奥林匹克文化传播的经济学分析
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摘要
北京奥运会的成功举办,加快了中国向世界舞台中心迈进的速度。如何使我国崛起进程中外部阻力降到最低?北京奥运会的成功举办,同时促发我们去探询这样一个问题:是什么样的力量,使古老的奥林匹克文化能在全球范围内产生如此巨大的影响力?奥林匹克文化传播最大化的经验对我国提升软实力的借鉴何在?
本文通过对奥林匹克文化发展历史的经济学梳理,呈现了奥林匹克文化发展的经济脉络,揭示出了不同资金补给模式所能够支撑的奥林匹克文化传播状态及奥林匹克文化传播过程中成本-收益的变化。当私人捐赠和政府支持无法满足奥林匹克文化传播需求时,通过市场化的运作挖掘并实现奥林匹克文化本身的商业价值就成为必然。但是,在市场化运作的过程中,用以获得巨大资金来源的资源恰恰是不能够被市场化侵蚀的奥林匹克文化精神。因此,适度的市场化运作是保障奥林匹克文化传播效益最大化的关键。
本文提出,奥林匹克文化传播成功经验在于其传播的价值体系具有普适性,并找到了奥运会这样一个开放的平台和载体,而且在国际奥委会的支持下选择了适度市场化的道路,实现了奥林匹克文化传播效益最大化。对于中国提升软实力的借鉴则在于:政府与市场协调配合;加快培育国内文化产业基础来实现在运行机制和传播载体上与国际的对接,通过满足国际市场需求来达到中华文化国际化传播的最佳效果,从而提升中国的软实力。
There lasted 7 years of preparations after giving China the Olympic Games. The 17 days of brilliant bloom stroke the Olympic spirits in the hearts of the Chinese people to a extent never seen before and attracted wide spread interest from the world. Ancient China is speeding toward the center of the world stage. During such emergence, the way to build an internationalized Chinese culture cored by soft power and the way to let more and more people recognize and accept it will be the main solution aiming at advancement of comprehensive national strength and optimization of international environment for growth. Analysis and ideas from the successful experiences of the communication of Olympic culturehave constituted the origin of research in this paper.
"Cultural Communication of Olympic" is a process bearing Olympic Games as an important carrier and a main form of expression. It means that Olympic culture has been recognized and accepted by more and more people in the countries around the world and has an impact on them. Through analysis, we got the following results.
First, seek the laws of evolution patterns of communication and operation of Olympic culture
Be Olympic Games ancient or modern, the history of cultural communications applies. Taking a wide view of such history, there exist a corresponding relationship between cultural communication and economic development of Olympics. The communication of Olympic culture has experienced three stages successively including regionalization, internationalization, and globalization after rise of ancient Olympic Games, revival of modern Olympic Games, and the Olympic Games in 1984. Accordingly, there are three functional modes supporting such changes in the three stages of constantly evolutive Olympic Games. They are individual donations, government support, and market -oriented operation. Although the effects of cultural communication of Olympics related closely to scope and field of communication at every stage, the latter is limited by funds provided by the mode of operations of the Olympic Games to a greater extent.
"Cost-income" will be the elementary theory applied into analyzing the evolution modes of these three stages. Since the communication of Olympic culturewill be costly, then how to solve it? Even though personal donation is the main sources of funding for ancient Olympic Games and governmental funding is a major source of the modern Olympic Games, both are proved to be not the most efficient. This is because that, on one hand, size of the funds will affect and restrict effects of communication, while on the other hand, Olympic Committee will loss independences as it relays on both aspects. Thus, power of the communication of Olympic cultureis reduced as Olympic Games are affected by personal interests or the interests of political groups to a certain extent.
How to maximize the efficiency of communication of Olympic culture, which has turned into an issue of how to allows financial independence of the International Olympic Committee for its ability to provide a stable source of funding for development of Olympic Games. As a result, the market-oriented mode of operations has emerged as the only solution to this issue since it can obtain adequate financial strength through the operations of the International Olympic Committee's own assets. Second, reveal the optimal way of maximizing communication of Olympic culture
After experiencing private donations, governmental subsidies, and market-oriented operations, the International Olympic Committee found a new way of self-sustained and self-flourishing. However, for this, it will be the biggest challenge to find an appropriate "degree" between market-oriented operations and maintaining essence of nonmarket culture during operations. As a result, "Moderately Market-oriented" has become the optimal way for the continued prosperous of Olympic Games and maximal efficiency of cultural communication of Olympics.
(a)Multiplier effect under market-oriented operations Attention and brand resources are core resources that market-oriented Olympic Games should rely on. The exchange of attention resource directly bring the huge gains for the International Olympic Committee through entrance tickets and telecasts; while operations of brand resources will help Olympic Committee get financial supports from Olympic sponsors. Accompanied by stable source of funds brought, the business practices of broadcasters and TOP enterprises will also produce a multiplier effect for enhancing communications of Olympic culture. Although telecast may complete the mission of public communication naturally, the TOP enterprises using the Olympic logo may also play a very active role in promoting cultural influences of Olympic and realizing an additive effect of both use value and value via their vast sales network and market coverage.
