终身教育框架下成人外语教学研究
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摘要
本论文的目的是试图将成人外语教育作为成人教育的一个重要组成部分融入终身学习的框架与理论,讨论适合国内成人学员的外语教学途径与方法,重点分析并探讨特别是那些同翻译(笔译和口译)技能培训相关的学习策略和教学方法。
根据2009年12月联合国教科文组织在巴西召开的第六届国际成人教育大会上通过的《贝伦行动框架》宣言:“从生到死”的终身学习是一门哲学,一种概念框架和所有形式教育的组织原则。它包容一切,是一个知识社会前景的必要组成部分。
成人教育是终身教育全面与综合体系中的一个重要和关键组成部分,包括学历、非学历和非正式的学习,并且直接或间接地涉及青年与成人学习者。同时,成人教育在应对现代文化、经济、政治和社会挑战中起着至关重要的作用。当今的全球化带来了许多机遇,也包括在跨地域的丰富多彩的文化之间进行互相学习与交流的可能。
在新的世纪里,当社会在迅速改变、经济在飞速发展时,当我们生活在一个信息化与后现代的时代,就有必要构建终身学习体系;如此,除非是因为身体上或精神上的原因,没有人会因为无法接受教育而被时代所淘汰。正如保罗·弗莱雷所告诉我们的:终身学习帮助我们--以个人或集体的力量--了解世界、改变世界。用他的话说,“没有人是完全无知的。没有人无所不知。我们所有人都缺乏某些知识。这就是为什么我们要继续学习。”成人教育可以为我们所有人确保一个美好的未来。在人生的所有阶段,教育具备改变能力。它赋予我们知识和技巧以改善我们的生活。有证据表明,教育对经济增长和人均收益产生影响。这就是为什么在人的一生中提供优质学习机会是最聪明的减少不平等和促进更和谐与公正社会的策略之一。显然,在全球化的时代,成人学习与教育比以往任何时候更为重要。
1960年在加拿大蒙特利尔召开的第二届国际成人教育大会上,一些代表团提出:联合国教科文组织应牵头,说服其成员国就一种统一的“第二语言”达成共识,并在这些国家的所有学校教授这一语言,从而提供一种全世界流通的交际语言。半个世纪后,在巴西贝伦举行的第六届国际成人教育大会上,大会通过的《贝伦行动框架》宣言敦促我们:在这个快速发展的社会里,为了“参与,融入和公平”,我们要致力于“支持各种本土语言读写的发展……,同时充分发展为扩大交际的第二语言教学。”这说明,成人二(外)语教学始终是并且日益成为全世界成人教育的一个重要组成部分。今天,在这个信息时代和“全球化”的世界中,掌握二语或外语能更好的支持成人的职业生涯;并且,从长远计,成为他或她的优势。
职业教育与培训,包括外语或第二语言培训,是成人教育的重要组成部分。根据联合国教科文组织为职业教育与培训所下的定义,它包括:“在经济和社会生活各部门里所有形式和层次的教育过程,除了一般的知识外,还涉及学习技术,相关的科学,获取实用技能,专门知识,对相关职业的态度和熟悉度。”在英国,职业教育与培训包括商业、技术和专业的发展。这些发展需要我们称之为能力的知识、认识和技巧。在竞争激烈的全球经济中,能力,也包括个人的外语或第二语言能力,是经济成功的关键。这一点已得到现代社会越来越广泛的认同。
Grow (1993)在其文章《为自我导向学习模式辩护》中给自我导向学习模式作了简要的定义和概括:(1)学员可以进一步发展其学习控能(learner control),而只是作为一个成年人并不能确保其已具备高度的学习控能。(2)教师可以协助学员的这一进展,不仅是通过培养学员的基本知识,还可以通过整合其元技能,进一步提高其学习控能。(成人学习)课程的设计在让学员掌握基本技能的同时,还须逐步提高其学习控能。教师可以富有成效地转变教学风格,以刺激或适应学习者的需要。自我导向学习模式为这种转变提供了可行性。(3)教学没有唯一的途径。不同的学习者在不同的情况下需要不同风格的教学。好的教师会根据学员的现状,帮助其实现更大程度的自我导向学习。(4)学习控能的程度高低,部分取决于(学员的)现状,部分取决于学员将技能和元技能向新方向转移的能力。
Grow提到的元技能是成人学习者所特具备的,如果能得到充分和准确的应用,将有利于成人完成其学习任务。因此,在任务型教学中,成人的认知能力和元认知能力起着非常重要的作用。成人需要认知能力和认会能力去执行学习的任务,同时,需要元认知能力去了解如何并确保该任务的圆满完成。元认知能力一般分为两种类型:自我评估,即评估自己认知的能力,和自我管理,即管理自己认知进一步发展的能力。成功的成人学习者会应用其一系列的认知技能;效率高的教师也会充分考虑成人学员这些技能的发展。根据针对自我评估的研究:能熟练地进行认知自我评估的学员,因此了解自己的能力,他们在任务型教学中比不了解自己能力的学员会有更好的策略、可以更好地完成其任务。
众所周知,在中国,掌握一门外语是新世纪所需要的合格人才的两个基本能力之一(另一基本能力为计算机技能)。中国有如此多的外语学习者,几十年来外语培训一直蓬勃发展。随之而来的是各种不同级别的外语水平证书。我们知道,语言使用是一个终身的过程,外语习得也是如此。我们必须认识到生活在“全球化的”社会中成人学习外语的重要意义。但是,我们如何可以学好一门外语,以及我们如何能最好地利用一门外语呢?自改革开放以来我们一直在提出并寻求这些问题的答案。人们提出、倡导并不同程度地实施了各种学习方法。我们已知的不仅有传统的语法翻译教学法,还有七十年代的认知法与交际法,八十年代的新浸泡法和基于内容教学法,以及新世纪开始流行的多元智能法。不过,在中国,我们学习的外国语言,如英语,是既非官方语言,也不是常用的语言,以上的教学方法没有一个被证明能满足我们的需求,更不用说取得好的和卓越的成效了。本文因篇幅有限,不可能详尽阐述和一一说明上述所有的外语教学途径和方法,同时,本文重点探讨综合翻译教学(Comprehensive Translation Approach简称CTA),因为笔者以为,这是最适合国内成人外语学习者的教学方法之一。
关于哪一种教学方法或学习策略更适合中国学员,这样的争论自我们开始学习外语就已存在,而且日益激烈。Ferguson (1964 1971 1975 1981)提出二/外语学习者的简化语言,如:像婴儿那样说话、同老师和外国人交谈那样的语言等。在二语习得研究中,Selinker (1969 1972 )提出的中介语的概念及其意义,尽管有人认为中介语会导致是语言上的僵化,仍然得到了很详细的探讨。还有Nemser的近似体系(1971)、Corder的特有方言(1971)和学习者语言(1978)等。无论用什么术语和概念,有一点是共同的:我们的语言学习者,特别是成人学习者,将不得不通过同他们获得母语时所不同的方式去学习二(外)语。
