,Rutgers University) and by the KONTAKT Programme of Ministry of Education,Youth and Sports,Czech Republic(grant no.ME 594;project co-ordinator Marie(?)ermakova,Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic).
[1]Kalivodova,E.'," Analysis of Agenda 2000 and Regular Report 1999"(unpublished manuscript),Prague:Centre for Gender Studies,Charles University,2003.
[2]CEC(2000d),"Regular Report on the Czech Republic's Progress towards Accession",2000,p.66.http://europa.eu.int/comm/enlargement.[2006-07-22]
[3]平等机会、平等待遇、性别平等三个定义在内涵和使用上也存在一定的区别。平等机会主要被用于欧盟的软法如理事会结论中,这个概念主要指更广泛的目标和承诺即女性和男性应该拥有同样的权利和发展的前途。平等待遇一般是用于欧盟二级立法当中,尤其在处理就业和社会安全方面男女平等权利问题的具有约束力的欧盟理事会指令中使用。性别平等概念代表一个复合的政策目标,主要被使用于20世纪90年代以来欧盟政策文件中,很少被使用于欧盟条约和理事会指令中。参见Dagmar Lorenz-Meyer,"Policy Initiatives and Tools to Promote the Participation of Women and Gender Equality in the Process of the Czech Republic's Accession to the European Union",pp.63-66.http://studie.soc.cas.cz/upl/texty/files/223_03-9%20text%20pro%20tisk.pdf[2008-03-07]
[1]CEC(2000b),"Report from the Commission to the Council,the European Parliament,the Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions.Equal Opportunities for Women and Men in the European Union",COM (2000) 123 final,Brussels,1999,p.24.http://www.europa.eu.int.[2006-07-22]
[2]European Commission(2001a),"Equal Opportunities for Women and Men in the European Union",COM(2000) 179final,Luxembourg:Office for Official Publications of theEuropean Communities,2000,p.23.
[3]Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs of the Czech Republic,"Summary Report on the Fulfilment of Government Priorities and Procedures in Enforcement of the Equality of Men and Women in 2001",p.1.http://www.mpsv.cz.[2008-01-12]
[4]Dagmar Lorenz-Meyer,"Policy Initiatives and Tools to Promote the Participation of Women and Gender Equality in the Process of the Czech Republic's Accession to the European Union",pp.89-91.http://studie.soc.cas.cz/upl/texty/files/223_03-9%20text%20pro%20tisk.pdf[2008-03-07]
[1]Montreal,"Mainstreamed Away? The European Employment Strategy and its Gender Equality Dimension",paper prepared for the 2007 Biennial EUSA Conference.pp.13-15.http://www.unc.edu/euce/eusa2007/papers/pfister-t-07e.pdf [2007-11-03]
[2]European Parliament,Public Hearing "Situation of Roma women in the European Union" 23 November 2005,15.00-17.30,European Parliament,htto://ec.europa.eu/employment_social/speeches/2005/lp_231105_en.pdf[2006-8-23]
[3]欧盟委员会内部委员会和专家小组中女性至少要占40%的比例。
[1]参见欧洲委员会网站http://www.coe.int/t/e/human_rights/equality/03._women_and_decision-making/EG-S-PA(2000)07+3,asp[2006-8-23]
[2]具体数据指标参见第一章内容。
[1]European Commission Directorate-General for Employment,Social Affairs and Equal Opportunities Unit G1,"Women and men in decision-making 2007-Analysis of the situation and trends",Luxembourg:Office for Official Publications of the European Communities,2008.
[1][英]简·弗立德曼著、雷艳红译:《女权主义》,吉林人民出版社,2007年版,第33页。
[2]Council of Europe,"Positive Action in the Field of Equality between Men and Women" EG-S-PANo.7.Published by Council of Europe,Brussles,2000.
[1]在法国,政党从政府获得的财政收入主要有两部分,第一部分是根据该政党在选举中所获得的选票占总选票数量的比例,第二部分是根据该政党获得的议席数量的比例。财政惩罚则是与第一部分收入相联系。相关法律规定,如果政党所提名的名单中男性候选人与女性候选人所占比例的差额超过2%时,政党将要在其获得的第一部分经费中扣除相当于性别比例之差一半的比例数的资金。对此,较大的政党通常具有抵抗财政惩罚的能力,如果政党相信通过推举男性候选人可以获得更多的席位,那么财政惩罚这一措施将不会影响政党继续提名多数男性候选人的政策。正如保卫共和联盟的圣特·昆特恩所言:“通过提名男性候选人而获得的要比提名女性候选人而失去的更具有经济价值。”参见Rainbow Murray,"Quota and electoral systems" paper prepared for ECPconference,Budapest,2005,p.9.http://www.essex.ac.uk/ecpr/publications/index.aspx[2006-02-11]
[2][路透社纽约3月26日电]“盖洛普民意调查表明:多数国家赞成妇女参政”,转引自《参考消息》1996年4月4日。
[3]同上。
[4]李英桃:《社会性别视角下的国际政治》,上海人民出版社,2003年版,第34页。
[1]由于欧盟政治体系的特点,欧盟机构框架上存在的问题更多的是涉及到欧盟机构与成员国机构之间的关系,因此将在下文的论述中给予分析。
[2]刘文秀、埃米尔·J·科什纳等:《欧洲联盟政策及政策过程研究》,法律出版社,2003年版,第289页。
[1]贝娅特·科勒-科赫著、金玲译:“对欧盟治理的批判性评价”,《欧洲研究》,2008年第2期,第93-101页。
[2]施世俊:“欧盟新治理模式与社会政策发展:‘开放协调法'兴起的历史脉络与政策意涵”,第19页。http://www.sinica.edu.tw/asct/asw/journal/040101.pdf[2008-01-11]
[1]循环的执行程序是指为了确保互相监督与学习,欧盟在“开放协调法”中首次运用(数)年度的循环程序,确保同侪压力与各国的投入程度。引自施世俊:“欧盟新治理模式与社会政策发展:‘开放协调法'兴起的历史脉络与政策意涵”,第19页。http://www.sinica.edu.tw/asct/asw/journal/040101.pdf[2008-01-11]
[1]对此的担心参见Emilie M.Hafner-Burton and Mark A.Pollack,"Revolution:The Disappointing Implementation of Gender Mainstreaming in the European Union" http://www.princeton.edu/～ehafner/pdfs/no_revolution.pd_f[2008-01-12]Petra Meier,Emanuela Lombardo,Maria Bustelo and Maro Pantelidou Maloutas,"Women in political decision-making and gender mainstreaming:obvious partners?"http://www.mageeq.net/docs/magpap05.pdf[2007-03-15]Alison E.Woodward,"Gender Mainstreaming in European Policy:Innovation or Deception?"http://bibliothek.wzb.eu/pdf/2001/i01-103.pdf[2008-01-11]
[1]饶蕾:《欧盟委员会:一个超国家机构的作用》,西南财经大学出版社,2002年版,第81页。
[1]Maria Pantelidou Maloutas,et al.,"State of the Art and Mapping of Competences in Greece".http://www.mageeq.net/docs/greece.pdf[2007-11-09]
[1]杨解朴:“欧盟性别政策及其治理体系”,中国社会科学院研究生院2006年博士学位论文,第27页。
[1]I.Ostner,"From equal pay to equal employability:four decades of European gender policies",2000,In M.Rossilli (Ed.),Gender policies in the European Union,New York:Peter Lang,pp.25-42.
