犍陀罗雕刻艺术与民间文学关系例考
详细信息    本馆镜像全文|  推荐本文 |  |   获取CNKI官网全文
摘要
19世纪中叶,犍陀罗雕刻艺术的考古发现震撼了国际学术界。一百多年来,以印度、巴基斯坦、英国、法国、意大利和日本为主的考古队在犍陀罗地区陆续挖掘出大量雕刻作品。这些雕刻作品大多制作于公元1世纪至公元4世纪之间,有许多是以当时流行的民间故事为表现题材,成为今天研究古代印度民间文学的重要素材。印度古代民间文学的文字文本相对缺失,口传文本纷繁芜杂,相比之下,雕刻文本显得可靠可信。然而,长期以来,学界多从考古学、美术学和宗教造像学等角度研究犍陀罗雕刻艺术,忽视犍陀罗雕刻艺术本身所传递的民间文学信息及其在特定文化语境中所具有的文学功能。本文将犍陀罗雕刻艺术视为民间文学研究的有效文本,以图像学、叙事学和传播学等方法进行综合研究,力图在图文互证中厘清犍陀罗雕刻艺术和民间文学的内在关系,确立犍陀罗雕刻艺术在印度文化语境中所特有的文学价值和文学地位。
     犍陀罗地处东西方文化交汇之地,民间流存的故事以印度民间故事为主,杂糅波斯和希腊等外来故事。犍陀罗出土的故事雕刻主要包括两类:一为石雕圆盘,一为附属于建筑物的叙事性雕刻。前者主要取材于希腊神话故事,后者主要取材于本生故事和佛传故事。本文绪论评述了一百多年来犍陀罗艺术研究的主要学术成果,阐述研究意义和研究方法。正文共分五章,分别从文学传统、文学内涵、叙事主体、叙事策略和艺术形象五个方面对犍陀罗雕刻艺术进行整体性研究。第一章从历史之维宏观阐述犍陀罗地区的民间文学传统,剖析形成犍陀罗民间文学多元特征的原因。第二章从文学之维微观剖析石雕圆盘、本生雕刻和佛传雕刻所表现的文学主题。第三章从叙事主体之维论述讲唱艺人、雕刻艺人和艺术赞助人三者之间的关系,及其对民间故事创作和传播的影响。第四章从叙事媒介之维论述犍陀罗雕刻艺术和民间文学在故事生成上所采取的叙事策略,阐释雕刻文本和文字文本在叙事层次、叙事顺序和叙事聚焦等方面的差异。第五章从传播之维阐述艺术形象之于民间文学传播的意义,以佛陀、蛇神、夜叉神、金刚杵、转轮等艺术形象详尽剖析犍陀罗雕刻艺术传播民间文学的机制。
     犍陀罗雕刻艺术与民间文学存在同构互补的关系,雕刻保存了古代民间故事的基本内容,而流传至今的民间故事为解读雕刻提供可资参考的故事细节。犍陀罗雕刻艺术与民间文学关系的考证,无疑拓展了古代印度民间文学的研究维度。
In the mid-19th century of colonial India, the archaeological discovery of Gandhāransculptures had amazed the international academic circles. For more than100years, archaeologyteams, which are mainly from India, Pakistan, Britain, France, Italy and Japan, had excavatedmany archaeological sites located in the North West Frontier Province of Pakistan, the erstwhileGandhāra area and numerous unearthed sculptures sites. These sculptures were mostly made fromthe1st to the4th century A.D. and many of them were created on the basis of prevalent popularfolk tales in that period, which now become important research materials of ancient Indian folkliterature. However, due to the paucity in the availability of written and oral texts of ancient Indianfolk literature, narrative sculptures become the archival record and need to be investigated fromthe regionalized local perspectives. For a long time, scholars studied Gandhāra art mainly from theperspective of archaeology, fine arts and religious statues together with the colonial perspective ofexpansion of the west, but there is a complete negation to the transformations of folk literaryinformation as well as the functioning of literature in a particular historical-cultural context ofGandhāran sculpture itself. Many studies on Gandhāra were caught between the colonialsyndromes of colonial versus nationalistic discourses but a large number of studies are confined tothe sources and development of Gandhāra as a unified pictorial tradition and how thenon-Gandhāran/non-Indian sources have been instrumental in the matrix of Gandhāran style. Thispaper regards Gandhāra sculpture as a corpus of visual text of folk literature, makingcomprehensive researches based on Iconography, Narratology, Communication Studies and othermethods in order to investigate the relation between Gandhāran sculptures and folk literature bydemonstrating graphs as well as texts and to establish the unique literary value that played animportant role in making of the Gandhāran sculptures within the regional context of Indianculture.
     The introduction of this paper makes a review and a comment on the main academicunderstanding of Gandhāran art in the past hundred years, expounding the significance of theresearch and methods as well. The text comprises of five chapters, dividing the entire study so asto cover five important aspects of Gandhāran sculpture namely tradition of literature in Gandhāra,folktales in narrative sculptures, narrators of folktales, narrative strategies and visual images,existence of the Buddhist texts as performative text. As Gandhāra was located at the crossroads ofcultural exchange, Gandhāran sculptures mainly inherited from Indian folk stories whilehybridized by equally vibrant folk literature of Persian, Greco-Roman and other exotic elements.The Gandhāran narrative sculptures can be classified into two categories: toilet trays and narrativepanels to the then existing religious buildings. The former was mainly about Greek myths and thelatter was mostly about Jatāka tales and Buddha’s life stories.The first chapter discusses the localliterary tradition of Gandhāra area with a historical perspective, expounding the diversity ofGandhāran folk literature. The second chapter analyses the theme of toilet trays, panels of Jatākaand panels of Buddha’s life stories with a literature perspective. The third chapter discusses therelationship among the story-tellers, sculptors and art patrons. The fourth chapter reveals thenarrative strategies of Gandhāran narrative sculptures and folk literature, indicating the differencesbetween visual narratives and existence of oral texts in terms of narrative levels, narrative orderand narrative focus. The fifth chapter indicates how Gandhāra sculpture disseminate the folkliterature with the help of corpus of availability of the visual images like Buddha, Nāga, Yak a,Vajra, Cakra and many other images. The question of assimilation becomes important tounderstand the dynamics of the regional character and the ways the images are constructed.
     Gandhāran sculptures and folk literature are in isomorphic complementary relations. Thenarrative sculptures preserved the basic content of ancient folk stories, whereas the prevailed textof folk stories now are providing useful references for comprehending narrative details ofsculptures. The research of the relation between Gandhāran sculpture and folk literature mayexpand the dimension of ancient Indian folk literature.
引文
1古代印度犍陀罗地区大约为今巴基斯坦西北部和与之毗邻的阿富汗东部地区,即塔克西拉以北,喀布尔以东,斯瓦特流域以南的广大地区。
    2J. Prinsep, Continuation of Observations on the Coins and Relics,μJournal of the AsiaticSociety of Bengal, Vol.3,No.33,1834, p.448, p.455.
    3N. G. Majumdar, A Guide to the Sculptures in the Indian Museum, Part II, The Graeco-Buddhist School ofGandhāraμ,Patna:Eastern Book House,1937.
    4Gandhāra Sculpture in the National Museum of Pakistan, Karachi: Dept. ofArchaeology and Museums, Ministryof Education, Govt. of Pakistan,1964.
    5N. P. Joshi&R. C. Sharma, Catalogue of Gandhāra Sculptures in the State Museum, Lucknow, Lucknow: TheArchana Printing Press,1969.
    6Hans Christoph Ackermann, Narrative Stone Reliefs from Gandhāra in the Victoria and Albert Museum in London:Catalogue and Attempt at a Stylistic History, Rome: ISMEO,1975.
    7Fidaullah Sehrai, The Buddha Story in the Peshawar Museum, Peshawar: Peshawar Museum,1985.
    8Stanislaw J. Czuma, Kushan Sculpture: Images from Early India, Cleveland: The Cleveland Museum of Art,1985.
    9Humera Alam, Gandhāra Sculptures in Lahore Museum, Lahore: Lahore Museum,1998.
    10M. Ashraf Khan, Gandhāra Sculptures in the Swat Museum, Saidu Sharif: Archaeological Museum,1993.
    11Muhammad Bahadar Khan, Gandhāra Stone Sculptuers in Taxila Muesum, Lahore: The Pioneers Publishers,1994.
    12W. Zwalf, A Catalogueof the Gandhāra Sculpturein the British Museum, London: British Museum Press,1996.
    13D. C. Bhattacharyya,Gandhāra Sculpture in the Government Museumand Art Gallery, Chandigarh: in the Lightof the International Colloquium Held in1998at Chandigarh,Chandigarh: Govt. Museum and Art Gallery,2002.
    14David Jongeward, Buddhist Art of Pakistan and Afghanistan: The Royal Ontario Museum Collection of GandhāraSculpture, Toronto: University of Toronto, Centre for South Asian Studies,2003.
    15Kurt A. Behrendt, The Art of Gandhāra in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York: Metropolitan Museum ofArt,2007.
    16Ihsan Ali&M. Naeem Qazi, Gandhāran Sculptures in the Peshawar Museum (Life Story of Buddha), Pakistan:Hazara University Mansehra NWFP,2008.
    17Lyons Islay&Harald Ingholt, Gandhāran Art in Pakistan, New York: Pantheon Books,1957.
    18栗田功『ガンダーラ美術:佛伝』,東京:二玄社,1988.
    19栗田功『ガンダーラ美術:佛陀の世界』,東京:二玄社,1990.
    20Alexander Cunningham, Report for the Years1872~73, Vol.5, New Delhi: Archaeological Survey of India,2000,p.123.
    21V.A. Smith, The Graeco-Roman Influence on the Civilization ofAncient Indiaμ, Journal of AsiaticSociety ofBengal,1889, Vol.8, No.3, p.160, p.172.
    22该书于1901年译成英文,1965年英文版再版,本文引文出自Albert Grüwedel, Buddhist Art of India, SecondEdition, Santiago de Compostela: Susil Gupta,1965, p.213.
    23Alfred Foucher, L'art Gréco-Bouddhique du Gandhara,Paris: Imprimerie Nationale,1905-51.
    24A. K. Coomaraswamy, Mediaeval Singhalese Art and Craft, London: Kelmscott Press,1908, pp.256-261.
    25John Marshall, Taxila: An Illustrated Account of Archaeological Excavations Carried out at Taxila under theOrders of the Government of India between the Years1913and1934, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,1951.
    26John Marshall, The Buddhist Art of Gandhāra: the Storyof the Early School, its Birth, Growth and Decline,Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,1960.