当我们谈到中国成人英语学习者时,我们不能忽视这样的事实:他们在学习的不只是一门同其母语截然不同的外语,而且还是在不利的语言环境中,他们的外语学习努力会不断、反复地受到其他语言和非语言因素的干扰,甚至被抵消。在这样的条件下,大多数成人学习者无法以他们获得母语的方式去学习一门外语。在另一方面,成人语言学习者也有优势:他们不断完善的元认知技能会为他们的外语学习提供便利,因此,他们更容易获取那种能开展相对顺利和有效交际的能力,即,语法能力、社会语言能力和策略能力。(M. Canale & M.Swain 1980 )
很明显,我们需要构建一种专门为成人设计的外语学习方法,适合他们的学习目的和需要,考虑他们不同的工作条件和生活方式,以及更好地利用他们的元认知和母语能力,并在尽可能短的时间内产生切实、有益的结果。
本文中提出的新综合翻译教学方法同传统的语法翻译教学法之不同之处在于:前者强调将翻译作为跨文化交际中的手段。传统的语法翻译法在教学中的重点是放在语法因素,如:词汇、句子结构等。而翻译,主要是笔译,是用来确认和巩固学员的语法能力的。而在综合翻译教学中,学习者的语法能力是一个前提条件,翻译,特别是口译和视译,有多种用途:它体现了学习者的综合语言技能;在语言实践中,它又增强了这些语言技能;它可确保学习者充分利用这些语言技能。
二语习得理论与实践研究表明,语言学习的成功,首先须满足以下的四个条件: (1)不同来源的大量输入和富有意义变化的详尽输入;(2)足够机会在真实场景中的真正使用语言; (3)重点在形式上的即时有效的纠错反馈; (4)遵循学习者规划和发展潜能的个性化内容(Egbert,Chao & Hanson-Smith,1999; Gee,2003; Pennington 1996;Zhao,2003)。但是,对国内的成人外语学习者来说,他们缺乏可以理解的、深入和全面的语言输入;他们没有尽可能多地使用目标语的机会;他们通过目标语展开的社会交流是事先设计好的;学习者很难发展并维持相应的学习环境。
本文中讨论的上海外语口译证书项目(Shanghai Interpreting Accreditation简称SIA)首先要求考生接受深入和全面的语言训练,如:听、说、读、笔译和口译技能的训练。在编写项目培训教材时也以此为宗旨。SIA培训与考试鼓励成人学习者尽可能使用目标语(母语和外语)去双向翻译或口译,这样的翻译或口译是有意识的但不是事先设计好的。通过翻译或口译等培训,成人学习者可以建立及维持自己的一个“学习环境”,并且可以巩固和提高他们的语言技能,取得满意的效果。因此,SIA课程并不只是针对未来的译员,也适合大多数想要改善和提高语言能力的成人外语学习者,即便他们离开了学校,在各自的岗位上从事自己的专业工作。
Cooper和Greenbaum (1987)为外语学习者描绘了一个不同于Giles的容纳模式,正如他们所说,是范围更广的模式。根据他们的定义,容纳是指“讲话者根据所认识到自己和听众之间的互动而进行的讲话调整。”他们提出了四种互动类型:口语表达、背景知识、群体或亲密关系、能力。口语表达和背景知识是属于知识的范畴,团结或亲密关系则属于感觉的领域,而能力就是指行动。关于语域的定义,他们的建议是简化(simplification)和规范(wellformedness)。简化的意思是指更少的句法、更短的话语、更高频率的词汇和更慢的语速。规范的意思是指话语在表面结构上符合语法要求。如何才能同时做到简化和规范?两者平衡的位置在哪里?笔者认为,可以在口译技能的训练中找到答案;因为口译训练中可以满足“外国人说话”的典型条件,那就是:简化、匹配、群体和失真。(Bernard Spolsky 1989)在我们对口译理论与实践的探讨中,这些因素是显而易见的,这也再次证实了本文针对成人英语学员讨论上海外语口译项目的必要性。
本文的正文从第二章开始,将现代成人教育作为终身教育体系中的一个关键和重要组成部分作一简要地整体介绍。随后,文章就国内成人外语教育的相关领域展开讨论,如:社区教育,职业教育,学历教育以及开放和远程教育等。鉴于国内大多数成人外语学员学习外语的目的是为了通过外语测试,因此,有必要对这些语言测试以及相关的应试培训进行探讨。同样,也有必要介绍一下并且分析专门为国内成人外语学员而编写的相关外语教材,如:英语教材。本文第三章阐述成人外语教育理论和外语教学模式,成人外语教育的重要性及其与终身教育的密切关系,探讨成人外语学员的特点及发展趋势,包括后现代主义教育思潮的影响,经验性教学,自我导向学习模式以及在成人教育中认知与认会的关系等。本文第四章强调综合语言技能对成人外语学员的重要性,概括了不同的外语教学途径和方法的要点及其发展,特别是那些比较适合国内成人外语学员的教学模式,例如:(语法)翻译法,交际法,任务型教学等,还有值得一提的是:口译教学与技能培训。第五章阐述针对国内成人学员的口译技能测试,其理论与实践,当然,也包括针对性的外语培训。因此,最后在第六章,本文作者的观点是:考虑到国内的二(外)语习得条件,针对国内的成人外语学员,我们要积极提倡综合翻译/口译教学与培训,以提高其外语学习的效果。
总而言之,“成人教育是终身教育的‘火车头’和‘正常顶点’,是终身教育的实践基础和重要标志。没有发达、成熟的成人教育,不可能构建起真正意义上的终身教育体系。”(顾晓波2010)在成人教育日益全球化和国际化的发展过程中,我们必须认识到成人外语教育的重要性。本文所提倡和探讨的综合翻译教学与培训,特别是其中的口译培训,其时效性、交际性、实践性、经验性、双语性和综合性等要素符合国内成人外语教学的特征,应该引起成人外语教育界的重视,得到进一步的研究和探讨
The purpose of this dissertation is to make an attempt to integrate foreign language education for adult learners, as an important part of adult education, into the framework of lifelong learning system and theory, focusing on specific aspects under which learning strategies and teaching methodologies for adult FL learners, in particular, those related to the training of translation and interpretation skills, will be analyzed and dealt with.