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1.国际议会联盟网站:http://www.ipu.org
2.欧盟官方网站::http://ec.europa.eu/employment_social/women_men_stats/links_en.htm
3.欧盟委员会网站:http://ec.europa.eu/employment_social/women_men_stats/defcon_en.htm
4.欧盟委员会就业、社会事务和平等机会委员会网站:http://ec.europa.eu/empolyment_social/women_men_stats/defcon_en.htm#Junior_Minist er
5.欧盟委员会“决策中的男女”数据库:http://ec.europa.eu/employment_social/women_men_stats/out/measures_out436_en.htm
6.欧洲工会联合会网站:http://www.etuc.org/a/680
7.欧洲议会妇女权利和性别平等委员会网站:http://www.europarl.eu.int/committees/femm_home_en.htm
8.欧洲委员会网站:http://www.coe.int/DefaultEN.asp
[2]非政府组织“妇女论坛”总召集人坤仁·素帕达拉·马斯蒂特在参加1995年联合国第四次世界妇女大会时的发言,参见 http://news.sina.com.cn/o/2005-08-31/19036829793s.shtml[2006-08-11]
[1][德]劳伦斯·威尔特:《现代欧洲社会主义》,达莫斯特出版社,1994年版,第98-113页。
[2]叶宗奎、王杏芳:《国际组织概论》,中国人民大学出版社,2001年版,第52页。
[3]参见国际议会联盟网站http://www.ipu.org/wmn-e/arc/world300405.htm[2006-05-12]
[4]根据国际议会联盟2005年4月数据统计,欧洲以外在其他地区女性议员平均比例分别为亚洲15.2%、撒哈拉以南非洲地区15%、美洲18.8%、阿拉伯国家8.8%,太平洋地区11.2%。参见国际议会联盟网站http://www.ipu.org/wmn-e/arc/world300405.htm[2006-05-12]
[5]在国际议会联盟网站的统计数据基础上经过笔者整理计算得出的结果。具体数据参见 http://www.ipu.org/wmn-e/classif-arc.htm[2006-05-12]
[1]Mariagrazia Rossili(ed),Gender Policies in the European UnioN,New York:Peter Lang Publishing,2000.
[2]Ibid.,p.70.
[1]Robert R.Geyer,Exploring European Social Policy,Cambrige:Polity,2000.
[2]Linda Hantrais,Social Policy and European Union,Basingstoke and New York:Palgrave Macmillan and St Martin's Press,2000.
[3]Stephan Leibfried and Paul Pierson,European social policy:between fragmentation and integration,Washington D.C:Brookings Institution Press,1995.
[4]Mona Len aKrook,"Promoting gender balanced decision-making in the European Union:International and transnational strategies for parity democracy",paper presented at the European Community Studies Association International Conference Madison,WI,May 31-June2,2001.
[5]Jane Lewis,"Work/family reconciliation,equal opportunities and social policies:the interpretation of policy trajectories at the EU level and the meaning of gender equality".Journal of European Public Policy,2006,13(3),pp.420-437.
[6]此类研究成果主要包括:Elaine S.Weiner,"The Gender Politics of the European Union's Eastward Expansion:Equal Opportunity Policies in the Czech Republic",paper prepared for "Postcommunist State and Society" seminar Maxwell School,Syracuse University http://www.maxwell.syr.edu/moynihan/programs/ces/pcconfpdfs/Weiner.pdf [2007-02-11]Myra Marx Ferree,"Framing Equality:The Politics of Race,Class,Gender in the US,Germany,and the Expanding European Union",http://www.ssc.wisc.edu/～mferree/documents/Penn-EUbook-final-1006.pdf[2007-09-22]
[1]Raquel Pastor Yuste,"The gender bias in parliamentary action:The Spanish Case",paper presented at the 2nd ECPR-Conference,Marburg,18-21 September 2003 Section No.2 "Gender and politics" Panel No.2-3 "Translating Political Equality into Practice Ⅱ".http://www.essex.ac.uk/ecpr/[2005-07-25]
[2]Pippa Norris,Joni Lovenduski and Rosie Campbell,"Closing the Activism Gap:Gender and Political Participation in Britain" http://ksghome.harvard.edu/～pnorris/Acrobat/Electoral%20Commission%20Draft%[2005-10-06]
[3]Dolores Mornodo,The situation of women in Hungary,Poland and the Czech Republic,European Parliament Division for Social Affairs and Employment,Public Health and Consumer Protection,Women's Rights,Culture,Youth,Education and the Media,Luxembourg:European Parliament,1998.