    27Lolita Nehru, Origins of the Gandhāran Style, Delhi: Oxford University Press,1989.
    28H. Buchthal, The Western Aspects of Gandhāra Sculpturesμ, British Academy,1945, Vol.31, pp.25-28.
    29Benjamin Rowland, The Hellenistic Tradition in North Western Indiaμ, Art Bulletin,1949, Vol.31, No.1,pp.1-10.
    30Alexander C. Soper, The Roman Style in Gandhāraμ, American Journal of Archaeology,1951, Vol.55, No.4,pp.301-319.
    31Maurizo Taddei, On a Hellenistic Model Use in Some Gandhāran Reliefs in Swatμ, East and West,1964-65,Vol.15, No.3-4, pp.174-179.
    32K. Krishna Murthy, The Gandhāra Sculptures: A Cultural Survey, Delhi: Ajanta Publications,1977.
    33Jaya Goswami, Cultural History of Ancient India: A Socio-Economic and Religio-Cultural Survey of Kapi a andGandhāra, Delhi:Agam Kala Prakashan,1979.
    34Nilima Sen Gupta, Cultural History of Kapi a and Gandhāra, Delhi: Sundeep,1984.
    35Ahmad Hasan Dani, The Historic City of Taxila, Tokyo: Centre for East Asian Cultural Studies,1986.
    36中文译著第1版《犍陀罗》于1997年由商务印书馆出版,第2版《犍陀罗:来自巴基斯坦的佛教文明》于2009年由五洲传播出版社出版。
    37K. M. Varma, Technique of Gandhāran and Indo-Afghan Stucoo Images, Santiniketan: Proddu,1987.
    38Dar Saifur Rahman, Criteria and Problems of the Study of GandhāraArtμ,Journal of Central Asia,1990, Vol.13,No.2, pp.149-190. ClassicalApproaches to the Study of GandhāraArtμ, in Catherine B.Asher ed. Perceptions ofSouth Asia's Visual Past, New Delhi: American Institute of Indian Studies,1994, pp.37-46. GandhāraArt inPerspectiveμ, Journal of Asian Civilizations, Vol.21, No.2,1998, pp.71-118. Fifty Years of Research in GandhāraArt1947-1997μ, in R. C. Sharma ed. Buddhism and Gandhāra Art, New Delhi: Aryan Books Interantional,2004,pp.34.
    39R. C.Agrawala, Sasthi in Gandhāra n Artμ, East and West,1993, Vol.43, pp.271-275. Gandhāra n Skanda withFlamesμ, East and West,1968, Vol.18, pp.163-165.
    40Rhi Ju-hyung, Gandhāran Images of the " ravastī Miracle: An Iconographic Reassessment”, Ph. D Thesis, AnnArbor, Mich.: UMI,1994.
    41Vidya Dehejia, Narrative Cycles of Gandhāraμ, Discoursein Early Buddhist Art: Visual Narratives of India, NewDelhi: Munshiram Manoharlal,1997.
    42Kurt A. Behrendt, The Buddhist Architecture of Gandhāra, Leiden: Brill,2004.
    43Anasua Das, Dīpankara Jātaka in GandhāraArtμ, in R. C. Sharma ed. Buddhismand Gandhāra Art,New Delhi:Aryan Books Interantional,2004, pp.108-116.
    44Shanti Lal Nagar, Buddha in Gandhāra Art and Other Buddhist Sites, Delhi: Buddhist World Press,2010.
    45Dar Saifur Rahman, GandhāraArt and the Roman Influence on it: Numismatic Evidenceμ, Rivista Italiana diNumismatica, Roma, Italy,1977, Vol.79, pp.61-89.
    46Henri-Paul Francfort, Les Palettes du Gandhāra, Paris: Diffusion de Boccard,1979.
    47Dar Saifur Rahman, Toilet Trays from Gandhāra and Beginning of Hellenism in Pakistanμ, Journal of CentralAsia, Vol.2, No.2,1979, pp.141-184.
    48B. K. Koul Deambi, History and Culture of Ancient Gandhāra and Western Himalayas, New Delhi: ArianaPublishing House,1985.
    49M. Nasim Khan, Buddhist Paintings in Gandhāra, Peshawar: M. Nasim Khan,2000.
    50Vibha Tripathi, The Metal Craft and Art of Gandhāra Regionμ, in R. C. Sharma ed. Buddhism and Gandhāra Art,New Delhi: Aryan Books Interantional,2004, pp.167-173.
    52John Marshall, Buddhist Art of Gandhāra: The Story of the Early School, Its Birth, Growth, and Decline, NewDelhi: Oriental Books Reprint Corporation,1980, Preface.
    53Erwin Panofsky, Studies in Iconology: Humanistic Themes in the Art of the Renaissance, Harper&Row,1972, p.3.
    54Alfred Foucher, The Beginnings of Buddhist Art and Other Essays in Indian and Central-Asian Archaeology,translated by L. A. Thomas&F. W. Thomas, London: Humphrey Milford,1917, p.58.
    55N. P. Joshi&R. C. Sharma, Catalogue of Gandhāra Sculpturein the State Museum, Lucknow, Lucknow: ArchanaPrinting Press,1969,Introduction, p.1.
    56(唐)玄奘、辩机:《大唐西域记校注》(上),季羡林等校注,北京:中华书局,2000年,第233页。
    57万建中:《民间文学引论》,北京:北京大学出版社,2006年,第41页。
    58Buddha Prakash, Political and Social Movements in Ancient Punjab (from the Vedic Age up to the MauryanPeriod),1964. Reprint, Lahore: Aziz Publishers,1976, p.140.
    59Buddha Prakash, Political and Social Movements in Ancient Punjab (from the Vedic Age up to the MauryanPeriod),1964. Reprint, Lahore: Aziz Publishers,1976, p.140.
    60Stanislaw J. Czuma, Kushan Sculpture: Images from Early India, Cleveland: Cleveland Museum of Art,1985.p.163.
    61据学者考证,《摩诃婆罗多》成书年代为公元前4世纪至公元4世纪之间,现存的形式不晚于公元4世纪。参见黄宝生:《<摩诃婆罗多>导读》,北京:中国社会科学出版社,2005年,第6页。
    62[巴]默罕默德·瓦利乌拉·汗:《犍陀罗:来自巴基斯坦的佛教文明》,陆水林译,北京:五洲传播出版社,2009年,第47页。
    63林梅村:《犍陀罗语文学与古代中印文化交流》,载《中国文化》,2001年,第17、18期,第232页。
    64W. Zwalf, A Catalogueof the Gandhāra Sculpturein the British Museum, Vol.2, London: British Museum Press,1996, p.236.
    65B. Subrahmanyam, Jātakas in Buddhist Thought and Art, Vol.1, Delhi: Bharatiya Kala Prakashan,2009, p.31
    66B. Subrahmanyam, Jātakas in Buddhist Thought and Art, Vol.1, Delhi: Bharatiya Kala Prakashan,2009, p.26.
    67薛克翘:《印度民间文学》,银川:宁夏人民出版社,2008年,第160页。
    68薛克翘:《印度民间文学》,银川:宁夏人民出版社,2008年,第160页。
    69张鸿年:《波斯文学史》,北京:昆仑出版社,2003年,第8页。
    70参见[伊]贾利尔·杜斯特哈赫选编:《阿维斯塔:琐罗亚斯德教圣书》,元文琪译,北京:商务印书馆,2005年,第538-545页。
    71[伊]贾利尔·杜斯特哈赫选编:《阿维斯塔:琐罗亚斯德教圣书》,元文琪译,北京:商务印书馆,2005年,第346页。
    72孔菊兰:《巴基斯坦民间文学》,银川:宁夏人民出版社,2008年,第7页。
    73Madeleine Hallade: Gandhāran Art of North India, New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc. Pbulishers1968, p.13.
    74[巴]默罕默德·瓦利乌拉·汗:《犍陀罗:来自巴基斯坦的佛教文明》,陆水林译,北京:五洲传播出版社,2009年,第65页。
    75J. Harmatta ed. History of Civilizations of Central Asia, Vol.2, Paris: UNESCO Publishing,1994, p.105.
    76J. Harmatta ed. History of Civilizations of Central Asia, Vol.2, Paris: UNESCO Publishing,1994, p.106.
    77J. Harmatta ed. History of Civilizations of Central Asia, Vol.2, Paris: UNESCO Publishing,1994, p.113.
    78Ahmad Hasan Dani, The Historic City of Taxila, Tokyo: Centre for East Asian Cultural Studies,1986, p.43.
    79Ahmad Hasan Dani, The Historic City of Taxila, Tokyo: Centre for East Asian Cultural Studies,1986, p.43.
    80(唐)玄奘、辩机:《大唐西域记校注》(上),季羡林等校注,北京:中华书局,2000年,第233页。
    81参见Jaya Goswami, Cultural Historyof Ancient India:A Socio-Economic and Religio-Cultural Survey of Kapi aand Gandhāra, Delhi:Agam Kala Prakashan,1979, pp.46-61.
    82希腊使者赫利俄多洛斯在其铭文中将自己描述成塔克西拉的居民和毗湿奴的崇拜者。这一铭文,证明至少在公元前2世纪,犍陀罗地区就已存在湿婆崇拜。
    83参见Jaya Goswami, Cultural Historyof Ancient India:A Socio-Economic and Religio-Cultural Survey of Kapi aand Gandhāra, Delhi:Agam Kala Prakashan,1979, p.55.
    84毗摩天女即湿婆妻子的称号,大自在天即大神湿婆。参见(唐)玄奘、辩机:《大唐西域记校注》(上),季羡林等校注,北京:中华书局,2000年,第260页。
    85龚方震、晏可佳:《祆教史》,上海:上海社会科学院出版社,1998年,第192页。
    86丹德卡尔认为印度古代文学的开端呈现出两种不同的文学传统,一是苏多(sūta,歌手)传统,一是颂诗(mantra)传统。苏多传统主要是颂唱人间英雄和世俗生活,而颂诗传统与宗教思想和实践有关。
    87黄宝生:《<摩诃婆罗多>导读》,北京:中国社会科学出版社,2005,第170页。
    88黄宝生:《<摩诃婆罗多>导读》,北京:中国社会科学出版社,2005,第174页。
    89(唐)玄奘、辩机:《大唐西域记校注》(上),季羡林等校注,北京:中华书局,2000年,第233页。
    90季羡林:《关于巴利文<佛本生故事>》,郭良鋆、黄宝生译:《佛本生故事选》,北京:人民文学出版社,1985年,序言。
    91Saifur Rahman Dar, Toilet Trays from Gandhāra and Beginning of Hellenism in Pakistanμ, Journal of CentralAsia,1979, Vol.2, No.2, p.143.