According to the Belém Framework for Action (December 2009), lifelong learning“from cradle to grave”is a philosophy, a conceptual framework and an organising principle of all forms of education; it is all-encompassing and integral to the vision of a knowledge-based society.
Adult learning and education represent a significant key component of a holistic and comprehensive system of lifelong learning and education which integrates formal, non-formal and informal learning and which addresses, explicitly or implicitly, both youth and adult learners. Furthermore, Adult learning and education play a critical role in responding to contemporary cultural, economic, political and social challenges. Today’s globalization has paved the way for many opportunities, among them the possibility of learning from and exchanges between rich and diverse cultures that transcend geographical boundaries. Such learning and exchanges can certainly be facilitated with the learning of a foreign / second language or with the aid of an interpreter. Ultimately, adult learning and education are about providing learning contexts and processes that are attractive and responsive to the needs of adults as active citizens of the“global village”.
In the new century when our society is changing rapidly and our economy develops very fast, when we live in the information and post-modernism era, it is necessary for us to frame a lifelong learning system so that nobody, unless he or she is physically or mentally not qualified, will be left behind simply because he or she cannot afford regular education. As we have learned from Paulo Freire, learning throughout life helps us to understand our world and to shape it– individually and collectively. Also in his words we have learned,“Nobody is completely ignorant. Nobody knows everything. All of us lack knowledge of something. That is why we continue to learn”. Adult learning and education can ensure a viable future for all of us. At all stages of life, education is transformative. It empowers us with the knowledge and skills to better our lives. Evidence shows that it impacts on economic growth and per-capita income. This is why the provision of good quality learning opportunities throughout life is one of the smartest strategies for reducing inequalities and promoting more harmonious and just societies. Obviously, adult learning counts more than ever in the era of globalization.
At the Second International Conference on Adult Education (Montreal, Canada 1960) some delegations expressed the view that UNESCO should take a lead in convincing Member States of the urgency of reaching agreement on a single "second" language. This language when chosen would be taught in all schools in all Member States, thus providing a language of communication throughout the world. Half a century later, at the Sixth International Conference on Adult Education (Belém, Brazil 2009), the Belém Framework for Action urges that, for“Participation, inclusion and equity”in this rapidly changing society, we commit ourselves to“supporting the development of writing and literacy in the various indigenous languages…, while adequately developing the teaching of the second language for wider communication.”It is obvious that the teaching and learning of a second or foreign language for adults has always been and is an ever-increasingly important part of adult education worldwide. Today, in this information age and“globalized”world, the mastery of a second or foreign language may well support an adult’s professional career and work, in the long run, to his or her advantage.
Vocational education and training, foreign or second language training included, is a key component of adult education. According to the UNESCO definition for vocational education and training, it includes,“All forms and levels of the educational process involving, in addition to general knowledge, the study of technologies and related sciences, the acquisition of practical skills, know how, attitudes and understanding relating to occupations in the various sectors of economic and social life.”In the UK, vocational education and training includes commercial, technical and professional developments. These developments require knowledge, understanding and skills which together we call competence. In our modern society, it is widely acknowledged that competence, including the individual’s foreign or second language proficiency, is the key to economic success in a highly competitive global economy.
In his article, In Defense of the Staged Self-Directed Learning Model , Grow (1993) briefly defines and summarizes the SSDL model for adult learners: (1) Learners can progress toward greater control of their learning, but simply being an adult does not assure the ability to take a high degree of learner control. (2) Teachers can assist in that progression by cultivating not only the basic knowledge but also the metaskills whose integration makes greater learner control possible. Programs can be designed to gradually increase the degree of learner control as students master basic content and skills. Teachers can shift their teaching styles productively to stimulate learner progress or respond to learner need. The SSDL provides workable labels for such shifts. (3) There is no one way to teach or learn well. Different styles work for different learners in different situations. Good teachers understand and use the learner's present stage and help the learner progress toward greater self-direction characterized by greater learning readiness, flexibility, and learner control. (4) Degree of learner control depends in part on the situation and in part on learners' ability to transfer skills and metaskills to a new situation.
The metaskills that Grow mentions are unique to the adult learner, and if explored fully and appropriately, may work to his / her advantage in the performance of a learning task. Therefore, an adult learner’s cognitive and metacognitive skills play a very important role in the task-based approach. Both cognitive and practical skills are needed to perform the task of learning, whereas metacognitive skills are necessary to understand how it was performed and to ensure that it was performed. Metacognitive skills are generally divided into two types: self-assessment (the ability to assess one's own cognition) and self-management (the ability to manage one's further cognitive development). Successful adult learners employ a range of metacognitive skills and effective teachers in adult education attend to the development of these skills. According to the research on self-assessment, learners who are skilled in metacognitive self-assessment and are therefore aware of their abilities are more strategic and perform better in the task-based approach than those who are unaware.
It is widely acknowledged in China that the mastery of a foreign language is one of the two basic skills -- the other being computer skills -- required of a competent and able and talented individual in the new century. There are so many foreign language learners in China that foreign language training has been a booming business for decades. Along with it are different kinds of language proficiency certificates at different levels. We know that language use is a lifelong process; so is the foreign language acquisition. It is imperative for us to realize the significance of foreign language learning for adults living in this globalized world of ours. But, how can we learn a foreign language well and how can we make the best use of a foreign language? The questions have been asked and probed ever since China opened its door to the outside world. Various learning methods have been suggested or advocated and practiced to some extent. We have learned about not only the traditional grammar-translation approach, but also the cognitive and the communicative approaches in the 70s, the new immersion and the content-based approaches in the 80s, as well as the multi-intelligence approach of the new century. However, in a country where the foreign language we are learning, e.g. English, is neither official nor commonly used, none of the above pedagogical approaches proves to meet our satisfaction, let alone with good and remarkable achievements. Within the space available, the present paper cannot illustrate in detail nor elaborate on all the above-mentioned but for the Comprehensive Translation Approach (CTA for short), which the author renders is one of the most suitable for adult FL learners in China.
The argument over which pedagogical approach or learning strategy is better for us has been as long as the time when we Chinese started to learn foreign languages, and it is only becoming more intense. Ferguson (1964 1971 1975 1981) proposed the notion of the existence of a set of simplified registers for second / foreign language learners, such as baby talk, teacher talk and foreign talk. In SLA research, the notion of interlanguage and its significance proposed by Selinker (1969 1972), despite the fact of fossilization, has ever since been explored in great detail. Later, we have also heard about Nemser’s approximative system (1971), Corder’s idiosyncratic dialect (1971) and language learners’language (1978). Whatever the name, they all point to one thing: our language learners, adult learners in particular, may have to learn their second or foreign language in a way different from that they acquired their first.