(b) Cultural erosions under market-oriented operations of Olympics
For communications of Olympic Games, market-oriented principle is also a double-edged sword. True, market-oriented operations have brought huge funds for the development of the Olympic Games. But, its drawbacks also appear, such as, threat of doping, excessive interest demands of the sponsors and broadcasters hurting Olympic Games. This also makes a voice of anti-market-oriented rising.
(c) "Appropriate market-oriented" - maintain dynamic balance between the quality of the Olympic culture and assurance of its survival and development
There seemingly exists a contradictory phenomenon during the process of communication of Olympic culture: Olympic should rely on market-oriented operations for its cultural communication; while non-market-oriented Olympic spirit should be the premise of market-oriented Olympic culture. It is just the non-market nature of the Olympic brand lays a foundation of successful operations of the Olympics and provides a sustained financial support for communication of Olympic Games. The key to explain such paradox is to find the "degree" that the International Olympic Committee should follow. It is a“degree”of communication of Olympic culture during market-oriented operations by allowing business operations at a certain extent to maintain a sustainable development while maintaining cultural values and ethical standards of Olympics. So it is necessary to find a dynamic balance therein. The condition to achieve such balance is that communication of the Olympic sprits should commercially maximize when commercial benefits of Olympic culture equal to subsequent damages. This means that market-oriented operations will approach optimum when marginal income of communication of Olympic sprits equal to its edge losses.
Third, References to improve China's soft power
China's economy has experienced sustained and rapid development during the past 30 years, and its economic aggregate has been ranking fourth in the world. China has become a force of rapid rise in the international community. Comparing with economic status, it is the country's comprehensive strength that should simultaneously be improved. One of important contents for enhancing comprehensive national strength is that the national culture should be recognized in the world with a broad impact. In accordance with Joseph Nye, the professor from Harvard University, a country's soft power mainly comes from three aspects including cultural value, political value and foreign policy under his "soft power" theory. However, from practices of international relations, influence of Chinese culture does not equal to that of China's economics. So breakthrough of building China's soft power at the present stage should lay on the constructions of Chinese culture. In other words, the core and main way of building China's soft power is how to promote Chinese culture, and realize modernization and internationalization of traditional culture. Although with a good traditional culture and the favorable ideas of culture, we still have to know how to find a widely acceptable carrier and mode of communication for these cultural heritages and expression in order to produce broader impacts around the world. By studying the successful experiences of cultural communication of Olympics, we have the following revelations.
(a) Choose a universal value
Ancient Olympic Games begins with and ends in religions. The reason why modern Olympic culture can be recognized around the world with a broad impact is because spirits and values it promotes go beyond religions, politics and race and emphasizes universality of human being. As diversity and openness is the most important feature of Olympic ideology, so it is necessary to build a system that is open and respecting multivariate demands if Chinese culture is supposed to produce a broad impact in the international community like Olympic Culture. In fact, Chinese traditional culture has always been an open and inclusive system. There are three major traditions, including "Confucianism-managing state affairs", "Buddhism-ruling heart, and“Tao"-governing body". Their heritage and development have laid a foundation for us to present a wealthy value system to the world. No matter“Taking something up”for Confucianism or "Putting it down" for Taoism, reflects a fruit that combining diversified Chinese cultures. It provides modernist wisdom for living in harmony in terms of "person to person", "person to nature", and "persons and themselves".
(b) Find the right carrier
The most important carrier of cultural communication of Olympics is the Olympic Games holding once every four years. Almost all countries are accessible to the Olympic Games. There were about 204 countries that entered the 2008 Olympic Games. A wide range of competitive projects in the world are covered by Olympic Games to ensure the universality and participatory of Olympic Games. The revival of Modern Olympics has created many sports and rules after combining a number of new features of the developments of modern society. At the same time, it also retains solemn ceremony in the ancient Olympic Games featured by cultural and educational. This combination of tradition and innovation endows a unique charm to the Olympic Games. Today, Olympic Games have become a Carnival for people in the world. And Olympic sprits were also brought to a greater height of development utilizing such a powerful carrier.
Just like Hollywood in the United States, TV series in South Korea, and cartoons in Japan, each country needs to rely on a carrier fitting its own temperament. So that it will be able to achieve international communication of cultures when trying to demonstrate itself to the international community. We should have wisdom to explore a suitable carrier for communication of our special culture in order to find our own runway in the arena of world cultures.