    92[古罗马]奥维德:《变形记》,杨周翰译,北京:人民文学出版社,2000年,第16页。
    93John Marshall, Taxila: An Illustrated Account of Archaeological Excavations Carried out at Taxila under theOrders of the Government of India between the Years1913and1934, Vol.2, Cambridge: University Press,1951,p.494.
    94Saifur Rahman Dar, Toilet Trays from Gandhāra and Beginning of Hellenism in Pakistanμ, Journal of CentralAsia,1979, Vol.2, No.2, p.156.
    95Stanislaw J. Czuma, Kushan Sculpture: Images from Early India, Cleveland: Cleveland Museum of Art,1985,pp.144-145.
    96[古罗马]奥维德:《变形记》,杨周翰译,北京:人民文学出版社,2000年,第56页。
    97Saifur Rahman Dar, Toilet Trays from Gandhāra and Beginning of Hellenism in Pakistanμ, Journal of CentralAsia,1979, Vol.2, No.2, p.160.
    98[希腊]索菲娅·N.斯菲罗亚:《希腊诸神传》,张云江译,北京:国际文化出版公司,2007年,第74页。
    99犍陀罗地区出土有阿佛罗狄忒像,为实心青铜浮雕制品,1.68英寸高;出土有雕着翅膀的小爱神厄罗斯像,铜浮雕,1.75英寸高。从制作的质材和尺寸看,这两个铜雕不是用于供奉,而是用于摆设。西尔卡普遗址出土有一枚塑着爱神阿佛罗狄忒形象的金饰针(长2.5英寸)、一枚塑着厄罗斯的金饰针(长1.81英寸)和一枚雕有阿佛罗狄忒形象的宝石指环。塔克西拉出土有一枚刻有带翼的厄罗斯像的白玛瑙印戳和一枚刻有丘比特和普塞克相恋情形的光玉髓印戳。参见John Marshall, Taxila: An Illustrated Account of ArchaeologicalExcavations Carried out at Taxila under the Orders of the Government of India between the Years1913and1934,Vol.2, Cambridge: University Press,1951, p.605, p.632, p.650, p.676.
    100[古希腊]阿里安:《亚历山大远征记》,李活译,北京:商务印书馆,1979年,第264、266-267页。
    101参见Paul Bernard, Ancient Greek City in CentralAsiaμ, Scientific American,1982, Vol.246, No.1, p.154.
    102John Marshall, Buddhist Art of Gandhāra: The Story of the Early School, its Birth, Growth, and Decline, NewDelhi: Oriental Books Reprint Corporation,1980, p.19.
    103[古希腊]赫西俄德:《神谱》,参见吴凌雅:《神谱笺释》,北京:华夏出版社,2010年,第155页。
    104Pia Brancaccio&Xinru Liu, Dionysus and Drama in the Buddhist Art of Gandhāraμ, Journal of Global History,2009, Vol.4, No.2, p.229.
    105Benjamin Rowland, The Art and Architecture of India: Buddhist, Hindu, Jain, London; Baltimore, USA:Penguin Books,1953, pp.82-83.
    106Pia Brancaccio&Xinru Liu, Dionysus and Drama in the Buddhist Art of Gandhāraμ, Journal of Global History,2009, Vol.4, No.2, p.229.
    107Pia Brancaccio&Xinru Liu, Dionysus and Drama in the Buddhist Art of Gandhāraμ, Journal of Global History,2009, Vol.4, No.2, p.230.
    108[日]宫治昭:《犍陀罗美术寻踪》,李萍译,北京:人民美术出版社,2006年,第36页。
    109古希腊诗人赫西俄德所著《神谱》的第290节(革律俄涅神话)、330节(涅墨厄狮子)和第540-565节(伊阿佩托斯家族)分别记载了上述三个传说。参见吴凌雅:《神谱笺释》,北京:华夏出版社,2010年,第111、114、127页。
    110[古希腊]阿里安:《亚历山大远征记》,李活译,北京:商务印书馆,1979年,第268页。
    111[古希腊]阿里安:《亚历山大远征记》,李活译,北京:商务印书馆,1979年,第267页。
    112Martha L. Carter, DionysiacAspects of Kushān Artμ, Ars Orientalis,1968, Vol.7, p.128.
    113巫白慧译解:《<梨俱吠陀>神曲选》,北京:商务印书馆,2010年,第201-202页。
    114Saifur Rahman Dar, Taxila and the Classical Worldμ, Journal of Central Asia,1983, Vol.6, No.1, p.126.
    115Saifur Rahman Dar, Taxila and the Classical Worldμ, Journal of Central Asia,1983, Vol.6, No.1, p.127.
    116参见B. Subrahmanyam, Jātaka in Buddhist Thought and Art, Vol.1, Delhi: Bharatiya Kala Prakashan,2009.作者在书中统计了佛陀各种前生的次数。其中,转生为比丘(Bhik u)的计83次,国王58次,树神43次,布道者26次,大臣、祭司、继承人各24次、绅士23次,学者22次,因陀罗20次,猴子18次,商人13次,富人和女人各12次,鹿和狮子各10次,鹅8次,大象6次,金翅鸟5次,马和树各4次,陶工和贱民各3次,鱼、老鼠和骑象者各2次,木匠、铁匠、蛙和野兔各1次。
    117参见B. Subrahmanyam, Jātaka in Buddhist Thought and Art, Vol.2, Delhi: Bharatiya Kala Prakashan,2009,Appendix.
    118E. B. Cowell ed. The Jātaka or Stories of the Buddha’s Former Births, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers,Private Limited,1994, Preface, p. xxv.
    119(东晋)法显:《法显传校注》,章巽校注,北京:中华书局,2008年,第30页。
    120(东晋)法显:《法显传校注》,章巽校注,北京:中华书局,2008年,第29页。
    121(东晋)法显:《法显传校注》,章巽校注,北京:中华书局,2008年,第32页。
    122参见(唐)玄奘、辩机:《大唐西域记校注》(上),季羡林等校注,北京:中华书局,2000年,参见“健駄逻国”、“乌仗国”、“呾叉始罗国”部分。
    123参见Ahmad Hasan Dani, Historyof Pakistan, Pakistan through Ages, Lahore: Sang-E-Meel Publications,2007,p.128.
    124刘建、朱明忠、葛维钧:《印度文明》,北京:中国社会科学出版社,2004年,第181页。
    125巫白慧译解:《<梨俱吠陀>神曲选》,北京:商务印书馆,2010年,第185页。
    126[印]《奥义书》,黄宝生译,北京:商务印书馆,2010年,第110页。
    127[印]《奥义书》,黄宝生译,北京:商务印书馆,2010年,第122页。
    128[印]《奥义书》,黄宝生译,北京:商务印书馆,2010年,第149页。
    129[印]《摩奴法论》,蒋忠新译,北京:中国社会科学出版社,2007年,第214页。
    130E. B. Cowell, The Jātaka or Stories of the Buddha’s Former Births, Vol.6, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers,Private Limited,1994, p.250.
    131W. Zwalf, A Catalogueof the Gandhāra Sculpturein the British Museum, Vol.1, London: British Museum Press,1996, p.143.
    132Alfred Foucher, The Beginnings of Buddhist Art and Other Essays in Indian and Central-Asian Archaeology,translated by L. A. Thomas&F. W. Thomas, London: Humphrey Milford,1917, p.189.
    133[印]《摩奴法论》,蒋忠新译,北京:中国社会科学出版社,2007年,第37页。
    134[印]《摩奴法论》,蒋忠新译,北京:中国社会科学出版社,2007年,第38页。
    135[印]《摩奴法论》,蒋忠新译,北京:中国社会科学出版社,2007年,第175页。
    136[印]《摩奴法论》,蒋忠新译,北京:中国社会科学出版社,2007年,第179页。
    137Alfred Foucher, The Beginnings of Buddhist Art and Other Essays in Indian and Central-Asian Archaeology,translated by L. A. Thomas&F. W. Thomas, London: Humphrey Milford,1917, p.50-51.
    138N. G. Majumdar, A Guide to the Sculptures in the Indian Museum, Patna: Eastern Book House,1987, p.30.
    139B. Subrahmanyam, Jātaka in Buddhist Thought and Art, Vol.1, Delhi: Bharatiya Kala Prakashan,2009, p.45.
    140Anasua Das, Dīpankara Jātaka in GandhāraArtμ, R. C. Sharma ed. Buddhism and Gandhāra Art, New Delhi:Aryan Books International,2004, p.116.
    141[印]甘地:《甘地的<薄伽梵歌>译本序》,张保胜译:《薄伽梵歌》,北京:中国社会科学出版社,2007年,序言。
    142季羡林:《<薄伽梵歌>中译本序》,《季羡林全集》第10卷,北京:外语教学与研究出版社,2009年,第306页。
    143Y. Krishan, Was GandhāraArt a Product of Mahāyāna Buddhism?μ, Journal of the Royal AsiaticSociety ofGreat Britain and Ireland,1964, No.3/4, p.111.
    144[印]毗耶娑:《薄伽梵歌》,黄宝生译,北京:商务印书馆,2010年,第67页。
    145参见史诗《摩诃婆罗多》的《森林篇》第110~113章和《罗摩衍那》的《童年篇》第8~10章的记载。
    146郭良鋆:《佛陀形象的演变》,载《南亚研究》,1990年,第3期,第73页。
    147参见栗田功『ガンダーラ美術:佛陀の世界』,東京:二玄社,2003。
    148第一部分主要叙述悉达多诞生的故事,第二部分主要叙述悉达多少年时代的故事,第三部分叙述悉达多太子在宫廷生活的故事,第四部分叙述悉达多出家的经过,第五部分叙述佛陀降魔得道的故事,第六部分叙述佛陀初转法轮的故事,第七部分至第九部分主要叙述佛陀得道后的种种神变故事,第十部分叙述佛陀涅槃和涅槃后分舍利子的故事。详见Ihsan Ali&Muhammad Naeem Qazi, Gandhāran Sculpures in the PeshawarMuseum (Life Story of Buddha), Pakistan: Hazara University Mansehra, NWFP,2008.