When we turn our eye to adult English language learners in China, we cannot overlook the fact that they are learning not only a foreign language that is very much different from their native language, but also in an unfavorable language environment where their learning efforts can be constantly and repeatedly disrupted and even nullified by the interference of other linguistic and non-linguistic elements. Given such conditions, most adult FL learners in China cannot learn a foreign language the way they acquired their first. On the other hand, adult language learners enjoy a kind of advantage: their ever-perfected metacognitive skills may facilitate their foreign language learning so that they are more likely to acquire the types of competence for relatively smooth and effective communication, namely, grammatical competence, sociolinguistic competence, and strategic competence. (M. Canale & M. Swain 1980 )
Obviously, we need to frame a new pedagogical approach specifically for our adult foreign language learners, an approach that will accommodate their purposes and needs, that will take into consideration their multi-facet working conditions and life styles as well as their language environment, that will make better, if not the best, use of their metacognitive skills as well as their first language competence, and that will bring them tangible and beneficial results in the shortest time possible.
The new CTA proposed in this paper is different from the traditional grammar-translation method in that the former emphasizes translation as a means for cross-cultural communication. In the traditional grammar-translation approach, the teaching and learning is focused on grammatical elements such as vocabulary and sentence structure, and translation, mainly written, is used to confirm and consolidate the learner’s grammatical competence. Whereas in CTA, the learner’s grammatical competence is a pre-requisite, and translation, especially interpretation and sight translation, serves a variety of purposes: it manifests the learner’s comprehensive language skills; its practice in turn enhances those language skills and it ensures that the learner can make the best use of those language skills.
SLA theory and empirical research suggest that successful language learning can only occur when the following four conditions are met: (1) rich input from varied sources and elaborative input via negotiation of meaning; (2) ample opportunities for language use in authentic contexts for real purposes; (3) immediate and quality negative feedback through focus on form; and (4) individualized content that respects learner syllabus and developmental readiness ( Egbert, Chao & Hanson-Smith, 1999; Gee, 2003; Pennington, 1996; Zhao, 2003). However, for adult foreign language learners in China, they are lacking of accessible, engaging and comprehensive language input; they don't have as much opportunity to use the target language; their social interactions in the targeting language are contrived; learners have difficulties in developing and sustaining a learning community.
The Shanghai Interpreting Accreditation (SIA for short) discussed in this paper first requires its candidates be trained in engaging and comprehensive language exercises, such as listening, speaking, reading, translation and interpretation skills. The course books for the training are designed with this in mind and as such. Adult learners in the SIA course are encouraged to use the target languages (both native language and foreign language) as much as possible and to translate or interpret in either way. The translation or interpretation is guided but not contrived, and through translation and interpretation practices the adult learner can develop and sustain for himself or herself a“learning community”where he or she may consolidate and improve his or her language skills to his or her own satisfaction. Therefore, the SIA course is not only meant for our future interpreters, but also for most adult language learners who want to improve and perfect their language competence even after they have left school and engaged themselves in their respective professional careers.
For foreign language learners, Cooper and Greenbaum (1987) defined an accommodation model somewhat different from that of Giles, and, as they said, broader. According to them, accommodation is the“adjustment of speech in response to the mutuality which speakers perceive between themselves and their hearers.”They suggested 4 types of mutuality: verbal repertoire, background knowledge, solidarity or intimacy, and power. Verbal repertoire and background knowledge are perception of knowing, while solidarity or intimacy belongs to the domain of feeling, and power, the domain of doing. For the definition of the register, they suggested simplification and wellformedness. By simplification, it means less syntax, shorter utterance, higher frequency lexical items, and slower speech. By wellformedness, it means the utterances are grammatically acceptable in terms of surface structure. How can we achieve simplification and wellformedness simultaneously? And where is the balance?The answer may well lie in the training of interpretation skills, which can satisfy the typicality conditions for foreigner talk, namely, simplifying, matching, solidarity and distortion. (Bernard Spolsky 1989) These elements are easily traceable when we elaborate on the theories and practices of interpretation, so as to justify our discussion of the SIA programmes for adult English learners in China.
The main body of this dissertation starts, in Chapter Two, with a brief, overall introduction of contemporary adult education as a key and significant part of lifelong learning system. Then, it focuses on the discussion of foreign language education for Chinese adults in a variety of areas such as community education, vocational education, degree and open or distance learning programmes. As most adult learners in China take up foreign language learning with a view to passing certain language tests, the dissertation would be incomplete were the discussions of those language tests and test-oriented training programmes not included. With similar reasons, those English textbooks and course-books specially designed for Chinese FL learners are also introduced and analyzed. Chapter Three probes into the theories and approaches of the foreign language education for adults, while discussing in detail the unique features manifested by adult FL learners. In Chapter Four the importance of comprehensive language skills for adult FL learners is emphasized, and the essence and development of different approaches of FL methodology are introduced, in particular, those that are better or well suited for Chinese adult learners. For example, the grammar- translation approach, the communicative approach, the task-based approach and, last but definitely not the least, the comprehensive translation / interpretation approach. Chapter Five introduces the testing of interpretation skills for Chinese FL learners, its theoretical backgrounds and practical applications, which naturally and inevitably leads to the discussion of prep training of language proficiency for the tests. So the final overall conclusion, as is restated in Chapter Six, is a strong recommendation for the Chinese adult learner that the comprehensive translation / interpretation approach be adopted to facilitate their FL learning, having taken into account the SLA conditions here in China.
All in all,“as the practical basis, as well as an important part, adult education is“the leader”and“the desirable culmination”of lifelong education. It is impossible for us to frame the system of lifelong education without the system of well-developed and matured adult education. (Gu Xiaopo 2010) And foreign language education forms a key component of adult education which is undergoing the process of globalization and internationalization. The Comprehensive Translation Approach recommended, discussed and studied in this paper, with its distinctive features in interpretation training, calls for more attention and further studies in the field of adult foreign language education.