(c) Stably insist on market-oriented polices, and establish a market mechanism
The biggest future differs cultural products from other products is that the establishment of its sale should be on a psychological base in order to simultaneously achieve Use Value and Value of cultural products. The recognition of use value is the only prerequisite for market value of cultural products. Although cultural product convincing the market may not be a good one, it is definitely not a good cultural product if one fails to convince the market as it can not realize the spread value due to such failure.
Appropriate market-oriented operations are inevitable in view of historical development of Olympics and practices of improving China's soft power.
本文通过对奥林匹克文化发展历史的经济学梳理,呈现了奥林匹克文化发展的经济脉络,揭示出了不同资金补给模式所能够支撑的奥林匹克文化传播状态及奥林匹克文化传播过程中成本-收益的变化。当私人捐赠和政府支持无法满足奥林匹克文化传播需求时,通过市场化的运作挖掘并实现奥林匹克文化本身的商业价值就成为必然。但是,在市场化运作的过程中,用以获得巨大资金来源的资源恰恰是不能够被市场化侵蚀的奥林匹克文化精神。因此,适度的市场化运作是保障奥林匹克文化传播效益最大化的关键。
本文提出,奥林匹克文化传播成功经验在于其传播的价值体系具有普适性,并找到了奥运会这样一个开放的平台和载体,而且在国际奥委会的支持下选择了适度市场化的道路,实现了奥林匹克文化传播效益最大化。对于中国提升软实力的借鉴则在于:政府与市场协调配合;加快培育国内文化产业基础来实现在运行机制和传播载体上与国际的对接,通过满足国际市场需求来达到中华文化国际化传播的最佳效果,从而提升中国的软实力。
There lasted 7 years of preparations after giving China the Olympic Games. The 17 days of brilliant bloom stroke the Olympic spirits in the hearts of the Chinese people to a extent never seen before and attracted wide spread interest from the world. Ancient China is speeding toward the center of the world stage. During such emergence, the way to build an internationalized Chinese culture cored by soft power and the way to let more and more people recognize and accept it will be the main solution aiming at advancement of comprehensive national strength and optimization of international environment for growth. Analysis and ideas from the successful experiences of the communication of Olympic culturehave constituted the origin of research in this paper.
"Cultural Communication of Olympic" is a process bearing Olympic Games as an important carrier and a main form of expression. It means that Olympic culture has been recognized and accepted by more and more people in the countries around the world and has an impact on them. Through analysis, we got the following results.
First, seek the laws of evolution patterns of communication and operation of Olympic culture
Be Olympic Games ancient or modern, the history of cultural communications applies. Taking a wide view of such history, there exist a corresponding relationship between cultural communication and economic development of Olympics. The communication of Olympic culture has experienced three stages successively including regionalization, internationalization, and globalization after rise of ancient Olympic Games, revival of modern Olympic Games, and the Olympic Games in 1984. Accordingly, there are three functional modes supporting such changes in the three stages of constantly evolutive Olympic Games. They are individual donations, government support, and market -oriented operation. Although the effects of cultural communication of Olympics related closely to scope and field of communication at every stage, the latter is limited by funds provided by the mode of operations of the Olympic Games to a greater extent.
"Cost-income" will be the elementary theory applied into analyzing the evolution modes of these three stages. Since the communication of Olympic culturewill be costly, then how to solve it? Even though personal donation is the main sources of funding for ancient Olympic Games and governmental funding is a major source of the modern Olympic Games, both are proved to be not the most efficient. This is because that, on one hand, size of the funds will affect and restrict effects of communication, while on the other hand, Olympic Committee will loss independences as it relays on both aspects. Thus, power of the communication of Olympic cultureis reduced as Olympic Games are affected by personal interests or the interests of political groups to a certain extent.
How to maximize the efficiency of communication of Olympic culture, which has turned into an issue of how to allows financial independence of the International Olympic Committee for its ability to provide a stable source of funding for development of Olympic Games. As a result, the market-oriented mode of operations has emerged as the only solution to this issue since it can obtain adequate financial strength through the operations of the International Olympic Committee's own assets. Second, reveal the optimal way of maximizing communication of Olympic culture
After experiencing private donations, governmental subsidies, and market-oriented operations, the International Olympic Committee found a new way of self-sustained and self-flourishing. However, for this, it will be the biggest challenge to find an appropriate "degree" between market-oriented operations and maintaining essence of nonmarket culture during operations. As a result, "Moderately Market-oriented" has become the optimal way for the continued prosperous of Olympic Games and maximal efficiency of cultural communication of Olympics.
(a)Multiplier effect under market-oriented operations Attention and brand resources are core resources that market-oriented Olympic Games should rely on. The exchange of attention resource directly bring the huge gains for the International Olympic Committee through entrance tickets and telecasts; while operations of brand resources will help Olympic Committee get financial supports from Olympic sponsors. Accompanied by stable source of funds brought, the business practices of broadcasters and TOP enterprises will also produce a multiplier effect for enhancing communications of Olympic culture. Although telecast may complete the mission of public communication naturally, the TOP enterprises using the Olympic logo may also play a very active role in promoting cultural influences of Olympic and realizing an additive effect of both use value and value via their vast sales network and market coverage.