    149季羡林著,王树英选编:《季羡林论佛教》,北京:华艺出版社,2006年,第21页。
    150一般认为《大事》所载的佛陀生平故事,最古老的核心部分可能形成于公元前2世纪,晚出部分可能至4世纪以后;《神通游戏》所载佛传故事是在小乘经文的基础上扩展修饰而成,其成书时间最早为公元1~2世纪,最晚是公元3世纪。《佛所行赞》约成书于公元1~2世纪之间,其作者是梵语诗人马鸣。
    151参见郭良鋆:《佛陀和原始佛教思想》,北京:中国社会科学出版社,1997年,第28页。
    152参见The Mahāvastu, Vol II, translated from the Buddhist Sanskrit by J.J. Jones, Lancaster: Pali Text Society,2006, pp.3-19.
    153参见郭良鋆:《佛陀和原始佛教思想》,北京:中国社会科学出版社,1997年,第26-27页。
    154[印]《摩奴法论》,蒋忠新译,北京:中国社会科学出版社,2007年,第6页。
    155A. L. Basham: The Wonder That Was India, London: Picador,2004, p.142.
    156季羡林:《季羡林全集》第15卷,北京:外语教学与研究出版社,2010年,第80页。
    157A. L. Basham: The Wonder That Was India, London: Picador,2004, p.62.
    158[印]马鸣:《佛所行赞》,昙无谶译,台北:觉苑出版社,1984年,第13页。
    159Lyons Islay&Harald Ingholt, Gandhāran Art in Pakistan, New York: Pantheon Books,1957, p.55.
    160161Lyons Islay&Harald Ingholt, Gandhāran Art in Pakistan, New York: Pantheon Books,1957, p.55.Fidaullah Sehrai, The Buddha Story in the Peshawar Museum, Peshawar: Peshawar Museum,1985, p.28.
    162郭良鋆:《佛陀和原始佛教思想》,北京:中国社会科学出版社,1997年,第36页。
    163季羡林:《季羡林全集》第15卷,北京:外语教学与研究出版社,2010年,第81页。
    164Edward J. Thomas, The Life of Buddha as Legend and History, London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner&Co. Ltd.,1931, p.61.
    165参见The Mahāvastu, Vol II, translated from the Buddhist Sanskrit by J.J. Jones, Lancaster: Pali Text Society,2006, pp.70-74.
    166[印]蚁垤:《罗摩衍那》,季羡林译,《季羡林全集》第22卷,北京:外语教学与研究出版社,2010年,第393-394页。
    167W. Zwalf, A Catalogueof the Gandhāra Sculpturein the British Museum, London: British Museum Press,1996,p.160.
    168参见W. Zwalf, A Catalogue of the Gandhāra Sculpture in the British Museum, London: British Museum Press,1996, p.147.
    169[印]马鸣:《佛所行赞》,昙无谶译,台北:觉苑出版社,1984年,第13页。
    170Lyons Islay&Harald Ingholt, Gandhāran Art in Pakistan, New York: Pantheon Books,1957, p.57.
    171[巴]默罕默德·瓦利乌拉·汗:《犍陀罗:来自巴基斯坦的佛教文明》,陆水林译,北京:五洲传播出版社,2009年,第96页。
    172The Mahāvastu, Vol II, translated from the Buddhist Sanskrit by J.J. Jones, Lancaster: Pali Text Society,2006,p.1.
    173郭良鋆:《帝释天和因陀罗》,载《南亚研究》,1991年,第1期,第56页。
    174[印]马鸣:《佛所行赞》,昙无谶译,台北:觉苑出版社,1984年,第88、89页。
    175Edward J. Thomas, The Life of Buddha as Legend and History, London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner&Co. Ltd,1931, p.232.
    176Encyclopedia Britannica, http://www. britannica. com/EBchecked/topic/212142/folk-literature.
    177Kirin Naravan, Storytellers,Saints,and Scoundrels:Folk Narrative in Hindu Religious Teaching, Pennsylvania:University of Pennsylvania Press,1989, p.43.
    178Kirin Naravan, Storytellers,Saints,and Scoundrels:Folk Narrative in Hindu Religious Teaching, Pennsylvania:University of Pennsylvania Press,1989, p.43.
    179Kirin Naravan, Storytellers,Saints,and Scoundrels:Folk Narrative in Hindu Religious Teaching, Pennsylvania:University of Pennsylvania Press,1989, p.44.
    180郁龙余等:《中国印度诗学比较》,北京:昆仑出版社,2006年,第187页。
    181季羡林:《印度史诗<罗摩衍那>的诗律》,《季羡林全集》第17卷,北京:外语教学与研究出版社,2010年,第417页。
    182黄宝生:《<摩诃婆罗多>导读》,北京:中国社会科学出版社,2005年,前言。
    183黄宝生:《<摩诃婆罗多>导读》,北京:中国社会科学出版社,2005年,第143页。
    184《梨俱吠陀》提到画家将火神阿耆尼的形象绘在皮革上。参见Jyotsna Saxena: Early Indian Paintings inSanskrit Literature, Delhi: Bharatiya Kala Prakashan,1998, p.41.
    185Thoms. F. W. Political and Social Organisation of Maurya Empireμ, in E. J. Rapson ed. The Cambridge Historyof India, Vol.1, Ancient India, Cambridge: Cambridge Unviersity Press,1922, pp.480-481.
    186这个时间至少从吠陀时代到公元前2世纪的近千年里。
    187F. Max Müller, Lectures on the Origin and Growth of Religion, London: Longmans, Green,1878, p.167.
    188Romila Thapar, Cultural Pasts: Essays in Early Indian History, New Delhi: Oxford University Press,2000,p.197.
    189参见Romila Thapar, From Lineageto State: Social Formations in the Mid-first Millennium B. C. in the GangaValley, Bombay: Oxford University Press,1984, p.60.
    190[印] R. N.丹德卡尔:《<摩诃婆罗多>的起源和发展》,黄宝生译,黄宝生:《<摩诃婆罗多>导读》,北京:中国社会科学出版社,2005年,第167页。
    191Maurice Wintemitz, A History of Indian Literature, Vol.3, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass,1981-1985, p.1.
    192[印]蚁垤:《罗摩衍那》之《童年篇》,季羡林译,《季羡林全集》第22卷,北京:外语教学与研究出版社,2010年,第47页。
    193[印]瓦·盖罗拉:《罗摩衍那》,季羡林、刘安武编:《两大史诗评论汇编》,北京:中国社会科学出版社,1984年,第48页。
    194[印]苏克坦卡尔:《论<摩诃婆罗多>的意义》,季羡林、刘安武编:《两大史诗评论汇编》,北京:中国社会科学出版社,1984年,第127页。
    195[印] R. N.丹德卡尔:《<摩诃婆罗多>的起源和发展》,黄宝生译,黄宝生:《<摩诃婆罗多>导读》,北京:中国社会科学出版社,2005年,第167页。
    196Jyotindra Jain, Picture Showmen: Insights into the Narrative Tradition in Indian Art, Mumbai: Marg. Publicationson behalf of National Centre for the Performing Arts,1998, Introduction, p.6.
    197[美]梅维恒:《绘画与表演——中国绘画叙事及其起源研究》,王邦维、荣新江、钱文忠译,上海:中西书局,2011年,第25页。
    198[美]梅维恒:《绘画与表演——中国绘画叙事及其起源研究》,王邦维、荣新江、钱文忠译,上海:中西书局,2011年,第38页。
    199Jyotindra Jain, TheArt of Indian Picture Showmen: Tradition and Transformationμ, in Jyotindra Jain ed. Akhyan:A Celebration of Masks, Puppets and Picture Showmen Tradition of India, New Delhi: Indra Gandhi National Centrefor the Arts,2010, p.15.
    200Shyamala Gupta, The Beautiful in Indian Art. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd.,1979,p.68.
    201《孟买志》,卷18.1,第448-450页。转引自[美]梅维恒:《绘画与表演——中国绘画叙事及其起源研究》,王邦维、荣新江、钱文忠译,上海:中西书局,2011年,第138页。
    202Beatrix Hauser, From Oral Tradition to FolkArt·: Reevaluating Bengali Scroll Paintingsμ, Asian FolkloreStudies, Vol.61,2002, p.106.
    203[印]波那:《戒日王传》,第五章。转引自[美]梅维恒:《绘画与表演——中国绘画叙事及其起源研究》,王邦维、荣新江、钱文忠译,上海:中西书局,2011年,第48页。
    204B. M. Baruchu, Ma kari-Gosāla·s Early Lifeμ, Calcutta Review,1927, Vol.23, No.3, p.355-375.
    205Shripad Krishna Belvalkar, Rāma's Later History: or, Uttara-Rama-Charita, Cambridge, Mass: HarvardUniversity Press,1915, p.18-19.
    206参见[美]梅维恒:《绘画与表演——中国绘画叙事及其起源研究》,王邦维、荣新江、钱文忠译,上海:中西书局,2011年,第59页。
    207Bhattacharya Asutosh, Oral Tradition of the Rāmāya a in Bengalμ, in V. Raghavan ed. The Rāmāya a Traditionin Asia, New Delhi: Sahiya Akademi,1980, p.593.
    208Jyotindra Jain, Picture Showmen: Insights into the Narrative Tradition in Indian Art, Mumbai: Marg Publicationson behalf of National Centre for the Performing Arts,1998, Introduction, p.12.
    209参见[美]梅维恒:《绘画与表演——中国绘画叙事及其起源研究》,王邦维、荣新江、钱文忠译,上海:中西书局,2011年,第48-49页。
    210Vidya Dehejia, Discourese in Early Buddshit Art:Visual Narratives of India, New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal,1997, p.8.
    211[美]理查德·鲍曼:《作为表演的口头艺术》,杨利慧、安德明译,桂林:广西师范大学出版社,2008年,第78-79页。
    212C. Sivaramamurti, The Painter in Ancient India, New Delhi: Abhinav Publications,1978, p.5.
    213214Ananda K. Coomaraswamy, The Indian Craftsman, London: Probsthain&Co.,1909, p.84.Ananda K. Coomaraswamy, The Indian Craftsman, London: Probsthain&Co.,1909, p.89.
    215Lolita Nehru, Origins of the Gandhāran Style, Delhi: Oxford University Press,1989, p.61.
    216据学者考证,在此之前,印度从未采用过石雕圆盘雕刻故事,在公元1世纪,石雕圆盘艺术衰落之后,印度也少出现这种艺术样式。
    217Saifur Rahman Dar,μToilet Trays from Gandhāra and Beginning of Hellenism in Pakistanμ, Journal of CentralAsia,Quaid-i-Azam University,1979,Vol.2, No.2, p.144.
    218关于石雕圆盘所表现的希腊神话故事参见本文第二章第二节,在此不赘述。
    219John Marshall, Buddhist Art of Gandhāra: The Story of the Early School, its Birth, Growth, and Decline, New
    220Delhi: Oriental Books Reprint Corporation,1980, p.75.Lolita Nehru, Origins of the Gandhāran Style, Delhi: Oxford University Press,1989, p.88.