[4]Richadr E.Matland,,"Enhancing Women's Political Participation:Legislative Recruitment and Electoral Systems",http://www.idea.int/women/[2006-05-22]
[5]David M.Farrell,"Studying Electoral Institutions and their Consequences:Electoral Systems and Electoral Laws",http://repositories.cdlib.org/csd/01-05/[2006-02-02]
[6]Mona Lena Krook,"Candidate Gender Quotas:A Framework for Analysis",http://www.essex.ac.uk/ecpr/events/generalconference/marburg/papers/2/5/Krook.pdf[2007-07-21]
[7]Stina Larserud and Rita Taphorn,"Designing for Equality-Best-fit,medium-fit and non-favourable combinations of electoral systems and gender quotas",http://tinyurl.com/2tqe2d[2007-08-01]
[8]Lenita Freidenvall,"Women's Political Representation and Gender Quotas -the Swedish Case",paper presented at the ECRP conference in Marburg,Germany,September 18-21,2003.http://www.statsvet.su.se/quotas/l_freidenvall_wps_2003_2.pdf[2003-09-18]
[9]Azza Karam and Joni lovenduski,"Women in Parliament:Making a Difference",.in Azza Karam(ed.),Women in Parliament:Beyond Numbers.http://www.idea.int/women/[2005-08-23]
[10]"The Participation of Women and Men in Decision-Making:The Parliamentary Dimension",http://www.ipu.org/wmn-e/classif-arc.htm[2008-03-22]
[1]Petra Meier,Emanuela Lombardo,Maria Bustelo and Maro Pantelidou Maloutas,"Women in political decision-making and gender mainstreaming:obvious partners?" paper presented at the 2nd Pan-European Conference on EU Politics of the ECPR Standing Group on the EU Bologna 24-26 June 2004 http://www.mageeq.net/docs/magpap05.pdf[2007-03-15]
[2]近年来,国内外女性主义研究的成果颇多,例如Judith Squires,Gender in Political Theory,Malden:Polity Press,1999.John Hoffman and Blind Alley,“Defining Feminism",Politics,2001,21(4),pp.193-199.
[英]玛丽·沃斯通克拉夫特著,王蓁译:《女权辩护》,商务印书馆,1995年版。
[加]巴巴拉·阿内尔著,郭夏娟译:《政治学与女性主义》,东方出版社,2005年版。
何佩群:“德里达解构理论与女性主义政治学”,《复旦学报》(社科版),2001年第4期,第82-86页。
徐雅芬、董建辉:“女性主义与权力--政治人类学视野下的西方女性主义研究评述”,《国外社会科学》,2004年第4期,第26-31页。
董丽敏:“女性主义:本土化及其纬度”,《南开学报》(哲社版),2005年第2期,第7-12页。
[1]此类研究成果还包括:厦门大学2005年吴玲硕士论文《中国妇女参政及其影响因素分析》。“妇女与参政”,《妇女研究论丛》,2003年第3期。
荣维毅:“关于参政妇女需求的研究报告”,《妇女研究论丛》增刊2001年6月。
郭砾:“建立中国妇女参政指标体系的构想”,《学术交流》,2001年第6期等。
[2]此类研究成果主要有:张迎红:“试析欧洲国家提高妇女参政的‘最低比例制'”,《欧洲研究》,2004年第3期。
张迎红:“最低比例制”对妇女参政的影响,《中华女子学院学报》2003年第6期。
曲宏歌:“欧盟女性议会参与:选举制度视角”,《欧洲研究》,2007年第6期。
[1]刘文秀:“界定欧盟政体性质的几个因素”,《欧洲研究》,2004年第1期,第84页。
[2]刘光华、闵凡祥、舒小昀编著:《运行在国家和超国家之间:欧盟的立法制度》,江西高校出版社,2006年版,第4页。
[1]刘光华、闵凡祥、舒小昀编著:《运行在国家和超国家之间:欧盟的立法制度》,江西高校出版社,2006年版,第44页。
[2]一般来讲,欧盟法与欧共同法两个概念可以通用,欧盟法由欧共体法发展而来,但在严格的意义上,欧盟法的范畴要大于欧共体法。欧共体法是指以《欧洲共同体条约》为基础形成的法律制度,包括共同体机构的立法。欧盟法除包括欧洲共同体法之外还包括其他两个支柱的法律。欧共体法具有超国家特征,而其他两个支柱的法律具有政府间国际合作的性质。
[3]金炯烈、朴贞子:《政策学概论》,延边大学出版社,2003年版,第4页。
[4]姚勤华著:《欧洲联盟集体身份的建构(1951-1995)》,上海社会科学院出版社,2003年版,第162-163页。
[1]陶东明、陈明明:《当代中国政治参与》,浙江人民出版社,1998年版,第104页。
[2]参见张秀娥:“世界妇女参政新趋势”,《国际资料信息》,2006年第4期。
王瑞芹:“妇女参政行为与政治行为文明”,《妇女研究论丛》,2005年第4期。
李沂靖:“中外妇女参政现状与国家政策比较研究”,《中华女子学院山东分院学报》,2002年第2期等。
[3]参见1995年北京联合国第四次世界妇女大会《北京宣言》、《行动纲领》。http://www.china-gad.org/uploadfile/200510141502[2007-08-21]
[4]参见欧盟官方网站http://ec.europa.eu/employment_social/women_men_stats/links_en.htm[2006-08-20]
[5]此概念主要来源于欧盟委员会促进女性决策参与的政策内容,在具体的项目中,欧盟委员会针对“决策中的女性”的范围作了具体的界定,并在此基础上建立了一系列的数据、网络、研究机构等。具体内容参见欧盟委员会网站http://ec.europa.eu/employment_social/women_men_stats/defcon_en.htm[2007-08-21]
[6]欧盟理事会对于政治、经济、公共管理和司法领域的决策参与给出了具体的考察指标,具体参见本文第一章第 三节内容。
[1]参见欧盟委员会“决策中的男女”数据库:http://ec.europa.eu/employment_social/women_men_stats/out/measures_out436_en.htm[2007-01-11]
[2]郗艳菊:争论中的国际关系“非主流”学派,社科院世经政所“国际政治重点学科理论研讨会”观点综述 参见社科院网站http://sym2005.cass.cn/file/2005053133772.html[2008-07-11]
[1]对女性主义流派的划分也存在很多不同的看法。李银河在《女性主义》一书中提到的“最流行的分法将女性主义分为自由女性主义、礼会主义女性主义、激进女性主义三大家以及新女性主义流派:后现代女性主义”,另有将女性主义理论流派划分为“修正派”和“分配派”,2003年3月《妇女研究动态》第21期载“Claire Moses 讲座内容”提出:传统的对女性主义的划分即自由女性主义、社会主义女性主义、激进女性主义、文化女性主义等都是人为建构的,刻意的区分给理解女性主义思想造成很大的障碍,最好的女性主义理论是参与其他人的想法、是开放而非封闭的。打破传统的对女性主义的划分对研究女性主义理论将是有益的。
[2]Catherine Hoskyns,"Gender Perspective in European Integration Theories",in A.Wiener and T.Diez(eds) European Integration Theory,Oxford University Press,paper presented at EUSA conference,Nashville,Tennessee,27-29 March 2003.