根据2009年12月联合国教科文组织在巴西召开的第六届国际成人教育大会上通过的《贝伦行动框架》宣言:“从生到死”的终身学习是一门哲学,一种概念框架和所有形式教育的组织原则。它包容一切,是一个知识社会前景的必要组成部分。
成人教育是终身教育全面与综合体系中的一个重要和关键组成部分,包括学历、非学历和非正式的学习,并且直接或间接地涉及青年与成人学习者。同时,成人教育在应对现代文化、经济、政治和社会挑战中起着至关重要的作用。当今的全球化带来了许多机遇,也包括在跨地域的丰富多彩的文化之间进行互相学习与交流的可能。
在新的世纪里,当社会在迅速改变、经济在飞速发展时,当我们生活在一个信息化与后现代的时代,就有必要构建终身学习体系;如此,除非是因为身体上或精神上的原因,没有人会因为无法接受教育而被时代所淘汰。正如保罗·弗莱雷所告诉我们的:终身学习帮助我们--以个人或集体的力量--了解世界、改变世界。用他的话说,“没有人是完全无知的。没有人无所不知。我们所有人都缺乏某些知识。这就是为什么我们要继续学习。”成人教育可以为我们所有人确保一个美好的未来。在人生的所有阶段,教育具备改变能力。它赋予我们知识和技巧以改善我们的生活。有证据表明,教育对经济增长和人均收益产生影响。这就是为什么在人的一生中提供优质学习机会是最聪明的减少不平等和促进更和谐与公正社会的策略之一。显然,在全球化的时代,成人学习与教育比以往任何时候更为重要。
1960年在加拿大蒙特利尔召开的第二届国际成人教育大会上,一些代表团提出:联合国教科文组织应牵头,说服其成员国就一种统一的“第二语言”达成共识,并在这些国家的所有学校教授这一语言,从而提供一种全世界流通的交际语言。半个世纪后,在巴西贝伦举行的第六届国际成人教育大会上,大会通过的《贝伦行动框架》宣言敦促我们:在这个快速发展的社会里,为了“参与,融入和公平”,我们要致力于“支持各种本土语言读写的发展……,同时充分发展为扩大交际的第二语言教学。”这说明,成人二(外)语教学始终是并且日益成为全世界成人教育的一个重要组成部分。今天,在这个信息时代和“全球化”的世界中,掌握二语或外语能更好的支持成人的职业生涯;并且,从长远计,成为他或她的优势。
职业教育与培训,包括外语或第二语言培训,是成人教育的重要组成部分。根据联合国教科文组织为职业教育与培训所下的定义,它包括:“在经济和社会生活各部门里所有形式和层次的教育过程,除了一般的知识外,还涉及学习技术,相关的科学,获取实用技能,专门知识,对相关职业的态度和熟悉度。”在英国,职业教育与培训包括商业、技术和专业的发展。这些发展需要我们称之为能力的知识、认识和技巧。在竞争激烈的全球经济中,能力,也包括个人的外语或第二语言能力,是经济成功的关键。这一点已得到现代社会越来越广泛的认同。
Grow (1993)在其文章《为自我导向学习模式辩护》中给自我导向学习模式作了简要的定义和概括:(1)学员可以进一步发展其学习控能(learner control),而只是作为一个成年人并不能确保其已具备高度的学习控能。(2)教师可以协助学员的这一进展,不仅是通过培养学员的基本知识,还可以通过整合其元技能,进一步提高其学习控能。(成人学习)课程的设计在让学员掌握基本技能的同时,还须逐步提高其学习控能。教师可以富有成效地转变教学风格,以刺激或适应学习者的需要。自我导向学习模式为这种转变提供了可行性。(3)教学没有唯一的途径。不同的学习者在不同的情况下需要不同风格的教学。好的教师会根据学员的现状,帮助其实现更大程度的自我导向学习。(4)学习控能的程度高低,部分取决于(学员的)现状,部分取决于学员将技能和元技能向新方向转移的能力。
Grow提到的元技能是成人学习者所特具备的,如果能得到充分和准确的应用,将有利于成人完成其学习任务。因此,在任务型教学中,成人的认知能力和元认知能力起着非常重要的作用。成人需要认知能力和认会能力去执行学习的任务,同时,需要元认知能力去了解如何并确保该任务的圆满完成。元认知能力一般分为两种类型:自我评估,即评估自己认知的能力,和自我管理,即管理自己认知进一步发展的能力。成功的成人学习者会应用其一系列的认知技能;效率高的教师也会充分考虑成人学员这些技能的发展。根据针对自我评估的研究:能熟练地进行认知自我评估的学员,因此了解自己的能力,他们在任务型教学中比不了解自己能力的学员会有更好的策略、可以更好地完成其任务。
众所周知,在中国,掌握一门外语是新世纪所需要的合格人才的两个基本能力之一(另一基本能力为计算机技能)。中国有如此多的外语学习者,几十年来外语培训一直蓬勃发展。随之而来的是各种不同级别的外语水平证书。我们知道,语言使用是一个终身的过程,外语习得也是如此。我们必须认识到生活在“全球化的”社会中成人学习外语的重要意义。但是,我们如何可以学好一门外语,以及我们如何能最好地利用一门外语呢?自改革开放以来我们一直在提出并寻求这些问题的答案。人们提出、倡导并不同程度地实施了各种学习方法。我们已知的不仅有传统的语法翻译教学法,还有七十年代的认知法与交际法,八十年代的新浸泡法和基于内容教学法,以及新世纪开始流行的多元智能法。不过,在中国,我们学习的外国语言,如英语,是既非官方语言,也不是常用的语言,以上的教学方法没有一个被证明能满足我们的需求,更不用说取得好的和卓越的成效了。本文因篇幅有限,不可能详尽阐述和一一说明上述所有的外语教学途径和方法,同时,本文重点探讨综合翻译教学(Comprehensive Translation Approach简称CTA),因为笔者以为,这是最适合国内成人外语学习者的教学方法之一。
关于哪一种教学方法或学习策略更适合中国学员,这样的争论自我们开始学习外语就已存在,而且日益激烈。Ferguson (1964 1971 1975 1981)提出二/外语学习者的简化语言,如:像婴儿那样说话、同老师和外国人交谈那样的语言等。在二语习得研究中,Selinker (1969 1972 )提出的中介语的概念及其意义,尽管有人认为中介语会导致是语言上的僵化,仍然得到了很详细的探讨。还有Nemser的近似体系(1971)、Corder的特有方言(1971)和学习者语言(1978)等。无论用什么术语和概念,有一点是共同的:我们的语言学习者,特别是成人学习者,将不得不通过同他们获得母语时所不同的方式去学习二(外)语。
当我们谈到中国成人英语学习者时,我们不能忽视这样的事实:他们在学习的不只是一门同其母语截然不同的外语,而且还是在不利的语言环境中,他们的外语学习努力会不断、反复地受到其他语言和非语言因素的干扰,甚至被抵消。在这样的条件下,大多数成人学习者无法以他们获得母语的方式去学习一门外语。在另一方面,成人语言学习者也有优势:他们不断完善的元认知技能会为他们的外语学习提供便利,因此,他们更容易获取那种能开展相对顺利和有效交际的能力,即,语法能力、社会语言能力和策略能力。(M. Canale & M.Swain 1980 )
很明显,我们需要构建一种专门为成人设计的外语学习方法,适合他们的学习目的和需要,考虑他们不同的工作条件和生活方式,以及更好地利用他们的元认知和母语能力,并在尽可能短的时间内产生切实、有益的结果。
本文中提出的新综合翻译教学方法同传统的语法翻译教学法之不同之处在于:前者强调将翻译作为跨文化交际中的手段。传统的语法翻译法在教学中的重点是放在语法因素,如:词汇、句子结构等。而翻译,主要是笔译,是用来确认和巩固学员的语法能力的。而在综合翻译教学中,学习者的语法能力是一个前提条件,翻译,特别是口译和视译,有多种用途:它体现了学习者的综合语言技能;在语言实践中,它又增强了这些语言技能;它可确保学习者充分利用这些语言技能。