    221[美]D. H. H.英格尔斯:《论<摩诃婆罗多>》,黄宝生译,黄宝生:《<摩诃婆罗多>导读》,北京:中国社会科学出版社,2005年,第207页。
    222季羡林:《佛本生故事》,《季羡林全集》第10卷,北京:外语教学与研究出版社,2009年,第280页。
    223[美]约翰·迈尔斯·弗里:《口头诗学:帕里洛徳理论》,朝戈金译,北京:社会科学文献出版社,2000年,第50页。
    224参见Lyons Islay&Harald Ingholt, Gandhāran Art in Pakistan, New York: Pantheon Books,1957, p.40.
    225Patricia Eichenbaum Karetzky, Hellenistic Influences on Scenes of the Life of the Buddha in Gandhāraμ,Oriental Art, Vol.35, No.3,1989, p.165.
    226Patricia Eichenbaum Karetzky, Hellenistic Influences on Scenes of the Life of the Buddha in Gandhāraμ,Oriental Art, Vol.35, No.3,1989, p.165.
    227郭良鋆:《佛陀和原始佛教思想》,北京:中国社会科学院,1997年,第28页。
    228The Mahāvastu, Vol II, translated from the Buddhist Sanskrit by J.J. Jones, Lancaster: Pali Text Society,2006,pp.17-18.
    229The Mahāvastu, Vol II, translated from the Buddhist Sanskrit by J.J. Jones, Lancaster: Pali Text Society,2006,p.22.
    230汉译故事内容较为接近《神通游戏》的是地婆诃罗译的《方广大庄严经》,其中卷三《诞生品第七》写到:“菩萨住胎成就如上种种功德神通变现,满足十月,从母右胁安详而生,正念正知而无染着。佛告诸比丘:是时帝释及娑婆世界主梵天王,恭敬尊重曲躬而前,一心正念,即以两手覆憍奢耶衣,承捧菩萨。其事已毕,即将菩萨处胎之时所居宝殿还于梵宫。尔时菩萨既诞生已,观察四方,犹如狮子及大丈夫,安详瞻顾。不假扶持即便自能东行七步,所下足处皆生莲华。参见台北电子协会网站《方广大庄严经》,http://www. cbeta.org/result/normal/T03/0187_003. htm。
    231参见Gandhāran Art in Pakistan一书作者在第52页对图13的解释;Stanislaw J. Czuma在Kushan Sculpture:Images from Early India第191页对图103的解释;N. G. Majumdar在A Guide to the Sculputures in the IndianMuseum第38页对图12-17的解释;Hans Christoph Ackermann在NarrativeStone Reliefs from Gandhāra in theVictoria and Albert Museum in London: Catalogue and Attempt at a Stylistic History一书中的第60、84、112页对图IX, XXIIa, XLIIa的解释;Ihsan Ali在Gandhāran Sculpture in the Peshwar Museum一书中对白沙瓦馆藏雕刻PM_02729和PM_02725的解释,等等。
    232Stella Kramrisch, Artist, Patron, and Public in Indiaμ, The Far Eastern Quarterly,1956, Vol.15, No.3, p.340.
    233有关桑奇大塔的艺术资助人的详细内容可参见John Marshall&Alfred Foucher,The Monuments of Sā chī,Vol.1, Calcutta: Governmnet of India Press,1930, pp.297-383.
    234Stella Kramrisch, Artist, Patron, and Public in Indiaμ, The Far Eastern Quarterly,1956, Vol.15, No.3, p.339.
    235Barbara Stoler Miller ed. The Power of Art: Patronage in Indian Culture, Delhi: Oxford University Press,1992,p.5.
    236参见Vidya Dehejia, The Collective and Popular Basis of Early Buddhist Patronage: Sacred Monuments,100BC-AD250μ, Barbara Stoler Miller ed. The Power of Art: Patronage in Indian Culture, Delhi: Oxford UniversityPress,1992, p.37.
    237Kanai Lal Hazra, Royal Patronage of Buddhism in Ancient India, Delhi: D. K. Publications,1984, p.122.
    238(唐)玄奘、辩机:《大唐西域记校注》(上),季羡林等校注,北京:中华书局,2000年,第138-139页。
    239(唐)玄奘、辩机:《大唐西域记校注》(上),季羡林等校注,北京:中华书局,2000年,第252-253页。
    240(唐)玄奘、辩机:《大唐西域记校注》(上),季羡林等校注,北京:中华书局,2000年,第258页。
    241(唐)玄奘、辩机:《大唐西域记校注》(上),季羡林等校注,北京:中华书局,2000年,第282页。
    242(唐)玄奘、辩机:《大唐西域记校注》(上),季羡林等校注,北京:中华书局,2000年,第304页。
    243(唐)玄奘、辩机:《大唐西域记校注》(上),季羡林等校注,北京:中华书局,2000年,第307页。
    244(唐)玄奘、辩机:《大唐西域记校注》(上),季羡林等校注,北京:中华书局,2000年,第317页。
    245(唐)玄奘、辩机:《大唐西域记校注》(上),季羡林等校注,北京:中华书局,2000年,第253页。
    246E. B. Cowell, The Jātaka or Stories of the Buddha’s Former Births, Vol.6, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers,Private Limited,1994, p.304.
    247《菩萨本生鬘论》卷一之《尸毗王救鸽命缘起》,慧询译,大藏经网http://read. goodweb. cn/sutra/index. asp.
    248(唐)玄奘、辩机:《大唐西域记校注》(上),季羡林等校注,北京:中华书局,2000年,第305页。
    249参见《罗摩衍那》之《阿逾陀篇》第2章第12节。
    250参见《摩诃婆罗多》之《森林篇》第131章插话《老鹰和鸽子》。
    251《阿育王铭文》,葛维钧摘译,崔连仲选译:《古印度帝国时代史料选辑》,北京:商务印书馆,1989年,第74页。
    252《阿育王铭文》,葛维钧摘译,崔连仲选译:《古印度帝国时代史料选辑》,北京:商务印书馆,1989年,第75页。
    253Vidya Dehejia, Discourse in Early Buddist Art: Visual Narratives of India. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal,1997, p.205.
    254Vidya Dehejia, Discourse in Early Buddist Art: Visual Narratives of India. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal,1997, p.205.
    255John Marshall, Taxila: An Illustrated Account of Archaeological Excavations Carried out at Taxila under theOrders of the Government of India between the Years1913and1934, Vol.1, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,1951, pp.256-257.
    256John Marshall, Taxil: An Illustrated Account of Archaeological Excavations Carried out at Taxila under theOrders of the Government of India between the Years1913and1934,Vol.1, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,1951, p.327.
    257Kurt A. Behrendt, The Buddhist Architecture of Gandhāra, Leiden: Brill,2004, p.120, fig.108.
    258Kurt A. Behrendt, The Buddhist Architecture of Gandhāra, Leiden: Brill,2004, p.110.
    259Kurt A. Behrendt, The Buddhist Architecture of Gandhāra, Leiden: Brill,2004, p.111.
    260这组禅定佛像的佉卢文题记写着:“僧伽之友觉天(Buddhadeva Samghamitra)所献”,“僧人觉护(Buddharak ita)所献”,“僧人龙法友所献”,“沙门密多(rama amitra)所献”,“僧人法在(Dharmabhūti)所献”,“精通戒律(Vinaya)的僧人罗睺罗(Rahula)所献”。参见John Marshall, Taxila: An Illustrated Accountof Archaeological Excavations Carried out at Taxila under the Orders of the Government of India between the Years1913and1934, Vol.1, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,1951, p.374.
    261John Marshall, Taxila: An Illustrated Account of Archaeological Excavations Carried out at Taxila under theOrders of the Government of India between the Years1913and1934, Vol.1, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,1951, p.372.
    262N. G. Majumdar: A Guide to the Sculptures in the Indian Museum, Patna: Eastern Book House,1987, p.83.
    263Lyons Islay&Harald Ingholt, Gandhāran Art in Pakistan, New York: Pantheon Books,1957, p.90.
    264K. Krishna Murthy, The Gandhāra Sculptures: A Cultural Survey, Delhi: Ajanta Publications,1977, p.130.
    265[法]罗兰·巴特:《叙事作品结构分析导论》,张寅德译,载于张寅德编选:《叙事学研究》,北京:中国社会科学出版社,1989年,第2页。
    266参见Kalpagam Venkataraman. Rasa in Indian Aesthetics:Interface of Literature and Sculpture. Ph.D Thesis,2003, p.126.
    267Rai Govind Chandra, Indian Symbolism: Symbols as Sources of Our Customs and Beliefs, New Delhi: MunshirmManoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd,1996, p.1.
    268S. P. Gupta, Elements of Indian Art: Including Temple Archktecture, Iconography&Iconometry, New Delhi,Indraprastha Museum of Art and Archaeology,2007, p.52.
    269Lyons Islay&Harald Ingholt, Gandhāran Art in Pakistan, New York: Pantheon Books,1957, p.62.
    270The Mahāvastu, Vol II, translated from the Buddhist Sanskrit by J.J. Jones, Lancaster: Pali Text Society,2006,p.18.
    271Ghani-ur-Rahman, The Seven Steps of the New Born Bodhisattva ākyamuniμ, Journal of Asian Civilization,2009, Vol.32, No.1, pp.28-29.
    272Ghani-ur-Rahman, The Seven Steps of the New Born Bodhisattva ākyamuniμ, Journal of Asian Civilization,2009, Vol.32, No.1, p.33.
    273参见Erwin Panofsky, Studies in Iconology: Humanistic Themes in theArt of the Renaissance, NewYork: Harper&Row,1972, Introductory, pp.14-15.
    274在印度文化语境中,螺发是佛陀独有的象征符号,象征着佛陀至高的道德、至上的智慧和大觉大悟,也有一说是象征佛陀的涅槃;头光意为太阳的光晕,象征着佛陀是太阳族的后代,与罗摩同族同宗;袈裟属于佛教僧侣的三种服饰之一;无畏印象征着神对其崇拜者的保护,有无所畏惧、祥和平静之意,在犍陀罗艺术中象征佛陀布道,在印度教艺术中用于毗湿奴造像则象征毗湿奴作为宇宙的保护神,用于湿婆造像则象征湿婆通过跳宇宙之舞——荡得舞保持宇宙平衡;莲花在印度文化中象征创造、神圣和纯洁,莲花座象征佛陀由天神转世而来;菩提树在印度文化语境是智慧和觉悟之树。根据神话传说,佛陀在菩提树下觉悟成道。在犍陀罗艺术中,菩提树象征着佛陀得道。参见G sata Liebert, Iconographic Dictionaryof theIndian Religions:Hiduism-Buddhsim-Jainism, Delhi: Sri Satguru Publications,1986, p.313, p.289, p.251, p.1, p.202, p.45.