(b) Cultural erosions under market-oriented operations of Olympics
For communications of Olympic Games, market-oriented principle is also a double-edged sword. True, market-oriented operations have brought huge funds for the development of the Olympic Games. But, its drawbacks also appear, such as, threat of doping, excessive interest demands of the sponsors and broadcasters hurting Olympic Games. This also makes a voice of anti-market-oriented rising.
(c) "Appropriate market-oriented" - maintain dynamic balance between the quality of the Olympic culture and assurance of its survival and development
There seemingly exists a contradictory phenomenon during the process of communication of Olympic culture: Olympic should rely on market-oriented operations for its cultural communication; while non-market-oriented Olympic spirit should be the premise of market-oriented Olympic culture. It is just the non-market nature of the Olympic brand lays a foundation of successful operations of the Olympics and provides a sustained financial support for communication of Olympic Games. The key to explain such paradox is to find the "degree" that the International Olympic Committee should follow. It is a“degree”of communication of Olympic culture during market-oriented operations by allowing business operations at a certain extent to maintain a sustainable development while maintaining cultural values and ethical standards of Olympics. So it is necessary to find a dynamic balance therein. The condition to achieve such balance is that communication of the Olympic sprits should commercially maximize when commercial benefits of Olympic culture equal to subsequent damages. This means that market-oriented operations will approach optimum when marginal income of communication of Olympic sprits equal to its edge losses.
Third, References to improve China's soft power
China's economy has experienced sustained and rapid development during the past 30 years, and its economic aggregate has been ranking fourth in the world. China has become a force of rapid rise in the international community. Comparing with economic status, it is the country's comprehensive strength that should simultaneously be improved. One of important contents for enhancing comprehensive national strength is that the national culture should be recognized in the world with a broad impact. In accordance with Joseph Nye, the professor from Harvard University, a country's soft power mainly comes from three aspects including cultural value, political value and foreign policy under his "soft power" theory. However, from practices of international relations, influence of Chinese culture does not equal to that of China's economics. So breakthrough of building China's soft power at the present stage should lay on the constructions of Chinese culture. In other words, the core and main way of building China's soft power is how to promote Chinese culture, and realize modernization and internationalization of traditional culture. Although with a good traditional culture and the favorable ideas of culture, we still have to know how to find a widely acceptable carrier and mode of communication for these cultural heritages and expression in order to produce broader impacts around the world. By studying the successful experiences of cultural communication of Olympics, we have the following revelations.
(a) Choose a universal value
Ancient Olympic Games begins with and ends in religions. The reason why modern Olympic culture can be recognized around the world with a broad impact is because spirits and values it promotes go beyond religions, politics and race and emphasizes universality of human being. As diversity and openness is the most important feature of Olympic ideology, so it is necessary to build a system that is open and respecting multivariate demands if Chinese culture is supposed to produce a broad impact in the international community like Olympic Culture. In fact, Chinese traditional culture has always been an open and inclusive system. There are three major traditions, including "Confucianism-managing state affairs", "Buddhism-ruling heart, and“Tao"-governing body". Their heritage and development have laid a foundation for us to present a wealthy value system to the world. No matter“Taking something up”for Confucianism or "Putting it down" for Taoism, reflects a fruit that combining diversified Chinese cultures. It provides modernist wisdom for living in harmony in terms of "person to person", "person to nature", and "persons and themselves".
(b) Find the right carrier
The most important carrier of cultural communication of Olympics is the Olympic Games holding once every four years. Almost all countries are accessible to the Olympic Games. There were about 204 countries that entered the 2008 Olympic Games. A wide range of competitive projects in the world are covered by Olympic Games to ensure the universality and participatory of Olympic Games. The revival of Modern Olympics has created many sports and rules after combining a number of new features of the developments of modern society. At the same time, it also retains solemn ceremony in the ancient Olympic Games featured by cultural and educational. This combination of tradition and innovation endows a unique charm to the Olympic Games. Today, Olympic Games have become a Carnival for people in the world. And Olympic sprits were also brought to a greater height of development utilizing such a powerful carrier.
Just like Hollywood in the United States, TV series in South Korea, and cartoons in Japan, each country needs to rely on a carrier fitting its own temperament. So that it will be able to achieve international communication of cultures when trying to demonstrate itself to the international community. We should have wisdom to explore a suitable carrier for communication of our special culture in order to find our own runway in the arena of world cultures.
(c) Stably insist on market-oriented polices, and establish a market mechanism
The biggest future differs cultural products from other products is that the establishment of its sale should be on a psychological base in order to simultaneously achieve Use Value and Value of cultural products. The recognition of use value is the only prerequisite for market value of cultural products. Although cultural product convincing the market may not be a good one, it is definitely not a good cultural product if one fails to convince the market as it can not realize the spread value due to such failure.