[3]Roberta Guerrina,"Gendered Futures:The Case For a Feminist Theory of European Integration",paper presented at the PSA Annual Conference-Europe and Global Politics University of Bath,April 2007.
[1]Sylvia Walby,"The European Union and Gender Equality:Emergent Varieties of Gender Regime",Social Politics,2004,11(1),p.22.
[1]杨解朴:“欧盟性别政策及其治理体系”,中国社会科学院研究生院2006年博士学位论文,第17页。
[1]1995年联合国第四次世界妇女大会行动纲领,第53页。http://www.china-gad.org/uploadfile/200510141502[2007-08-21]
[2]同上。
[3]1993年欧盟委员会绿皮书中对性别政策提出的三个需要注意的问题有:协调就业与家庭的责任、消除劳动力市场的性别歧视,提高女性的参与决策的角色。参见European Social Policy(1993a),Green Paper,Options for the Union,COM(93)551,p.57.
[1]联合国第四次世界妇女大会确定的12个重大的关切领域包括:女性与贫穷、女性的教育和培训、女性与健康、对女性的暴力行为、女性与武装冲突、女性与经济、女性参与权力和决策、提高女性地位的机制、女性的人权、女性性媒体、女性与环境、女童问题。参见联合国网站http://www.un.org/chinese/esa/progareas/women.html [2008-07-11]
[2]European Commission "Incorporating equal opportunities for women and men into all Community policies and activities",COM(96) 67 final,see in European Commission Directorate-General for Employment,Social Affairs and Equal Opportunities Unit G1,"Women and men In decision-making 2007-Analysis of the situation and trends",Luxembourg:Office for Official Publications of the European Communities,2008,p.17.
[3]欧盟理事会1996年12月《平衡男女在决策中的参与》的建议(OJL319/11 10.12.96)。
[1]European Commission," Report from the Commission to the Council,the European Parliament and the Economic and Social Committee on the implementation of Council Recommendation 96/694 on the balanced participation of women and men in the decision-making process"OJL391,COM(2000)120.
[2][德]B.赫克尔:“欧盟性别民主”,《国外社会科学》,2001年第2期,第93页。
[1]杨解朴:“欧盟性别政策及其治理体系”,中国社会科学院研究生院2006年博士论文,第23页。
[2]European Commission,"Communication from the Commission to the Council and the European Parliament,Framework Strategy on Gender Equality Work Programme for 2002",Brussels,2001,COM(2001) 773 final.
[1]第五次平等机会纲领的计划实施期限是从2001年到2005年,但因为除了性别政策领域的两个行动纲领按原计划执行完毕外,其余的几个欧盟社会事务相关领域的行动纲领都是到2006年底到期,为了便于统一协调,欧盟决定在2004年底通过追加预算将第五次行动纲领延期到2006年12月31日。参见欧盟官方网站: http://ec.europa.eu/emoloyment_social/gender_equality/actions/index_en.html[2007-03-18]
[1]对于是否存在女性利益,女性主义者之间仍存在分歧。本文认为至少在面对共同的性别歧视问题时,不同国家、不同阶层、不同种族女性之间是存在基本一致的利益的,这种“利益”是女性共同愿望和要求的体现,可以成为国内政治动员、甚至跨国政治动员形成的基础。
[2]Catherine Hoskyns,Shirin M.Rai,"Gender,Class and Representation:India and the European Union",The European Journal of Women's Studies,1998,5(3),pp.345-365.
[1]Charles Tilly,Durable Inequality,Berkeley:University of California press,1998.
[2][英]简·弗里德曼著、雷艳红译:《女权主义》,吉林人民出版社,2007年版,第45页。
[3]Catherine Hoskyns,"The European Women's Lobby",Feminist Review,1991,38(summer),pp.67-70.
[4]Mona Lena Krook,"Promoting Gender-balanced Decision-making:The Role of International Fora and Transnational Networks." In Hilda Roemer Christensen,Beatrice Halsaa and Aino Saarinen(ed.),Crossing Borders Re-mapping Women's Movements at the Turn of the 21st Century,Odense:University Press of Southern Denmark,2004,pp.205-220.
[5]European Commission,"Communication From The Commission,addressed to Member States on the Commission Decision relating to a gender balance within the committees and expert groups established by it Official Journal of the European Communities",C 203 18.7.2000,p.4.
[1]林民旺:“论欧洲联盟的‘民主赤字'问题”,《国际问题研究》,2007年第5期,第42页。
[1]European Commission,"Incorporating equal opportunities for women and men into all Community policies and activities" COM(96) 67 final,see in European Commission Directorate-General for Employment,Social Affairs and Equal Opportunities Unit G1,Women and men In decision-making 2007-Analysis of the situation and trends,Luxembourg:Office for Official Publications of the European Communities,2008,p.17.
[2]田德文:《欧盟社会政策与欧洲一体化》,社会科学文献出版社,2005年版,第396页。
[1]Johan Peterson,"Decision-Making in the European Union:Towrds a Framework for Analysis",Journal of European public Policy,1995,2(1),p.59.
[2]李秋高:“论欧盟宪政中的‘民主赤字'问题”,《北京理工大学学报》,2006年第2期,第32页。
[3]FritzW.Scharpf,Governing in Europe:Effective and Democratic? NewYork:Oxford University Press,1999.