二语习得理论与实践研究表明,语言学习的成功,首先须满足以下的四个条件: (1)不同来源的大量输入和富有意义变化的详尽输入;(2)足够机会在真实场景中的真正使用语言; (3)重点在形式上的即时有效的纠错反馈; (4)遵循学习者规划和发展潜能的个性化内容(Egbert,Chao & Hanson-Smith,1999; Gee,2003; Pennington 1996;Zhao,2003)。但是,对国内的成人外语学习者来说,他们缺乏可以理解的、深入和全面的语言输入;他们没有尽可能多地使用目标语的机会;他们通过目标语展开的社会交流是事先设计好的;学习者很难发展并维持相应的学习环境。
本文中讨论的上海外语口译证书项目(Shanghai Interpreting Accreditation简称SIA)首先要求考生接受深入和全面的语言训练,如:听、说、读、笔译和口译技能的训练。在编写项目培训教材时也以此为宗旨。SIA培训与考试鼓励成人学习者尽可能使用目标语(母语和外语)去双向翻译或口译,这样的翻译或口译是有意识的但不是事先设计好的。通过翻译或口译等培训,成人学习者可以建立及维持自己的一个“学习环境”,并且可以巩固和提高他们的语言技能,取得满意的效果。因此,SIA课程并不只是针对未来的译员,也适合大多数想要改善和提高语言能力的成人外语学习者,即便他们离开了学校,在各自的岗位上从事自己的专业工作。
Cooper和Greenbaum (1987)为外语学习者描绘了一个不同于Giles的容纳模式,正如他们所说,是范围更广的模式。根据他们的定义,容纳是指“讲话者根据所认识到自己和听众之间的互动而进行的讲话调整。”他们提出了四种互动类型:口语表达、背景知识、群体或亲密关系、能力。口语表达和背景知识是属于知识的范畴,团结或亲密关系则属于感觉的领域,而能力就是指行动。关于语域的定义,他们的建议是简化(simplification)和规范(wellformedness)。简化的意思是指更少的句法、更短的话语、更高频率的词汇和更慢的语速。规范的意思是指话语在表面结构上符合语法要求。如何才能同时做到简化和规范?两者平衡的位置在哪里?笔者认为,可以在口译技能的训练中找到答案;因为口译训练中可以满足“外国人说话”的典型条件,那就是:简化、匹配、群体和失真。(Bernard Spolsky 1989)在我们对口译理论与实践的探讨中,这些因素是显而易见的,这也再次证实了本文针对成人英语学员讨论上海外语口译项目的必要性。
本文的正文从第二章开始,将现代成人教育作为终身教育体系中的一个关键和重要组成部分作一简要地整体介绍。随后,文章就国内成人外语教育的相关领域展开讨论,如:社区教育,职业教育,学历教育以及开放和远程教育等。鉴于国内大多数成人外语学员学习外语的目的是为了通过外语测试,因此,有必要对这些语言测试以及相关的应试培训进行探讨。同样,也有必要介绍一下并且分析专门为国内成人外语学员而编写的相关外语教材,如:英语教材。本文第三章阐述成人外语教育理论和外语教学模式,成人外语教育的重要性及其与终身教育的密切关系,探讨成人外语学员的特点及发展趋势,包括后现代主义教育思潮的影响,经验性教学,自我导向学习模式以及在成人教育中认知与认会的关系等。本文第四章强调综合语言技能对成人外语学员的重要性,概括了不同的外语教学途径和方法的要点及其发展,特别是那些比较适合国内成人外语学员的教学模式,例如:(语法)翻译法,交际法,任务型教学等,还有值得一提的是:口译教学与技能培训。第五章阐述针对国内成人学员的口译技能测试,其理论与实践,当然,也包括针对性的外语培训。因此,最后在第六章,本文作者的观点是:考虑到国内的二(外)语习得条件,针对国内的成人外语学员,我们要积极提倡综合翻译/口译教学与培训,以提高其外语学习的效果。
总而言之,“成人教育是终身教育的‘火车头’和‘正常顶点’,是终身教育的实践基础和重要标志。没有发达、成熟的成人教育,不可能构建起真正意义上的终身教育体系。”(顾晓波2010)在成人教育日益全球化和国际化的发展过程中,我们必须认识到成人外语教育的重要性。本文所提倡和探讨的综合翻译教学与培训,特别是其中的口译培训,其时效性、交际性、实践性、经验性、双语性和综合性等要素符合国内成人外语教学的特征,应该引起成人外语教育界的重视,得到进一步的研究和探讨
The purpose of this dissertation is to make an attempt to integrate foreign language education for adult learners, as an important part of adult education, into the framework of lifelong learning system and theory, focusing on specific aspects under which learning strategies and teaching methodologies for adult FL learners, in particular, those related to the training of translation and interpretation skills, will be analyzed and dealt with.
According to the Belém Framework for Action (December 2009), lifelong learning“from cradle to grave”is a philosophy, a conceptual framework and an organising principle of all forms of education; it is all-encompassing and integral to the vision of a knowledge-based society.
Adult learning and education represent a significant key component of a holistic and comprehensive system of lifelong learning and education which integrates formal, non-formal and informal learning and which addresses, explicitly or implicitly, both youth and adult learners. Furthermore, Adult learning and education play a critical role in responding to contemporary cultural, economic, political and social challenges. Today’s globalization has paved the way for many opportunities, among them the possibility of learning from and exchanges between rich and diverse cultures that transcend geographical boundaries. Such learning and exchanges can certainly be facilitated with the learning of a foreign / second language or with the aid of an interpreter. Ultimately, adult learning and education are about providing learning contexts and processes that are attractive and responsive to the needs of adults as active citizens of the“global village”.