Appropriate market-oriented operations are inevitable in view of historical development of Olympics and practices of improving China's soft power.
引文
①【澳大利亚】K·吐依、A·J·维尔著:《真实的奥运会》,朱振欢、王荷英译清华大学出版社,2004年版,第5页。
①新华网2007年10月24日《胡锦涛在中国共产党第十七次全国代表大会上的讲话》。
①OLYMPIC CHARTER. Published by the Imternational Olympic Committee October 2007. P11.
②OLYMPIC CHARTER. Published by the Imternational Olympic Committee October 2007. P11.
①OLYMPIC CHARTER. Published by the Imternational Olympic Committee October 2007.P20.
②【英】麦克尔·佩恩:《奥林匹克大逆转》,郭先春译学林出版社2005年第1版,第158页。
③【英】麦克尔·佩恩:《奥林匹克大逆转》,郭先春译学林出版社2005年第1版,第23页。
①弗兰西斯·培根:《新工具》,转引自韩毅:《经验归纳方法、历史主义传统与制度经济史研究》,《中国经济史研究》2007年第2期。
②张维达主编:《政治经济学》(第二版)高等教育出版社2004年12月,第7页。
①马克思、恩格斯:《马克思恩格斯选集》第1卷,人民出版社1957年第522页。
①纪宝成、张宇:《坚持马克思主义为指导,建设具有中国特色的经济学理论》,载《教学与研究》,2005年第11期。
①孟宪忠、宋冬林、孙刚:《经济文化一体论》,《光明日报》1993年5月31日第3版。
①OLYMPIC CHARTER. Published by the Imternational Olympic Committee October 2007.P5.
①OLYMPIC CHARTER. Published by the Imternational Olympic Committee October 2007.P17.
②成本效益分析通常作为一种经济决策方法,将成本费用分析法运用于私人企业和政府公共部门的计划决策之中,以寻求在投资决策上如何以最小的成本获得最大的收益。在狭义方面,人类任何的经济活动实际上都是运用了成本收益分析的理念。在更广泛的社会分析中,成本效益分析方法的概念首次出现在19 世纪法国经济学家朱乐斯·帕帕特的著作中,被定义为“社会的改良”。其后,这一概念被意大利经济学家帕累托重新界定。到1940年,美国经济学家尼古拉斯·卡尔德和约翰·希克斯对前人的理论加以提炼,正式形成了“成本—效益”分析的理论基础。参见《新帕尔格雷夫经济学大辞典》相关词条,经济科学出版社1996年中文版。
①【英】格吉诺夫·瓦西尔董进霞编著《奥运会的起源与发展——解读奥林匹克运动会》,北京体育大学出版社,2008年版,第104页
①蒙特利尔直至2006年才还清所有30年前举办奥运会时所欠下的债务。
①这也是为什么奥委会长期选择可口可乐作为其合作伙伴的原因之一,因为可口可乐的市场份额很长一段时期内一直领先于百事可乐(虽然最近几年两者市场地位已经不分上下)。
②有很多奥运合作伙伴通过创新性地利用奥运标志进行广告宣传扩大销,即扩大了产品的销量,又有利于奥林匹克文化用传播。
①斯泰德是古希腊的长度单位,约192.27米,是传说中竞技之父—赫拉克勒斯神脚的600倍。
①恩格斯:《反杜林论》,《马克思恩格斯选集》第3卷,人民出版社1957年版。
①凡勃伦:《有闲阶级论》,商务印书馆2007年版,第191页。
①托尼·佩罗蒂提:《天体奥运—你所不知道的古代奥林匹克故事》北京燕山出版社,2005年9月版,第45页。
①【美】托尼·佩罗蒂提:《天体奥运—你所不知道的古代奥林匹克故事》,北京燕山出版社,2005年9月版,第30页。
②【英】格吉诺夫·瓦西尔:《奥运会的起源和发展》,北京体育大学出版社,2008年版,第22页。
①国际奥委会:《国际奥林匹克委员会一百年》(中文版)第1卷,北京奥林匹克出版社1998年版。
②《马克思恩格斯选集》第1卷,人民出版社,1957年版,第522页。
①皮埃尔·德·顾拜旦,刘汉全译:《奥林匹克回忆录》,北京体育大学出版社,2007年版,第13页。
①皮埃尔·德·顾拜旦,刘汉全译:《奥林匹克回忆录》,北京体育大学出版社,2007年版,第82页。
①LYMPIC CHARTER. blished by the Imternational Olympic Committee October 2007. P11.
①皮埃尔·德·顾拜旦,刘汉全译:《奥林匹克回忆录》,北京体育大学出版社,2007年版,第5页.