[1]戴维·德勒、雷蒙德·菲斯曼、罗伯塔·盖提:《女性确实是更公平的性别吗--政府中的腐败与女性》,性别与发展政策研究报告,工作报告系列,第4号,发展经济研究小组,华盛顿特区,1999。
[2]除了欧盟层面和成员国国家层面上的女性决策参与,女性决策参与的另一种形式是在成员国内地方议会及政府中的参与,但由于欧盟不断发展壮大,成员国数量在不断增多,分别考察成员国地方女性决策参与的情况存在很大的难度,并且由于数据资料的限制,难以对其进行更为精细的测量和分析,从而难以得到正确地分析结论。从目前获得的资料来看,整体来讲,欧盟成员国扩大前的15国国内地方议会和政府中女性决策参与的水平稍高于成员国国家层面。
[3]对于女性决策参与的具体界定、分类标准以及具体的考察指标参见:欧盟委员会“决策中的男女”数据库http://ec.europa.eu/employment_social/women_men_stats/out/measures__out436_en.htm[2008-11-1]
[4]饶蕾:《欧盟委员会:一个超国家机构的作用》,第35页。欧盟委员会机构中的工作人员的等级分类基本上是根据法国的管理模式进行的。总体来讲分为四级:A级官员是管理的精英层,是具有创造性思维的管理人员;B 级官员主要负责日常管理工作;C级为秘书和一般文员;D级是服务性人员。A级官员分为A1-A8级,通常A1-A2级别的官员担任着各总局局长或局长助理或分局局长的工作,A3级官员常担任各处负责人。总体讲,A3级以上官员的政治性较强。
[1]阎小兵、邝杨:《欧洲议会:对世界上第一个跨国议会的概述与探索》,世界知识出版社,1996年版,第27页。
[2]罗旭升:《国际关系新论》,环球书局,1986年版,第84页。
转引自阎小兵、邝杨:《欧洲议会:对世界上第一个跨国议会的概述与探索》,世界知识出版社,1996年版,第98页。
[1]该数据包括高级、初级两个级别官员中的女性比例。其中高级官员指进入内阁的官员,初级官员则是末进入内阁的官员。此概念的界定参见欧盟委员会就业、社会事务和平等机会委员会网站http://ec.europa.eu/employment_social/women_men_stats/defcon_en.htm#Junior_Minister[2007-02-01]
[1]Elizabeth Meehan,"Sexual Politics and the European Union:The New Feminist Challenge",Australian Journal of Political Science,1997,32(2),a review for R.Amy Elman(ed.),Sexual Politics and the European Union:The New Feminism Challenge,Providence and Oxford:Berghahn Books,1996.
[2]其中,欧盟条约也称作基础法或一级立法,派生法也被称为二级立法。
[1]具体法令所使用的名称并非绝对反映其法律类别。欧洲法院的判例表明,一个法令的类别取决于它的实质而不是它的名称。而且,现实的复杂性使各类法规之间的区别并非总如条约规定的那么明确,尤其是在确认各类法规的直接效力这一重要问题上,各法规间的界限已不很清楚了。一般说来,判断欧盟机构的指令、决定或其他法律法规是否具有直接效力的标准有四个:①内容清楚、准确;②不附任何条件;③不需要成员围或欧盟机构采取进一步的实施措施;④没行结成员国留有判断和处置的自由权。另一个需要注意的问题是,由于欧盟机构的其他一些决议也被欧洲法院当作有约束力的法令,通报(communication)也可能产生一定的法律效力。参见刘光华、闵凡祥、舒小昀编著:《运行在国家和超国家之间:欧盟的立法制度》,江西高校出版社,2006年版,第4页。
[2]戴炳然译:《欧洲共同体条约集》,复旦大学出版社,1993年版,第143页。
[3]《罗马条约》第100条规定理事会可就委员会的提案拟订一些指令来规范成员国的国内法。在为达到欧洲经济共同体的目标而采取必要的行动时,《罗马条约》第235条授予理事会以全体一致表决的方式进行立法的权利。参见《欧洲共同体条约集》,戴炳然译:复旦大学出版社,1993年版,第143页。
[4]杨解朴:“欧盟性别政策及其治理体系”,中国社会科学院研究生院2006年博士学位论文,第8页。
[1]苏明忠译:《欧洲联盟条约》,国际文化出版公司,1999年版,第229-230页。
[2]T.Laeufer(hg.),Vertrag von Amsterdam-Texte des EU-Vertrages und des EG-Vertrages mit den deutschen Begleitesetzen,Bonn:Europa Union Verlag GmbH,1999,pp.56-57.
[3]Permanent Representative Committee,"Presidency report:Review of implementation by Member States and the European Union of the Beijing Platform for Action",Brussels:Council of the European Union.1999,p.2.
[4][德]B.赫克尔:“欧盟性别民主”,《国外社会科学》2001年第2期,第93页。
[1]曾令良:《欧洲联盟法总论》,武汉大学出版社,2007年版,第155-156页。
[2]同上。
[3][德]B.赫克尔:“欧盟性别民主”,《国外社会科学》,2001年第2期,第93页。
[1]表2-1、2-2、2-3部分参考了社会科学院杨解朴博士2006年博士论文“欧盟性别政策及其治理体系”第10-13页对相关法律文件的整理。
[1]John Peterson and Elizabeth Bomberg,Decision-making in the European Union,New York:St.Martin Press,1999,pp.38-42.
转引自田德文:《欧盟社会政策与欧洲一体化》,社会科学文献出版社,2005年版,第77页。
[2]参见欧盟网站关于G司结构表http://europa.eu.int/comm/dgs/employment_social/staffgui/org_en.pdf[2008-03-22]
[3]在性别领域的立法中,欧盟采取“共决程序”,即欧盟理事会和欧洲议会同时享有立法权。在理事会内部,采用特定多数的表决方式。特定多数的表决方式要求:一是达到成员国总数的多数,某些情况可达到三分之二的多数,二是在总321票中得到232票(72.3%)以上,同时要求决议达到代表欧盟总人口62%的标准,如没有达到,决议就不能通过。具体参见欧盟理事会网站。
[1]阎小兵、邝杨:《欧洲议会:对世界上第一个跨国议会的概述与探索》,世界知识出版社,1996年版,第98页。
[2]参见欧洲议会妇女权利和性别平等委员会网站http://www.europarl.eu.int/committees/femm_home_en.htm [2006-11-6]
[3]"Presentation of the Commission proposal for the creation of a European Institute for Gender Equality Brussels",13 September 2005,p.6.
[4]European Commission,"Feasibility Study for a European Gender Institute",conducted by PLS Ramboll Management,DK,2002.