In the new century when our society is changing rapidly and our economy develops very fast, when we live in the information and post-modernism era, it is necessary for us to frame a lifelong learning system so that nobody, unless he or she is physically or mentally not qualified, will be left behind simply because he or she cannot afford regular education. As we have learned from Paulo Freire, learning throughout life helps us to understand our world and to shape it– individually and collectively. Also in his words we have learned,“Nobody is completely ignorant. Nobody knows everything. All of us lack knowledge of something. That is why we continue to learn”. Adult learning and education can ensure a viable future for all of us. At all stages of life, education is transformative. It empowers us with the knowledge and skills to better our lives. Evidence shows that it impacts on economic growth and per-capita income. This is why the provision of good quality learning opportunities throughout life is one of the smartest strategies for reducing inequalities and promoting more harmonious and just societies. Obviously, adult learning counts more than ever in the era of globalization.
At the Second International Conference on Adult Education (Montreal, Canada 1960) some delegations expressed the view that UNESCO should take a lead in convincing Member States of the urgency of reaching agreement on a single "second" language. This language when chosen would be taught in all schools in all Member States, thus providing a language of communication throughout the world. Half a century later, at the Sixth International Conference on Adult Education (Belém, Brazil 2009), the Belém Framework for Action urges that, for“Participation, inclusion and equity”in this rapidly changing society, we commit ourselves to“supporting the development of writing and literacy in the various indigenous languages…, while adequately developing the teaching of the second language for wider communication.”It is obvious that the teaching and learning of a second or foreign language for adults has always been and is an ever-increasingly important part of adult education worldwide. Today, in this information age and“globalized”world, the mastery of a second or foreign language may well support an adult’s professional career and work, in the long run, to his or her advantage.
Vocational education and training, foreign or second language training included, is a key component of adult education. According to the UNESCO definition for vocational education and training, it includes,“All forms and levels of the educational process involving, in addition to general knowledge, the study of technologies and related sciences, the acquisition of practical skills, know how, attitudes and understanding relating to occupations in the various sectors of economic and social life.”In the UK, vocational education and training includes commercial, technical and professional developments. These developments require knowledge, understanding and skills which together we call competence. In our modern society, it is widely acknowledged that competence, including the individual’s foreign or second language proficiency, is the key to economic success in a highly competitive global economy.
In his article, In Defense of the Staged Self-Directed Learning Model , Grow (1993) briefly defines and summarizes the SSDL model for adult learners: (1) Learners can progress toward greater control of their learning, but simply being an adult does not assure the ability to take a high degree of learner control. (2) Teachers can assist in that progression by cultivating not only the basic knowledge but also the metaskills whose integration makes greater learner control possible. Programs can be designed to gradually increase the degree of learner control as students master basic content and skills. Teachers can shift their teaching styles productively to stimulate learner progress or respond to learner need. The SSDL provides workable labels for such shifts. (3) There is no one way to teach or learn well. Different styles work for different learners in different situations. Good teachers understand and use the learner's present stage and help the learner progress toward greater self-direction characterized by greater learning readiness, flexibility, and learner control. (4) Degree of learner control depends in part on the situation and in part on learners' ability to transfer skills and metaskills to a new situation.
The metaskills that Grow mentions are unique to the adult learner, and if explored fully and appropriately, may work to his / her advantage in the performance of a learning task. Therefore, an adult learner’s cognitive and metacognitive skills play a very important role in the task-based approach. Both cognitive and practical skills are needed to perform the task of learning, whereas metacognitive skills are necessary to understand how it was performed and to ensure that it was performed. Metacognitive skills are generally divided into two types: self-assessment (the ability to assess one's own cognition) and self-management (the ability to manage one's further cognitive development). Successful adult learners employ a range of metacognitive skills and effective teachers in adult education attend to the development of these skills. According to the research on self-assessment, learners who are skilled in metacognitive self-assessment and are therefore aware of their abilities are more strategic and perform better in the task-based approach than those who are unaware.
It is widely acknowledged in China that the mastery of a foreign language is one of the two basic skills -- the other being computer skills -- required of a competent and able and talented individual in the new century. There are so many foreign language learners in China that foreign language training has been a booming business for decades. Along with it are different kinds of language proficiency certificates at different levels. We know that language use is a lifelong process; so is the foreign language acquisition. It is imperative for us to realize the significance of foreign language learning for adults living in this globalized world of ours. But, how can we learn a foreign language well and how can we make the best use of a foreign language? The questions have been asked and probed ever since China opened its door to the outside world. Various learning methods have been suggested or advocated and practiced to some extent. We have learned about not only the traditional grammar-translation approach, but also the cognitive and the communicative approaches in the 70s, the new immersion and the content-based approaches in the 80s, as well as the multi-intelligence approach of the new century. However, in a country where the foreign language we are learning, e.g. English, is neither official nor commonly used, none of the above pedagogical approaches proves to meet our satisfaction, let alone with good and remarkable achievements. Within the space available, the present paper cannot illustrate in detail nor elaborate on all the above-mentioned but for the Comprehensive Translation Approach (CTA for short), which the author renders is one of the most suitable for adult FL learners in China.
The argument over which pedagogical approach or learning strategy is better for us has been as long as the time when we Chinese started to learn foreign languages, and it is only becoming more intense. Ferguson (1964 1971 1975 1981) proposed the notion of the existence of a set of simplified registers for second / foreign language learners, such as baby talk, teacher talk and foreign talk. In SLA research, the notion of interlanguage and its significance proposed by Selinker (1969 1972), despite the fact of fossilization, has ever since been explored in great detail. Later, we have also heard about Nemser’s approximative system (1971), Corder’s idiosyncratic dialect (1971) and language learners’language (1978). Whatever the name, they all point to one thing: our language learners, adult learners in particular, may have to learn their second or foreign language in a way different from that they acquired their first.
When we turn our eye to adult English language learners in China, we cannot overlook the fact that they are learning not only a foreign language that is very much different from their native language, but also in an unfavorable language environment where their learning efforts can be constantly and repeatedly disrupted and even nullified by the interference of other linguistic and non-linguistic elements. Given such conditions, most adult FL learners in China cannot learn a foreign language the way they acquired their first. On the other hand, adult language learners enjoy a kind of advantage: their ever-perfected metacognitive skills may facilitate their foreign language learning so that they are more likely to acquire the types of competence for relatively smooth and effective communication, namely, grammatical competence, sociolinguistic competence, and strategic competence. (M. Canale & M. Swain 1980 )
Obviously, we need to frame a new pedagogical approach specifically for our adult foreign language learners, an approach that will accommodate their purposes and needs, that will take into consideration their multi-facet working conditions and life styles as well as their language environment, that will make better, if not the best, use of their metacognitive skills as well as their first language competence, and that will bring them tangible and beneficial results in the shortest time possible.