    275车轮是印度艺术中最常见的造型之一,是抽象概念绝对圆满、保护和超凡神力的象征,此造型源于印度河时期。在印度教神话中,毗湿奴和黑天的武器之一是六轮辐的车轮,象征太阳神属性;而在佛教和耆那教中,则象征着法轮或世界之轮,在佛教艺术中特指初次布道的法轮。参见G sata Liebert, Iconographic Dictionary ofthe Indian Religions: Hiduism-Buddhsim-Jainism, Delhi: Sri Satguru Publications,1986, p.51-52.
    276三宝的视觉形象——三叉是非常古老的造型。印度河印章中以三叉造型象征湿婆神,印度教艺术中湿婆的武器三叉戟的原型来自三叉;耆那教艺术中,三叉是吉祥符号;佛教艺术则以三叉象征佛(Buddha)、法(Dhamma)和僧(Sangba)。参见Rai Govind Chandra, Indian Symbolism: Symbols as Sources of Our Customs andBeliefs, New Delhi: Munshirm Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd,1996, p.90.
    277黄宝生:《梵语诗学论著汇编》(上册),北京:昆仑出版社,2008年,第70页
    278黄宝生:《梵语诗学论著汇编》(上册),北京:昆仑出版社,2008年,第70-71页。
    279(唐)玄奘、辩机:《大唐西域记校注》(上),季羡林等校注,北京:中华书局,2000年,第259页。
    280鹿角仙人在林中苦修受淫女引诱而功力丧失殆尽的故事在《罗摩衍那·童年篇》、《摩诃婆罗多·森林篇》、巴利语《本生经》第523和526个故事、《大事》、《佛本行集经》、《佛所行赞》等文字文献皆有记载,参见季羡林的著作《比较文学与民间文学》中收录的《原始社会风俗残余关于妓女祷雨的问题》一文。鹿角仙人的故事也出现在犍陀罗、巴尔胡特、桑奇、秣菟罗等地的佛教雕刻上。参见B. Subrahmanyam, Jātakas inBuddhist Thought and Art, Vol.1, Delhi: Bharatiya Kala Prakashan,2009一书中第91-97页关于鹿角本生雕刻的图文解释。
    281[印]毗耶娑:《摩诃婆罗多》第2卷,黄宝生等译,北京:中国社会科学出版社,2005年,第229页。
    282[印]毗耶娑:《摩诃婆罗多》第2卷,黄宝生等译,北京:中国社会科学出版社,2005年,第226页。
    283婆罗多将明喻分赞美明喻、责备明喻、想象明喻、相似明喻和部分相似明喻。赞美明喻以具体物象比喻对某人某物的赞美之情。选文中的赞美明喻如“看起来像天神的儿子一样光辉灿烂。他容貌俊美,像太阳一样光芒四射”,“一见到这个像天神的儿子的人,我就产生强烈的喜爱和欢乐”等文句皆以比喻手法叙述鹿角仙人对淫女的赞美之情。参见黄宝生所著的《梵语诗学论著汇编》(上册),北京:昆仑出版社,2008年,第70-71页。
    284[德]莱辛:《拉奥孔》,朱光潜译,北京:人民文学出版社,1984年,第182页。
    285[印]毗耶娑:《摩诃婆罗多》第2卷,黄宝生等译,北京:中国社会科学出版社,2005年,第226页。
    286参见[荷]米克·巴尔:《叙述学:叙事理论导论》,谭君强译,北京:中国社会科学出版社,2003年,第91页。
    287Lolita Nehru, Origins of the Gandhāran Style: A Study of ContributoryInfluences, Dehli: Oxford University Press,1989, p.16.
    288参见Vidya Dehejia, Discoursein Early Buddhist Art: Visual Narratives of India, New Dehli: MunshiramManoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd.,1997, pp.185-201.
    289参见Meyer Schapio, Words and Pictures: On the Literal and the Symbolicin theInterpretation of a Text, TheHague: Mouton,1973, pp.27-36.
    290孩童献土的故事参见《天譬喻经》的记载。故事讲述佛陀在王舍城竹园修行时,有一天外出到城里化缘。正在沙地玩耍的阇耶用泥土捏成饼状放到佛陀的钵里,说是献给佛陀的沙制大饼,他的小伙伴毗阇耶同意阇耶的说法,并学着施舍给佛陀沙饼。阇耶宣称他长大后要成为宇宙君主,佛陀随即预言在佛涅槃一百多年后,阇耶将成为统帅一方面的阿育王。
    291Kurt A. Beherndt, The Buddhist Architecture of Gandhāra, Boston: Brill,2004, p.120.
    292该窣堵坡被誉为犍陀罗艺术的典型之作,现存于加尔各答印度博物馆。参见N. G. Majumdar, A Guideto theSculptures in the Indian Museum, Patna: Eastern Book House,1987, p.117.
    293Maurizio Taddei, Recent Archaeological Research in Gandhāra: The New Evidenceμ, in Pia Brancaccio&KurtBehrendt, eds. Gandhāran Buddhism: Archaeology, Art,Texts, Toronto: UBC Press,2006, p.46.
    294这是一种古代书写法,由右至左,再由左至右,互错成行,在古埃及语、古希腊语中可见这种书写方法。
    295小窣堵坡的台阶雕刻带一般长为12~16英寸,宽为3~5英尺,观者在窣堵坡前需往返数次才能完全读完故事。
    296Vidya Dehejia, Discourse in Early Buddhist Art: Visual Narratives of India, New Dehli: Munshiram ManoharlalPublishers Pvt. Ltd.,1997, p.199.
    297Lolita Nehru, Origins of the Gandhāran Style: A Study of ContributoryInfluences, Dehli: Oxford University Press,1989, p.17.
    298Vidya Dehejia, Discourse in Early Buddhist Art: Visual Narratives of India, New Dehli: Munshiram ManoharlalPublishers Pvt. Ltd.,1997, p.185.
    299Vidya Dehejia, Discourse in Early Buddhist Art: Visual Narratives of India, New Dehli: Munshiram ManoharlalPublishers Pvt. Ltd.,1997, p.24-25.
    300该雕刻所叙内容可参阅《旃陀越国王经》。故事的主角是古代印度舍卫国国王旃陀越之子苏陀夷。经中记载到,舍卫国王旃陀越奉婆罗门道,用诸婆罗门辅治国政。王有一妃倍受宠爱,引起其他夫人嗔嫉,遂收买婆罗门,向王进谗言杀害之。其时,夫人腹中有孕,后于冢中生子,母半身不朽,儿得饮乳三年,出冢后与鸟兽为伍。佛陀悯之,乃度其出家,名为须陀,七日便得阿罗汉道。后往见旃陀越王,以神通感化之,王敕群臣诣佛受五戒,佛为说其与须陀过去世之因缘。
    301Vidya Dehejia, Discourse in Early Buddhist Art: Visual Narratives of India, New Dehli: Munshiram ManoharlalPublishers Pvt. Ltd.,1997, p27.
    302谭君强:《叙事学导论:从经典叙事学到后经典叙事学》,北京:高等教育出版社,2008年,第28页。
    303[荷]米克·巴尔:《叙述学:叙事理论导论》,谭君强译,北京:中国社会科学出版社,2003年,第172页。
    304[印]毗耶娑:《摩诃婆罗多》第2卷,黄宝生等译,北京:中国社会科学出版社,2005年,第258页。
    305[印]毗耶娑:《摩诃婆罗多》第2卷,黄宝生等译,北京:中国社会科学出版社,2005年,第259页。
    306[印]毗耶娑:《摩诃婆罗多》第2卷,黄宝生等译,北京:中国社会科学出版社,2005年,第260页。
    307[法]托多罗夫:《叙事作为话语》,朱毅译,载于张寅德编选:《叙事学研究》,北京:中国社会科学出版社,1989年,第294页。
    308[法]托多罗夫:《文学作品分析》,黄晓敏译,载于张寅德编选:《叙事学研究》,北京:中国社会科学出版社,1989年,第62页。
    309[印]毗耶娑:《摩诃婆罗多》第2卷,黄宝生等译,北京:中国社会科学出版社,2005年,第250页。
    310[印]毗耶娑:《摩诃婆罗多》第2卷,黄宝生等译,北京:中国社会科学出版社,2005年,第251页。
    311[法]托多罗夫:《文学作品分析》,黄晓敏译,载于张寅德编选:《叙事学研究》,北京:中国社会科学出版社,1989年,第62页。
    312[荷]米克·巴尔:《叙述学:叙事理论导论》,谭君强译,北京:中国社会科学出版社,2003年,第168页。
    313谭君强:《叙事学导论:从经典叙事学到后经典叙事学》,北京:高等教育出版社,2008年,第83-84页。
    314Hans Christoph Ackermann, Narrative Stone Reliefs from Gandhāra in the Victoria and Albert Museum inLondon: Catalogue and Attempt at a Stylistic History, Rome: ISMEO,1975, p.124.
    315W. Zwalf, A Catalogueof the Gandhāra Sculpturein the British Museum, Vol.1, Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity Press,1996, p.187.
    316Lyons Islay&Harald Ingholt, Gandhāran Art in Pakistan, New York: Pantheon Books,1957, p.59.
    317Pia Brancaccio&Xinru Liu, Dionysus and Drama in the Buddhist Art of Gandharaμ, Journal of Global History,2004,Vol.4, No.2, pp.242-243.
    318Jeannine Auboyer, Daily Life in Ancient India: From Approximately200BC to700AD, London: Weidenfeld&Nicolson,1965, p.249.
    319[荷]米克·巴尔:《叙述学:叙事理论导论》,谭君强译,北京:中国社会科学出版社,2003年,第193页。
    320Bharata Muni, The Nā ya āstra, Dehil: Sri Satguru Publications, Second Revised Edition,2006, p.376.
    321Bharata Muni, The Nā ya āstra, Dehil: Sri Satguru Publications, Second Revised Edition,2006, p.377.
    322[荷]米克·巴尔:《叙述学:叙事理论导论》,谭君强译,北京:中国社会科学出版社,2003年,第192、194页。
    323W. Zwalf, A Catalogueof the Gandhāra Sculpturein the British Museum, Vol.1, Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity Press,1996, p.148.