[1]European Parliament,"Role of a Future European Institute",a study for the European Parliament,Final report,2004.http://www.unidadgenero.com/documentos/Creacion_IEIG.pdf[2008-10-11]
[2]European Commission,"Proposal for a Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council Establishing a European Institute for Gender Equality",COM(2005) 81 final,p.13.
[3]Ibid.,pp.13-14.
[4]Ibid.
[1]王明进:“合法性与欧洲议会的创立于发展”,《国际关系学院学报》,2004年第6期,第20页。
[2]刘文秀:“欧洲议会的权力及其运行机制”,《欧洲》,2000年第3期,第43页。
[3]“开放式协调法”正式提出于2000年里斯本高峰会议,在2001年3月斯德哥尔摩高峰会议上再次提及“开放协 调法”对于就业协调的重要性,希望藉此提高欧洲国家的就业参与率。欧盟委员会在2003年报告中便明确指出这点:“开放协调法被视为弹性的治理模式,补充既有的共同体方法以及条约为基础的过程...。基于辅助性原则,其目标为帮助成员国渐进发展自身的政策。”参见施世骏:“欧盟新治理模式与社会政策发展”,《台湾社会福利学刊》第4卷第1期,以及CEC(2003a),"Strengthening the Social Dimension ofthe Lisbon Strategy:Streamlining Open Coordination in the Field of Social Protection",Brussels.2003.
[1][德]贝娅特·科勒-科赫、金玲译:“对欧盟治理的批判性评价”,《欧洲研究》,2008年第2期,第95页。
[1]参见欧盟委员会“决策中的男女”数据库http://ec.europa.eu/employment_social/women_men_stats/out/measures_out436_en.htm[2008-04-20]
[2]参见欧洲工会联合会网站:http://www.etuc.org/a/680[2008-03-04]
[3]周弘:“福利国家向何处去”,《中国社会科学》,2001年第3期,第102页。
[1]Mieke Verloo,Anther Velvet Revolution.Gender Mainstreaming And The Politics Of Implementation",IWM Working Paper No.5,2001,p.3.
[2]AP:Action Programme.
[3]Linda Hantrais,Social Policy in the European Union,New York:Palgrave Macmillan and St Martin's Press,2000,pp.122-123.
[1]European commission(1993a),"Green Paper-European Social Policy-Options for the Union",COM(93)551,1993,p.57.
[2]意思是充分体现民主需要所有公民的参与,男女以同样的方式参与并且在经济、决策、社会、文化和公民生活中平等地被代表。参见杨解朴:“欧盟性别政策及其治理体系”,中国社会科学院研究生院2006年博士学位论文,第23页。
[1]在欧盟的官方统计中,聚合基金与前三项“结构基金”一般分开统计。
[2]欧盟结构基金三大目标中,目标一主要内容为促进区域发展,适用地区包括人均国内生产总值低于欧盟平均水平75%的落后地区、边远地区、芬兰和瑞典的人口稀少地区,参与基金类别为欧洲社会基金、区域发展基金、农业指导基金;目标二主要内容为支持面临困难的地区,适用地区包括工业与服务业部门调整变化的地区、衰败的农业地区、困难的城市地区、严重依赖渔业的经济衰退地区,参与基金类别为欧洲社会基金、区域发展基金;目标三的适用地区为所有目标一没有包括的地区。参见http://europa.eu.int/comm/employ_social/esf2000/glossary_en.htm#Ob1.[2004-08-23]
[3]European Commission,"General Budget of the European Union for the Financial Year",2004,p.18.http://europa.eu.int/comm./budget/pdf/budget/syntchi2004/en.pdf.[2007-07-07]
[4]欧洲妇女游说团资金的80%来自欧盟委员会,2006年主要财政预算为937500欧元,参见欧洲妇女游说团网站参见欧洲妇女游说团网站http://www.womenlobby.org/[2006-12-26]
[1]参见欧盟委员会就业、社会事务和平等机会总司官方网站http://ec.europa.eu/employments_social/gender_equality/gender_mainstreaming/general_overview_en.html[2008-06-14]转引自杨解朴:“欧盟性别政策及其治理体系”,中国社会科学院研究生院2006年博士学位论文,第25页。1997年6月,联合国经济及社会理事会给社会性别主流化下了定义,所谓社会性别主流化是指在各个领域和各个层面上评估所有有计划的行动(包括立法、政策、方案)对男女双方的不同含义。作为一种策略方法,它使男女双方的关注和经验成为设计、实施、监督和评判政治、经济和社会领域所有政策方案的有机组成部分,从而使男女双方受益均等,不再有不平等发生。纳入主流的最终目标是实现男女平等。参见联合国网站http://www.un.org/chinese/esa/women/mainstreaming.htm[2007-08-11]另外还有其他对“性别主流化”概念的定义,参见Alison E.Woodward,"Gender Mainstreaming in European Policy:Innovation or Deception?"http://skylla.wz-berlin.de/pdf/2001/i01-103.pdf[2008-01-11]
[2]田德文:《欧盟社会政策与欧洲一体化》,社会科学文献出版社,2005年版,第58页。
[3]European commission(2000a),"Communication from the Commission concerning Towards ACommunity Framework Strategy on Gender Equality(2001-2005)",COM(2000)335.final,2000.
[1]Teresa Rees,Mainstreaming equality in the European Union,London:Routledge,1998,p.52.
[2]在1997年欧盟首脑会议制定的《阿姆斯特丹条约》和卢森堡特别首脑会议的精神下,欧盟委员会于1998年起草制定了第一份有关欧盟就业的文件,即欧盟《就业指南》。《就业指南》确定将就业能力(employability)企业家的地位和职能(entrepreneurship),适应能力(adaptability)以及平等的就业机会作为欧盟共同就业政策的支柱和基本框架,其他相关政策的制定必须以这四项支柱为基础,并给其特殊的优先地位。
[3]European Commission(2000b)," Impact Evalution of the EES-Equal Opportunities for women and women",2000.http://europa.eu.int/comm/employment_social/news/2002/may/equ_opp_en.pdf[2007-3-23]
[1]“家庭友好政策”是在福利国家体制之下实行的帮助身为父母的就业者协调家庭与工作矛盾的社会政策,如产假、父母假与儿童照料服务等,参见J.Hecht,and H.Leridon,"Fertility Policies:a Limited Influence?" in D.Noin and Woods R.(eds.),The Changing Population of Europe,Oxford:Blackwell,1993,pp.62-75.转引自吕亚军:“欧盟家庭友好政策的性别视角分析”,《妇女研究论丛》2008年第1期,第59页。
[2]Council of the European Communities,"Council Recommendation 92/241/EEC of 31 March 1992 on childcare",OJL123/16 8.5.1992.