The new CTA proposed in this paper is different from the traditional grammar-translation method in that the former emphasizes translation as a means for cross-cultural communication. In the traditional grammar-translation approach, the teaching and learning is focused on grammatical elements such as vocabulary and sentence structure, and translation, mainly written, is used to confirm and consolidate the learner’s grammatical competence. Whereas in CTA, the learner’s grammatical competence is a pre-requisite, and translation, especially interpretation and sight translation, serves a variety of purposes: it manifests the learner’s comprehensive language skills; its practice in turn enhances those language skills and it ensures that the learner can make the best use of those language skills.
SLA theory and empirical research suggest that successful language learning can only occur when the following four conditions are met: (1) rich input from varied sources and elaborative input via negotiation of meaning; (2) ample opportunities for language use in authentic contexts for real purposes; (3) immediate and quality negative feedback through focus on form; and (4) individualized content that respects learner syllabus and developmental readiness ( Egbert, Chao & Hanson-Smith, 1999; Gee, 2003; Pennington, 1996; Zhao, 2003). However, for adult foreign language learners in China, they are lacking of accessible, engaging and comprehensive language input; they don't have as much opportunity to use the target language; their social interactions in the targeting language are contrived; learners have difficulties in developing and sustaining a learning community.
The Shanghai Interpreting Accreditation (SIA for short) discussed in this paper first requires its candidates be trained in engaging and comprehensive language exercises, such as listening, speaking, reading, translation and interpretation skills. The course books for the training are designed with this in mind and as such. Adult learners in the SIA course are encouraged to use the target languages (both native language and foreign language) as much as possible and to translate or interpret in either way. The translation or interpretation is guided but not contrived, and through translation and interpretation practices the adult learner can develop and sustain for himself or herself a“learning community”where he or she may consolidate and improve his or her language skills to his or her own satisfaction. Therefore, the SIA course is not only meant for our future interpreters, but also for most adult language learners who want to improve and perfect their language competence even after they have left school and engaged themselves in their respective professional careers.
For foreign language learners, Cooper and Greenbaum (1987) defined an accommodation model somewhat different from that of Giles, and, as they said, broader. According to them, accommodation is the“adjustment of speech in response to the mutuality which speakers perceive between themselves and their hearers.”They suggested 4 types of mutuality: verbal repertoire, background knowledge, solidarity or intimacy, and power. Verbal repertoire and background knowledge are perception of knowing, while solidarity or intimacy belongs to the domain of feeling, and power, the domain of doing. For the definition of the register, they suggested simplification and wellformedness. By simplification, it means less syntax, shorter utterance, higher frequency lexical items, and slower speech. By wellformedness, it means the utterances are grammatically acceptable in terms of surface structure. How can we achieve simplification and wellformedness simultaneously? And where is the balance?The answer may well lie in the training of interpretation skills, which can satisfy the typicality conditions for foreigner talk, namely, simplifying, matching, solidarity and distortion. (Bernard Spolsky 1989) These elements are easily traceable when we elaborate on the theories and practices of interpretation, so as to justify our discussion of the SIA programmes for adult English learners in China.
The main body of this dissertation starts, in Chapter Two, with a brief, overall introduction of contemporary adult education as a key and significant part of lifelong learning system. Then, it focuses on the discussion of foreign language education for Chinese adults in a variety of areas such as community education, vocational education, degree and open or distance learning programmes. As most adult learners in China take up foreign language learning with a view to passing certain language tests, the dissertation would be incomplete were the discussions of those language tests and test-oriented training programmes not included. With similar reasons, those English textbooks and course-books specially designed for Chinese FL learners are also introduced and analyzed. Chapter Three probes into the theories and approaches of the foreign language education for adults, while discussing in detail the unique features manifested by adult FL learners. In Chapter Four the importance of comprehensive language skills for adult FL learners is emphasized, and the essence and development of different approaches of FL methodology are introduced, in particular, those that are better or well suited for Chinese adult learners. For example, the grammar- translation approach, the communicative approach, the task-based approach and, last but definitely not the least, the comprehensive translation / interpretation approach. Chapter Five introduces the testing of interpretation skills for Chinese FL learners, its theoretical backgrounds and practical applications, which naturally and inevitably leads to the discussion of prep training of language proficiency for the tests. So the final overall conclusion, as is restated in Chapter Six, is a strong recommendation for the Chinese adult learner that the comprehensive translation / interpretation approach be adopted to facilitate their FL learning, having taken into account the SLA conditions here in China.
All in all,“as the practical basis, as well as an important part, adult education is“the leader”and“the desirable culmination”of lifelong education. It is impossible for us to frame the system of lifelong education without the system of well-developed and matured adult education. (Gu Xiaopo 2010) And foreign language education forms a key component of adult education which is undergoing the process of globalization and internationalization. The Comprehensive Translation Approach recommended, discussed and studied in this paper, with its distinctive features in interpretation training, calls for more attention and further studies in the field of adult foreign language education.
引文
注1:根据当前该研究领域的发展和演变,本文将LEARNING SOCIETY译为“学习型社会”并对引用的原文作了相应的改动。
注2:为阐述方便起见,本文拟沿用“成人教育”的提法,以下同
注3:原文如此;另外,本文作者在涉及第三人称时,为了保持语言的通顺,统一使用“他”或“他们”,以表示“中性”的含义。
注4:自2007年开始,国家教育部、上海市教育委员会和北京市教育委员会相继下达文件,停止了其所属高等院校的成人全日制招生
注5 :在大陆以外的地区,如:台湾,托福考试还经历了Computer-based Test, CBT托福电脑考试的过渡阶段。
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注2:为阐述方便起见,本文拟沿用“成人教育”的提法,以下同
注3:原文如此;另外,本文作者在涉及第三人称时,为了保持语言的通顺,统一使用“他”或“他们”,以表示“中性”的含义。
注4:自2007年开始,国家教育部、上海市教育委员会和北京市教育委员会相继下达文件,停止了其所属高等院校的成人全日制招生
注5 :在大陆以外的地区,如:台湾,托福考试还经历了Computer-based Test, CBT托福电脑考试的过渡阶段。
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