②Pierre de Coubertin . The Olympic Idea . Germany:Carl—diem—Institut ,1996,9
①http//www.olympic.org
①皮埃尔·德·顾拜旦著,刘汉全译:《奥林匹克回忆录》,北京体育大学出版社,2007年版,第16页。
①皮埃尔·德·顾拜旦著,刘汉全译:《奥林匹克回忆录》,北京体育大学出版社,2007年版,第7页。
①郭镇之:《中外广播电视史》,复旦大学出版社,2005年版,第22页。
②继光:《奥林匹克传播论》,巴蜀书社,2007年版,第274页。
①J.Lucas.The Modern Olympic Games.NY:A.S. Barnes and Company,1980. 181
①1894年奥林匹克复兴大会通过决议,1896年由雅典主办第一届奥运会,1900年由巴黎主办第二届奥运会,之后的历届赛事均由世界其他城市轮流举办。
②皮埃尔·德·顾拜旦,刘汉全译:《奥林匹克回忆录》,北京体育大学出版社,2007年版,第14页。
①刘晓菲:《从雅典到北京——奥运风云录》,清华大学出版社,2007年版,第20页。
①皮埃尔·德·顾拜旦著,刘汉全译:《奥林匹克回忆录》,北京体育大学出版社,2007年版,第57页。
①J.Lucas.The Modern Olympic Games.NY:A.S. Barnes and Company,1980. 181
①【英】麦克尔·佩恩:《奥林匹克大逆转》,学林出版社,2005年版,第23页。
②皮埃尔·德·顾拜旦著,刘汉全译:《奥林匹克回忆录》,北京体育大学出版社,2007年版,第102页。
③皮埃尔·德·顾拜旦著,刘汉全译:《奥林匹克回忆录》,北京体育大学出版社,2007年版,第114页。
①俞可平、黄卫平主编:《全球化的悖论》,中央编译出版社,1998年版,第35页。
②朱丽安·西沃卡:《肥皂剧、性和香烟——美国广告200年经典范例》,光明日报出版社,1999年出版,第474页。
①何振梁:《奥林匹克运动的普遍价值与多文化世界》,《体育文化导刊》2002年2月。
①见《里根回忆录》第223页。转引自唐承运、刘锡海:《80年代美国经济与里根政府对策》,《外国问题研究》1996年第3期。
①【美】马修·波班、格列·安德诺维奇、查尔斯·赫因:《奥林匹克大机遇》,新华出版社,2005年版,第7页。
②见www.olympic.org雅克·罗格博士在欧洲奥林匹克委员会大会上的发言,2000年11月17日
③【西】胡安·安东尼奥·萨马兰奇著,孟宪臣译:《奥林匹克回忆》,世界知识出版社,2003年版,第33页。
①【美】托马斯·达文波特、约翰·贝克:《注意力经济》(第二版),中信出版社,2004年版,第23页。
①【英】麦克尔·佩恩:《奥林匹克大逆转》,学林出版社,2005年版,第156页。
②孙曰瑶:《品牌经济学》,经济科学出版社,2005年版,第2页。
①【英】麦克尔·佩恩著,郭先春译:《奥林匹克大逆转》,学林出版社2005年版,第81页。
①见www.olympic.org盐湖城奥运会市场开发报告
①【英】麦克尔·佩恩:《奥林匹克大逆转》,学林出版社,2005年版,第197页。
①钟秉枢、邱招义、于静、董进霞:《奥林匹克品牌》,北京体育大学出版社,2006年版,第40页。
①【英】麦克尔·佩恩:《奥林匹克大逆转》,学林出版社,2005年第1版,第154页。
①【西】胡安·安东尼奥·萨马兰奇:《奥林匹克回忆》,世界知识出版社,2003年版,第41页。
①【法】皮埃尔.德.顾拜旦著刘汉全译《奥林匹克回忆录》北京体育大学出版社2007年版,第210页。
①【西】胡安.安东尼奥.萨马兰奇著《奥林匹克回忆》,世界知识出版社,第77页。
①这也是为什么奥委会长期选择可口可乐作为其合作伙伴的原因之一,因为可口可乐的市场份额很长一段时期内一直领先于百事可乐(虽然最近几年两者市场地位已经不分上下)。
②有很多奥运合作伙伴通过创新性地利用奥运标志进行广告宣传扩大销,即扩大了产品的销量,又有利于奥林匹克文化用传播。
①Joseph S. Nye, Jr., Bound to Lead: The Changing Nature of American Power, New York: Basic Books, Inc., 1990
②约瑟夫·奈:《软力量——世界政坛成功之道》,东方出版社,2005年版,第7页。
①约瑟夫·奈:《软力量——世界政坛成功之道》,东方出版社,2005年版,第11页。
②约瑟夫·奈:《硬权力与软权力》,北京大学出版社,2005年版,第6页。
③李慎之:《全球化的发展趋势及其价值认同》,载俞可平、黄卫平主编:《全球化的悖论》,中央编译出版社,1998年版,第13-15页。
①王岳川:《大国形象与文化输出》,《花城》2007年第5期,第201-205页。
②胡鞍钢:《科学发展是硬道理,社会和谐也是硬道理》,载门洪华主编《中国:软实力方略》,浙江人民出版社,。2008年版,第57-86页。
①【美】雅克·布道:《构建世界共同体:全球化与共同善》,江苏教育出版社2006年版,第45页。
②见新华网:胡锦涛在美国耶鲁大学的演讲,2006年4月21日。
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②何振梁:《奥林匹克运动的普遍价值逾多文化世界》,《体育文化导刊》2002年第2期。
①徐传谌、谢地主编:《产业经济学》,科学出版社2007年,第311页。
②【加拿大】马修·弗雷泽:《软实力:美国电影、流行乐、电视和快餐的全球统治》,新华出版社,2006年,第115页。
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①OLYMPIC CHARTER. Published by the Imternational Olympic Committee October 2007.P5.