[3]European commission,"A White Paper-European Social Policy.A way forward for the Union",COM(94)333final,1994.
[1]European Commission,"Women and Statistics and Indicators".http://ec.europa.eu/research/science-society/pdf/she_figures_2006_en.pdf.[2007-09-17].
[2]"Women among Academic Staff by Field of Science 1998-2002".http://ec.europa.eu/research/science-society/women/wssi/pdf/8_academicstaff_field.pdf.[2007-09-16]
[3]CEC,"Annex 1:Women and Science Statistics:are We Successful in Closing the Gender Gap in Science and Engineering?".http://ec.europa.eu/research/science-society/pdf/documents_women_sec2_en.pdf.[2007-09-17]
[1]European Platform of Women Scientists.http://www.epws.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=55&Itemid=4574[2007-09-17]
[1]赵叶珠、傅春晖:“欧盟促进女性参与科技创新的政策与措施述评”,《妇女研究论丛》,2008年第1期,第67-71页。
[1]牟杰,杨诚虎:《公共政策评估--理论与方法》,中国社会科学出版社,2006年版,第134页。
[2]根据一般性的政策效果评估理论,政策效果评估一般包括两办面内容,即政策目标与实际效果之间的差距以及实施政策前后状态之间的差距。前者是衡量实现目标程度的指标,后者是衡量政策实际效果的指标。二者都可以通过一系列具体的量化标准来进行和完成。参见牟杰,杨诚虎:《公共政策评估--理论与方法》,中国社会科学出版社,2006年版,第131页。
[1]European Commission,"Report From The Commission to the Council,the European Parliament and the Economic and Social Committee on theImplementation of Council Recommendation 96/694 on the Balanced Participatation of Women and Men in the Decision-making Process",COM(2000) 120 final.
[2]"Studiy of DG Empl Committees",http://europa.eu.int/comm/dg05/equ.opp/index-en.htm[2008-09-22]
[3]European Commission,"Commission Decision 2000/407/EC Relating to Gender Balance within the Committees and Expert Groups Established by it",OJ L 154,27.6.2000,p.34.
[4]European Commission,"Communication From The Commission to the Council,the European Parliament:Framework Strategy on Gender Equality Work Programme for 2002",COM(2001) 773 final,p.4.
[1]European Commission,"Communication from the Commission to the Council and the European Parliament Framework Strategy on Gender Equality Work Programme for 2002",COM(2001) 773 final.p.5.
[2]Marie Mushaben,"The Politics of Critical Acts:Women,Leadership and Democraatic Deficits in the European Union"The European Studies Journal 1998,15(2),pp.51-91.
[3]参见国际议会联盟(Inter-parliamentary Union),http://www.ipu.org/wmn-e/world.htm[2005-04-10]
[1]此处分类的依据是女性决策参与的经验性数据,但由于决策参与本身涉及三个重要的领域,同时不同领域又包括众多的部门、职位,难以进行综合性的评比,因此,此处的分类主要依据女性议会参与的数据,并且属于整体概括性的分析。尽管如此,此分类仍基本符合其他领域以及职位上的参与情况,但不能否定个别国家、个别情况的存在。
[2]在国际议会联盟网站的统计数据基础上经过笔者整理计算得出的结果。具体数据参见http://www.ipu.org/wmn-e/classif-arc.htm[2007-02-03]
[1]European Commission(2002b),"Impact Evaluation of the EES-Equal Opportunities for Women and Men",2002.http://europa.eu.int/comm/employment_social/news/2002/may/equ_opp_en.pdf[2007-03-23]
[1]欧盟现行法律包括源与欧盟条约和法律的所有权利与义务,其中包括基本法、二级立法和软法。参见CEC (2000c),Enlargement Strategy Paper:Report on Progress towards Accession by Each of theCandidate Countries,2000.http://europa.eu.int.[2006-07-22]
[2]参见欧盟官方网站http://ec.europa.eu/enlargement/the-policy/conditions-for-enlargement/index_en.htm[2007-06-11]
[3]Dagmar Lorenz-Meyer,"Policy Initiatives and Tools to Promote the Participation of Women and Gender Equality in the Process of the Czech Republic's Accession to the European Union",p.71.This publication stems from work on the project "Constructing Supranational Political Spaces:The European Union,Eastern Enlargement and Women's Agency".Funding has been provided by the NationalScience Foundation,USA(grant no.BCS-0137954;project co-ordinator Joanna Regulska,Rutgers University) and by the KONTAKT Programme of Ministry of Education,Youth and Sports,Czech Republic(grant no.ME 594;project co-ordinator Marie(?)ermakova,Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic).
[1]Kalivodova,E.'," Analysis of Agenda 2000 and Regular Report 1999"(unpublished manuscript),Prague:Centre for Gender Studies,Charles University,2003.
[2]CEC(2000d),"Regular Report on the Czech Republic's Progress towards Accession",2000,p.66.http://europa.eu.int/comm/enlargement.[2006-07-22]
[3]平等机会、平等待遇、性别平等三个定义在内涵和使用上也存在一定的区别。平等机会主要被用于欧盟的软法如理事会结论中,这个概念主要指更广泛的目标和承诺即女性和男性应该拥有同样的权利和发展的前途。平等待遇一般是用于欧盟二级立法当中,尤其在处理就业和社会安全方面男女平等权利问题的具有约束力的欧盟理事会指令中使用。性别平等概念代表一个复合的政策目标,主要被使用于20世纪90年代以来欧盟政策文件中,很少被使用于欧盟条约和理事会指令中。参见Dagmar Lorenz-Meyer,"Policy Initiatives and Tools to Promote the Participation of Women and Gender Equality in the Process of the Czech Republic's Accession to the European Union",pp.63-66.http://studie.soc.cas.cz/upl/texty/files/223_03-9%20text%20pro%20tisk.pdf[2008-03-07]
[1]CEC(2000b),"Report from the Commission to the Council,the European Parliament,the Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions.Equal Opportunities for Women and Men in the European Union",COM (2000) 123 final,Brussels,1999,p.24.http://www.europa.eu.int.[2006-07-22]
[2]European Commission(2001a),"Equal Opportunities for Women and Men in the European Union",COM(2000) 179final,Luxembourg:Office for Official Publications of theEuropean Communities,2000,p.23.