    324谭君强:《叙事学导论:从经典叙事学到后经典叙事学》,北京:高等教育出版社,2008年,第113页。
    325郭良鋆、黄宝生译:《佛本生故事选》,北京:人民文学出版社,2001年,第350页。
    326郭良鋆、黄宝生译:《佛本生故事选》,北京:人民文学出版社,2001年,第357页。
    327[印]毗耶娑:《摩诃婆罗多》第1卷,黄宝生等译,北京:中国社会科学出版社,2005年,第3页。
    328黄宝生:《<摩诃婆罗多>导读》,北京:中国社会科学出版社,2005年,第53页。
    329[印]毗耶娑:《摩诃婆罗多》第2卷,黄宝生等译,北京:中国社会科学出版社,2005年,第483页。
    330W. J. T. Mitchell, Iconology: Image, Text, Ideology, Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press,1986,p.9.
    331三十二大人相即为:1、足安平相;2、千辐轮相;3、手指纤长相;4、手足柔软相;5、手足缦網相;6、足跟满足相;7、足趺高好相;8、腨骨如鹿王相;9、手过膝相;10、马阴藏相;11、身纵广相;12、毛孔生青色相;13、身毛上靡相;14、身金色相;15、常光一丈相;16、皮肤细滑相;17、七处(两手、两足、两肩、脖颈)平清相;18、两腋满相;19、身如师子相;20、身端直相;21、肩圆满相;22、四十齿相;23、齿齐密相;24、齿白净相;25、狮子颊相;26、味中得上味相;27、广长舌相;28、梵音深远相;29、眼色如绀青相;30、眼睫如牛王相;31、眉间白毫相;32、顶呈肉髻相。
    332十度即为:布施、持戒、断念、智慧、精进、忍辱、坚毅、慈爱、平等和真理。
    333《经集》第五品《彼岸道品》,郭良鋆译,北京:中国社会科学文献出版社,2011年,第116页。
    334The Birth of Lord Krishnaμ, Bhagavata Purana, Canto10, Chapter3, see http://www. srimadbhagavatam.org/canto10/chapter3. html.
    335A. K. Coomaraswamy, The Origin of the Buddha Imageμ, The Art Bulletin,1927,Vol.9, No.4, p.315.
    336参见E. B. Cowell ed. The Jātaka or Stories of the Buddha’s Former Births, Vol.11, Delhi: Motilal BanarsidassPublishers, Private Limited,1994, p.78-82.
    337[印]蚁垤:《罗摩衍那》(童年篇),季羡林译,《季羡林全集》第22卷,北京:外语教学与研究出版社,2010年,第16-17页。
    338[印]毗耶娑:《摩诃婆罗多》第1卷,黄宝生等译,北京:中国社会科学出版社,2005年,第401-404页。
    339[印]毗耶娑:《摩诃婆罗多》第2卷,黄宝生等译,北京:中国社会科学出版社,2005年,第252页。
    340[印]毗耶娑:《摩诃婆罗多》第2卷,黄宝生等译,北京:中国社会科学出版社,2005年,第253页。
    341S. R. Bakshi ed. Education in Ancient India, New Dehli: Deep&Deep Publications Pvt. Ltd.,2000, p.25.
    342[印]蚁垤:《罗摩衍那》(童年篇),季羡林译,《季羡林全集》第22卷,北京:外语教学与研究出版社,2010年,第36-37页。
    343G sta Liebert, Iconographic Dictionary of theIndian Religions: Hinduism-Buddhism-Jainism, Delhi: Sri SatguruPublications,1986, p.49.
    344P. Banerjee, Birth of Buddha and its Vedic Parallelμ, Buddhist Iconography, New Dehli: Tibet House,1989,p.2.
    345参见Rgveda, Vol.4.18.1-2; I61.14, in http://www. sacred-texts. com/hin/rigveda/rv04018. htm;Rgveda, Vol.1.61.14, in http://www. sacred-texts. com/hin/rigveda/rv01061. htm;Rgveda, Vol.1.22.17, in http://www. sacred-texts. com/hin/rigveda/rv01022. htm.
    346巫白慧译解:《<梨俱吠陀>神曲选》,北京:商务印书馆,2010年,第117页。
    347此龙者,迦叶波佛时。生在人趣。名曰殑祇。深闲咒术。禁御恶龙。不令暴雨。国人赖之以蓄余粮。居人众庶感恩怀德。家税斗谷以馈遗焉。既积岁时或有逋课。殑祇含怒愿为毒龙。暴行风雨损伤苗稼。命终之后为此池龙。泉流白水损伤地利。释迦如来大悲御世。愍此国人独遭斯难降神至此欲化暴龙。执金刚神杵击山崖。龙王震惧乃出归依。闻佛说法心净信悟。如来遂制勿损农稼。龙曰。凡有所食赖收人田。今蒙圣教恐难济给。愿十二岁一收粮储。如来含覆愍而许焉。故今十二年一遭白水之灾。参见(唐)玄奘、辩机:《大唐西域记校注》(上),季羡林等校注,北京:中华书局,2000年,第274-275页。
    348巫白慧译解:《<梨俱吠陀>神曲选》,北京:商务印书馆,2010年,第115页。
    349郭良鋆:《佛陀和原始佛教思想》,北京:中国社会科学出版社,1997年,第48页。
    350帝释天、金刚手和大梵天在佛教神话故事中是作为佛陀的保护神而存在。帝释天和金刚手被认为源自吠陀教的因陀罗神,而大梵天被认为源自婆罗门教的主神大梵天。这三者在犍陀罗叙事性雕刻中往往作为故事的配角,依附于佛陀的故事,并不进行独立叙事。
    351Alice Getty, The Gods of Northern Buddhism, Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd,1978, p.171.
    352Nanditha Krishna, Sacred Animal of India, New Delhi: Penguin Books,2010, p.209.
    353(唐)玄奘、辩机:《大唐西域记校注》(上),季羡林等校注,北京:中华书局,2000年,第302页。
    354参见Nanditha Krishna, Sacred Animal of India, New Delhi: Penguin Books,2010, p.216.
    355参见Rgveda, Vol.7.61, http://www. sacred-texts. com/hin/rigveda/rv07061. htm.
    356Ram Nath Misra, Yaksha Cult and Iconography, Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd,1981, p.16.
    357Ram Nath Misra, Yaksha Cult and Iconography, Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd,1981, p.11.
    358[印]毗耶娑:《摩诃婆罗多》第2卷,黄宝生等译,北京:中国社会科学出版社,2005年,第436-437页。
    359(唐)义净:《南海寄归内法传校注》卷一,王邦维校注,北京:中华书局,2000年,第49页。
    360(唐)义净:《南海寄归内法传校注》卷一,王邦维校注,北京:中华书局,2000年,第50页。
    361(唐)玄奘、辩机:《大唐西域记校注》(上),季羡林等校注,北京:中华书局,2000年,第254页。
    362参见Ram Nath Misra, Yaksha Cult and Iconography, Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd,1981,Appendix I, Appendix II, p.167-175.
    363K. Krishna Murthy教授在The Gandhāra Sculptures: A Cultural Survey (Delhi: Ajanta Publications,1977)一书中系统地梳理了已出土的犍陀罗叙事性雕刻中出现的各种器具,具体内容可参见该书第48-112页。
    364巫白慧译解:《<梨俱吠陀>神曲选》,北京:商务印书馆,2010年,第114页。
    365巫白慧译解:《<梨俱吠陀>神曲选》,北京:商务印书馆,2010年,第114页。
    366G sata Liebert, Iconographic Dictionary of the Indian Religions: Hiduism-Buddhsim-Jainism, Delhi: Sri SatguruPublications,1986, pp.318-319.
    367G sata Liebert, Iconographic Dictionary of the Indian Religions: Hiduism-Buddhsim-Jainism, Delhi: Sri SatguruPublications,1986, p.247.
    368郭良鋆:《帝释天和因陀罗》,载《南亚研究》,1991年,第1期。
    369G sata Liebert, Iconographic Dictionary of the Indian Religions: Hiduism-Buddhsim-Jainism, Delhi: Sri SatguruPublications,1986, p.232.
    370Vidya Dehejia, Discourse in Early Buddist Art: Visual Narratives of India. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal,1997, p.287.
    371Rai Govind Chandra, Indian Symbolism: Symbols as Sources of Our Customs and Beliefs, New Delhi: MunshirmManoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd,1996, p.52.
    372G sata Liebert, Iconographic Dictionary of the Indian Religions: Hiduism-Buddhsim-Jainism, Delhi: Sri SatguruPublications,1986, p.51.