①OLYMPIC CHARTER. Published by the Imternational Olympic Committee October 2007.P17.
②成本效益分析通常作为一种经济决策方法,将成本费用分析法运用于私人企业和政府公共部门的计划决策之中,以寻求在投资决策上如何以最小的成本获得最大的收益。在狭义方面,人类任何的经济活动实际上都是运用了成本收益分析的理念。在更广泛的社会分析中,成本效益分析方法的概念首次出现在19 世纪法国经济学家朱乐斯·帕帕特的著作中,被定义为“社会的改良”。其后,这一概念被意大利经济学家帕累托重新界定。到1940年,美国经济学家尼古拉斯·卡尔德和约翰·希克斯对前人的理论加以提炼,正式形成了“成本—效益”分析的理论基础。参见《新帕尔格雷夫经济学大辞典》相关词条,经济科学出版社1996年中文版。
①【英】格吉诺夫·瓦西尔董进霞编著《奥运会的起源与发展——解读奥林匹克运动会》,北京体育大学出版社,2008年版,第104页
①蒙特利尔直至2006年才还清所有30年前举办奥运会时所欠下的债务。
①这也是为什么奥委会长期选择可口可乐作为其合作伙伴的原因之一,因为可口可乐的市场份额很长一段时期内一直领先于百事可乐(虽然最近几年两者市场地位已经不分上下)。
②有很多奥运合作伙伴通过创新性地利用奥运标志进行广告宣传扩大销,即扩大了产品的销量,又有利于奥林匹克文化用传播。
①斯泰德是古希腊的长度单位,约192.27米,是传说中竞技之父—赫拉克勒斯神脚的600倍。
①恩格斯:《反杜林论》,《马克思恩格斯选集》第3卷,人民出版社1957年版。
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①【美】托尼·佩罗蒂提:《天体奥运—你所不知道的古代奥林匹克故事》,北京燕山出版社,2005年9月版,第30页。
②【英】格吉诺夫·瓦西尔:《奥运会的起源和发展》,北京体育大学出版社,2008年版,第22页。
①国际奥委会:《国际奥林匹克委员会一百年》(中文版)第1卷,北京奥林匹克出版社1998年版。
②《马克思恩格斯选集》第1卷,人民出版社,1957年版,第522页。
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①皮埃尔·德·顾拜旦,刘汉全译:《奥林匹克回忆录》,北京体育大学出版社,2007年版,第82页。
①LYMPIC CHARTER. blished by the Imternational Olympic Committee October 2007. P11.