[3]Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs of the Czech Republic,"Summary Report on the Fulfilment of Government Priorities and Procedures in Enforcement of the Equality of Men and Women in 2001",p.1.http://www.mpsv.cz.[2008-01-12]
[4]Dagmar Lorenz-Meyer,"Policy Initiatives and Tools to Promote the Participation of Women and Gender Equality in the Process of the Czech Republic's Accession to the European Union",pp.89-91.http://studie.soc.cas.cz/upl/texty/files/223_03-9%20text%20pro%20tisk.pdf[2008-03-07]
[1]Montreal,"Mainstreamed Away? The European Employment Strategy and its Gender Equality Dimension",paper prepared for the 2007 Biennial EUSA Conference.pp.13-15.http://www.unc.edu/euce/eusa2007/papers/pfister-t-07e.pdf [2007-11-03]
[2]European Parliament,Public Hearing "Situation of Roma women in the European Union" 23 November 2005,15.00-17.30,European Parliament,htto://ec.europa.eu/employment_social/speeches/2005/lp_231105_en.pdf[2006-8-23]
[3]欧盟委员会内部委员会和专家小组中女性至少要占40%的比例。
[1]参见欧洲委员会网站http://www.coe.int/t/e/human_rights/equality/03._women_and_decision-making/EG-S-PA(2000)07+3,asp[2006-8-23]
[2]具体数据指标参见第一章内容。
[1]European Commission Directorate-General for Employment,Social Affairs and Equal Opportunities Unit G1,"Women and men in decision-making 2007-Analysis of the situation and trends",Luxembourg:Office for Official Publications of the European Communities,2008.
[1][英]简·弗立德曼著、雷艳红译:《女权主义》,吉林人民出版社,2007年版,第33页。
[2]Council of Europe,"Positive Action in the Field of Equality between Men and Women" EG-S-PANo.7.Published by Council of Europe,Brussles,2000.
[1]在法国,政党从政府获得的财政收入主要有两部分,第一部分是根据该政党在选举中所获得的选票占总选票数量的比例,第二部分是根据该政党获得的议席数量的比例。财政惩罚则是与第一部分收入相联系。相关法律规定,如果政党所提名的名单中男性候选人与女性候选人所占比例的差额超过2%时,政党将要在其获得的第一部分经费中扣除相当于性别比例之差一半的比例数的资金。对此,较大的政党通常具有抵抗财政惩罚的能力,如果政党相信通过推举男性候选人可以获得更多的席位,那么财政惩罚这一措施将不会影响政党继续提名多数男性候选人的政策。正如保卫共和联盟的圣特·昆特恩所言:“通过提名男性候选人而获得的要比提名女性候选人而失去的更具有经济价值。”参见Rainbow Murray,"Quota and electoral systems" paper prepared for ECPconference,Budapest,2005,p.9.http://www.essex.ac.uk/ecpr/publications/index.aspx[2006-02-11]
[2][路透社纽约3月26日电]“盖洛普民意调查表明:多数国家赞成妇女参政”,转引自《参考消息》1996年4月4日。
[3]同上。
[4]李英桃:《社会性别视角下的国际政治》,上海人民出版社,2003年版,第34页。
[1]由于欧盟政治体系的特点,欧盟机构框架上存在的问题更多的是涉及到欧盟机构与成员国机构之间的关系,因此将在下文的论述中给予分析。
[2]刘文秀、埃米尔·J·科什纳等:《欧洲联盟政策及政策过程研究》,法律出版社,2003年版,第289页。
[1]贝娅特·科勒-科赫著、金玲译:“对欧盟治理的批判性评价”,《欧洲研究》,2008年第2期,第93-101页。
[2]施世俊:“欧盟新治理模式与社会政策发展:‘开放协调法'兴起的历史脉络与政策意涵”,第19页。http://www.sinica.edu.tw/asct/asw/journal/040101.pdf[2008-01-11]
[1]循环的执行程序是指为了确保互相监督与学习,欧盟在“开放协调法”中首次运用(数)年度的循环程序,确保同侪压力与各国的投入程度。引自施世俊:“欧盟新治理模式与社会政策发展:‘开放协调法'兴起的历史脉络与政策意涵”,第19页。http://www.sinica.edu.tw/asct/asw/journal/040101.pdf[2008-01-11]
[1]对此的担心参见Emilie M.Hafner-Burton and Mark A.Pollack,"Revolution:The Disappointing Implementation of Gender Mainstreaming in the European Union" http://www.princeton.edu/～ehafner/pdfs/no_revolution.pd_f[2008-01-12]Petra Meier,Emanuela Lombardo,Maria Bustelo and Maro Pantelidou Maloutas,"Women in political decision-making and gender mainstreaming:obvious partners?"http://www.mageeq.net/docs/magpap05.pdf[2007-03-15]Alison E.Woodward,"Gender Mainstreaming in European Policy:Innovation or Deception?"http://bibliothek.wzb.eu/pdf/2001/i01-103.pdf[2008-01-11]
[1]饶蕾:《欧盟委员会:一个超国家机构的作用》,西南财经大学出版社,2002年版,第81页。
[1]Maria Pantelidou Maloutas,et al.,"State of the Art and Mapping of Competences in Greece".http://www.mageeq.net/docs/greece.pdf[2007-11-09]
[1]杨解朴:“欧盟性别政策及其治理体系”,中国社会科学院研究生院2006年博士学位论文,第27页。
[1]I.Ostner,"From equal pay to equal employability:four decades of European gender policies",2000,In M.Rossilli (Ed.),Gender policies in the European Union,New York:Peter Lang,pp.25-42.
[2]J.Caporaso and J.Jupille,." The Europeanization of Gender Equality Policy and Domestic Structural Change",In M.Green Cowles,J.Caporaso and T.Risse(eds.),Transforming Europe:Europeanization and domestic change,Ithaca:Cornell University Press,pp.21-43.
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