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②Pierre de Coubertin . The Olympic Idea . Germany:Carl—diem—Institut ,1996,9
①http//www.olympic.org
①皮埃尔·德·顾拜旦著,刘汉全译:《奥林匹克回忆录》,北京体育大学出版社,2007年版,第16页。
①皮埃尔·德·顾拜旦著,刘汉全译:《奥林匹克回忆录》,北京体育大学出版社,2007年版,第7页。
①郭镇之:《中外广播电视史》,复旦大学出版社,2005年版,第22页。
②继光:《奥林匹克传播论》,巴蜀书社,2007年版,第274页。
①J.Lucas.The Modern Olympic Games.NY:A.S. Barnes and Company,1980. 181
①1894年奥林匹克复兴大会通过决议,1896年由雅典主办第一届奥运会,1900年由巴黎主办第二届奥运会,之后的历届赛事均由世界其他城市轮流举办。
②皮埃尔·德·顾拜旦,刘汉全译:《奥林匹克回忆录》,北京体育大学出版社,2007年版,第14页。
①刘晓菲:《从雅典到北京——奥运风云录》,清华大学出版社,2007年版,第20页。
①皮埃尔·德·顾拜旦著,刘汉全译:《奥林匹克回忆录》,北京体育大学出版社,2007年版,第57页。
①J.Lucas.The Modern Olympic Games.NY:A.S. Barnes and Company,1980. 181
①【英】麦克尔·佩恩:《奥林匹克大逆转》,学林出版社,2005年版,第23页。
②皮埃尔·德·顾拜旦著,刘汉全译:《奥林匹克回忆录》,北京体育大学出版社,2007年版,第102页。
③皮埃尔·德·顾拜旦著,刘汉全译:《奥林匹克回忆录》,北京体育大学出版社,2007年版,第114页。
①俞可平、黄卫平主编:《全球化的悖论》,中央编译出版社,1998年版,第35页。
②朱丽安·西沃卡:《肥皂剧、性和香烟——美国广告200年经典范例》,光明日报出版社,1999年出版,第474页。
①何振梁:《奥林匹克运动的普遍价值与多文化世界》,《体育文化导刊》2002年2月。
①见《里根回忆录》第223页。转引自唐承运、刘锡海:《80年代美国经济与里根政府对策》,《外国问题研究》1996年第3期。
①【美】马修·波班、格列·安德诺维奇、查尔斯·赫因:《奥林匹克大机遇》,新华出版社,2005年版,第7页。
②见www.olympic.org雅克·罗格博士在欧洲奥林匹克委员会大会上的发言,2000年11月17日
③【西】胡安·安东尼奥·萨马兰奇著,孟宪臣译:《奥林匹克回忆》,世界知识出版社,2003年版,第33页。
①【美】托马斯·达文波特、约翰·贝克:《注意力经济》(第二版),中信出版社,2004年版,第23页。
①【英】麦克尔·佩恩:《奥林匹克大逆转》,学林出版社,2005年版,第156页。
②孙曰瑶:《品牌经济学》,经济科学出版社,2005年版,第2页。
①【英】麦克尔·佩恩著,郭先春译:《奥林匹克大逆转》,学林出版社2005年版,第81页。
①见www.olympic.org盐湖城奥运会市场开发报告
①【英】麦克尔·佩恩:《奥林匹克大逆转》,学林出版社,2005年版,第197页。
①钟秉枢、邱招义、于静、董进霞:《奥林匹克品牌》,北京体育大学出版社,2006年版,第40页。
①【英】麦克尔·佩恩:《奥林匹克大逆转》,学林出版社,2005年第1版,第154页。
①【西】胡安·安东尼奥·萨马兰奇:《奥林匹克回忆》,世界知识出版社,2003年版,第41页。
①【法】皮埃尔.德.顾拜旦著刘汉全译《奥林匹克回忆录》北京体育大学出版社2007年版,第210页。
①【西】胡安.安东尼奥.萨马兰奇著《奥林匹克回忆》,世界知识出版社,第77页。
①这也是为什么奥委会长期选择可口可乐作为其合作伙伴的原因之一,因为可口可乐的市场份额很长一段时期内一直领先于百事可乐(虽然最近几年两者市场地位已经不分上下)。
②有很多奥运合作伙伴通过创新性地利用奥运标志进行广告宣传扩大销,即扩大了产品的销量,又有利于奥林匹克文化用传播。
①Joseph S. Nye, Jr., Bound to Lead: The Changing Nature of American Power, New York: Basic Books, Inc., 1990
②约瑟夫·奈:《软力量——世界政坛成功之道》,东方出版社,2005年版,第7页。
①约瑟夫·奈:《软力量——世界政坛成功之道》,东方出版社,2005年版,第11页。
②约瑟夫·奈:《硬权力与软权力》,北京大学出版社,2005年版,第6页。
③李慎之:《全球化的发展趋势及其价值认同》,载俞可平、黄卫平主编:《全球化的悖论》,中央编译出版社,1998年版,第13-15页。
①王岳川:《大国形象与文化输出》,《花城》2007年第5期,第201-205页。
②胡鞍钢:《科学发展是硬道理,社会和谐也是硬道理》,载门洪华主编《中国:软实力方略》,浙江人民出版社,。2008年版,第57-86页。
①【美】雅克·布道:《构建世界共同体:全球化与共同善》,江苏教育出版社2006年版,第45页。
②见新华网:胡锦涛在美国耶鲁大学的演讲,2006年4月21日。
①【美】塞缪尔·亨廷顿:《文明的冲突与世界秩序的重建》,新华出版社,2002年版,第43页。
②何振梁:《奥林匹克运动的普遍价值逾多文化世界》,《体育文化导刊》2002年第2期。
①徐传谌、谢地主编:《产业经济学》,科学出版社2007年,第311页。
②【加拿大】马修·弗雷泽:《软实力:美国电影、流行乐、电视和快餐的全球统治》,新华出版社,2006年,第115页。
①天海翔主编:《中国文化产业》,中央编译出版社,第164页。
①周鸿铎、薛华:《国际化表达带来了什么》,载唐晋主编:《论剑:崛起进程中的中国式软实力》,第110页。
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