    法显:《法显传校注》,章巽校注,北京:中华书局,2008年。
    玄奘、辩机:《大唐西域记校注》,季羡林等校注,北京:中华书局,2000年。
    义净:《南海寄归内法传校注》,王邦维校注,北京:中华书局,1995年。
    [古罗马]奥维德:《变形记》,杨周翰译,北京:人民文学出版社,2000年。
    [古希腊]阿里安:《亚历山大远征记》,李活译,北京:商务印书馆,1979年。
    [古希腊]赫西俄德:《神谱》,吴凌雅:《神谱笺释》,北京:华夏出版社,2010年。
    [荷]米克·巴尔:《叙述学:叙事理论导论》,谭君强译,北京:中国社会科学出版社,2003年。
    [美]理查德·鲍曼:《作为表演的口头艺术》,杨利慧、安德明译,桂林:广西师范大学出版社,2008年。
    [美]梅维恒:《绘画与表演——中国绘画叙事及其起源研究》,王邦维、荣新江、钱文忠译,上海:中西书局,2011年。
    [美]约翰·迈尔斯·弗里:《口头诗学:帕里—洛徳理论》,朝戈金译,北京:社会科学文献出版社,2000年。
    [日]宫治昭:《犍陀罗美术寻踪》,李萍译,北京:人民美术出版社,2006年。
    [伊]贾利尔·杜斯特哈赫选编:《阿维斯塔—琐罗亚斯德教圣书》,元文琪译,北京:商务印书馆,2005年。
    [印]《奥义书》,黄宝生译,北京:商务印书馆,2010年。
    [印]《佛本生故事选》,郭良鋆、黄宝生译,北京:人民文学出版社,1985年。
    [印]《摩奴法论》,蒋忠新译,北京:中国社会科学出版社,2007年。
    [印]《印度民间故事》,王树英译,北京:北京大学出版社,1984年。
    [印]马鸣:《佛所行赞》,昙无谶译,台北:觉苑出版社,1984年。
    [印]穆罕默德·瓦利乌拉·汗:《犍陀罗:来自巴基斯坦的佛教文明》,陆水林译,北京:五洲传播出版社,2009年。
    [印]毗耶娑:《薄伽梵歌》,黄宝生译,北京:商务印书馆,2010年。
    ——:《薄伽梵歌》,张保胜译,北京:中国社会科学出版社,2007年。
    ——:《摩诃婆罗多》,黄宝生等译,北京:中国社会科学出版社,2005年。
    [印]月天:《故事海选》,黄宝生、郭良鋆、蒋忠新译,北京:人民文学出版社,2001年。
    陈恒:《希腊化研究》,北京:商务印书馆,2006年。
    崔连仲选译:《古印度帝国时代史料选辑》,北京:商务印书馆,1989年。
    龚方震、晏可佳:《祆教史》,上海:上海社会科学院出版社,1998年。
    郭良鋆、黄宝生:《佛本生故事选》,北京:人民文学出版社,2001年。
    ——:《帝释天和因陀罗》,《南亚研究》,1991年,第1期。
    ——:《佛陀和原始佛教思想》,北京:中国社会科学出版社,1997年。
    ——:《佛陀形象的演变》,《南亚研究》,1990年,第3期。
    黄宝生、郭良鋆:《故事海选》,北京:人民文学出版社,2001年。
    黄宝生:《<摩诃婆罗多>导读》,北京:中国社会科学出版社,2005年。
    ——:《梵语诗学论著汇编》,北京:昆仑出版社,2008年。
    季羡林、刘安武编:《两大史诗评论汇编》,北京:中国社会科学出版社,1984年。
    季羡林:《季羡林全集》,北京:外语教学与研究出版社,2009-2010年。
    ——:《印度古代文学史》,北京:北京大学出版社,1991年。
    ——:《印度民间故事集》第一辑,北京:中国民间文艺出版社,1984年。
    金克木:《梵语文学史》,南昌:江西教育出版社,1999年。
    孔菊兰:《巴基斯坦民间文学》,银川:宁夏人民出版社,2008年。
    林承节:《印度古代史纲》,北京:光明日报出版社,2000年。
    林梅村:《犍陀罗语文学与古代中印文化交流》,载于《中国文化》,2001年,第17-18期。
    刘建、朱明忠、葛维钧:《印度文明》,北京:中国社会科学出版社,2004年。
    吕澂:《印度佛学源流略讲》,上海:上海世纪出版集团,2005年。
    谭君强:《叙事学导论:从经典叙事学到后经典叙事学》,北京:高等教育出版社,2008年。
    唐孟生、孔菊兰:《巴基斯坦民间故事》,沈阳:辽宁少年儿童出版社,2001年。
    陶德臻、何乃英编:《伊朗文学论集》,南昌:江西人民出版社,1993年。
    万建中:《民间文学引论》,北京:北京大学出版社,2006年。
    王邦维选译:《佛经故事》,北京:中华书局,2009年。
    王镛:《印度美术》,北京:中国人民大学出版社,2004年。
    巫白慧译解:《<梨俱吠陀>神曲选》,北京:商务印书馆,2010年。
    吴凌雅:《神谱笺释》,北京:华夏出版社,2010年。
    薛克翘:《印度民间文学》,银川:宁夏人民出版社,2008年。
    杨富学:《印度宗教文化》,北京:民族出版社,2007年。
    张鸿年:《波斯文学史》,北京:昆仑出版社,2003年。
    张寅德编选:《叙事学研究》,北京:中国社会科学出版社,1989年。
    Ackermann, Hans Christoph. Narrative Stone Reliefs from Gandhāra in the Victoriaand Albert Museum in London: Catalogue and Attempt at a Stylistic History, Rome:ISMEO,1975.
    Alam, Humera. Gandhāra Sculptures in Lahore Museum, Lahore: Lahore Museum,1998.
    Ali, Ihsan&Muhammad Naeem Qazi. Eds. Gandhāran Sculpturs in the PeshawarMuseum (Life Story of Buddha), Pakistan: Hazara Unviersity Mansehra MWFP,2008.
    Behrendt, Kurt A. The Art of Gandhāra in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York:Metropolitan Museum of Art,2007.
    Bhattacharyya, D. C. Gandhāra Sculpture in the Government Museum and Art Gallery,Chandigarh, Chandigarh: Government Museum and Art Gallery, Chandigarh,2002.
    Burgess, Jas. The Gandhāra Sculptures, Delhi: Bharatiya Publ. House,1978.
    Cowell, E. B. The Jātaka, or, Stories of the Buddha's Former Births, Vol.1-6, NewDelhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers,1990.
    Czuma, Stanislaw J. Kushan Sculpture: Images from Early India, Cleveland: ClevelandMuseum of Art,1985.
    Foucher, Alfred. L'art Gréco-Bouddhique du Gandhara, Paris: Imprimerie Nationale,1905-51.
    Francfort, Henri Paul. Les Palettes du Gandhāra, Paris: Diffusion de Boccard,1979.Gandhāra Sculpture in the National Museum of Pakistan, Karachi: Dept.ofArchaeology and Museums, Ministry of Education, Govt. of Pakistan,1964.
    Haleade, Madeleine. Gandhāran Art of North in India and the Graeco-BuddhistTradition In India, Persia, and Central Asia, New York: H. N. Abrams,1968.
    Jongeward, David. Buddhist Art of Pakistan and Afghanistan: The Royal OntarioMuseum Collection of Gandhāra Sculpture, Toronto: University of Toronto,Centre for South Asian Studies,2003.
    Joshi, N.P.&R.C. Sharma. Eds. Catalogue of Gandhāra Sculptures in the StateMuseum, Lucknow, Lucknow: The Archana Printing Press,1969.
    Khan, M.Ashraf. Gandhāra Sculptures in the Swat Museum, Saidu Sharif:Archaeological Museum,1993.
    ——. Gandhāra Stone Sculptures in the Taxila Mueseum, Taxila: Taxila Museum,Department of Archaeology and Museums, Government of Pakistan,2005.
    Khan, Muhammad Bahadar. Gandhāra Stone Sculptuers in Taxila Muesum, Lahore:The Pioneers Publishers,1994.
    Lyons, Islay&Harald Ingholt. Gandhāran Art in Pakistan, New York: Pantheon Books,1957.
    Majumdar, N.G. A Guide to the Sculptures in the Indian Museum, Patna: Eastern BookHouse,1987.
    Marshall, John. A Guide to Taxila, Cambridge: The Department of Archaeology inPakistan at the University Press,1960.
    ——. Taxila: An Illustrated Account of Archaeological Excavations Carried out atTaxila under the Orders of the Government of India between the Years1913and1934, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,1951.
    Rowland, Benjamin. Gandhāra Sculpture from Pakistan Museums, New York: AsiaSociety,1960.
    Sehrai, Fidaullah. The Buddha Story in the Peshawar Museum, Peshawar: PeshawarMuseum,1985.
    Sengupta, Anasua&Dibakar Das. Gandhāra Holding in the Indian Museum: a handlist,Calcutta: Indian Museum,1991.
    The Mahāvastu, translated from the Buddhist Sanskrit by J.J. Jones, Lancaster: PaliText Society,2006-2007.
    Zwalf, W. A Catalogue of the Gandhāra Sculpture in the British Museum, London:British Museum Press,1996.
    栗田功『ガンダーラ美術:佛陀の世界』,東京:二玄社,2003.
    栗田功『ガンダーラ美術:佛伝』,東京:二玄社,2003.
    Agrawala, R.C. Gandhāran Skanda with Flamesμ, East and West,1968, Vol.18,pp.163-165.
    ——. Sasthi in Gandhāran Artμ, East and West,1993, Vol.43, pp.271-275.
    Aldrovandi, Cibele Buddhism, Pax Kushana and Greco-Roman Motifs: Pattern andPurpose in Gandhāran Iconographyμ, Antiquity,2005, Vol.79, pp.306-315.
    Allchin, Bridget. Ed. South Asian Archaeology,1981, Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity Press,1984.
    Allchin, F.R. The Archaeology of Early Historic South Asia: the Emergence of Citiesand States, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,1995.
    Allchin, Raymond. Gandhāran Art in Context: East-West Exchanges at the Crossroadsof Asia, New Delhi: Regency Publications,1997.
    Altman, Rick. A Theory of Narrative, New York: Columbia Unviersity Press,2008.
    Asher, Catherine B.&Thomas R. Metcalf. Eds. Perceptions of South Asia's Visual Past,New Delhi: American Institute of Indian Studies, New Delhi; Columbia: SouthAsia Publications,1994.
    Auboyer, J. Daily Life in Ancient India: from Approximately200BC to AD700, tr.fromthe French by Simon Watson Taylor.London: Weidenfeld&Nicolson,1965.
    Banerji, Sures Chandra. Society in Ancient India: Evolution since the Vedic TimesBased on Sanskrit, Pali, Prakrit, and other Classical Sources, New Delhi: D.K.Printworld,1993.
    Barnes, Gina.L. An Introduction to Buddhist archaeologyμ, World Archaeology,1995,Vol.27, No.2, pp.165-182.
    Basham, A. L., Ed. A Cultural History of India, Oxford: Clarendon Press,1975.Behrendt, Kurt A. The Buddhist Architecture of Gandhāra, Leiden: Brill,2004.
    Belvalkar, Shripad Krishna. Rāma's Later History: or, Uttara-Rama-Charita,Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press,1915.
    Bhadri, K.M. A Cultural History of Northern India: Based on Epigraphical Sourcesfrom the3rd Century B.C. to7th Century A.D, Delhi: Book India Publishing Co.,2006.
    Bhattacharyya, Tarapada. The Canons of Indian Art: or, A Study on Vastuvidya,Calcutta: Firma KLM,1986.
    Brancaccio, Pia&Kurt Behrendt. Eds. Gandhāran Buddhism: Archaeology, Art, Tests,Vancouver: The University of British Columbia Press,2006.
    ——.&Xinru Liu. Dionysus and Drama in the Buddhist Art of Gandhāraμ, Journal ofGlobal History,2009, Vol.4, No.2, pp.219-244.
    ——. More on the Buddha and the Naked Ascetics in Gandhāran Artμ, East and West,1993-1994, Vol.44, pp.447-466.
    Bryant, Edwin F. Ed. Krishna: A Sourcebook, Oxford; New York: Oxford UniversityPress,2007.
    Buchthal, H. The Western Aspects of Gandhāra Sculpturesμ, British Academy,1945,Vol.31, pp.151-176.
    Burke, Peter. Eyewitnessing: The Uses of Images as Historical Evidence, London:Reaktion,2001.
    Carter, Marthal. A Gandhāran Blessingμ, Bulletin of the Asia Institute,1987, Vol.I,pp.45-63.
    ——. Dionysiac Aspects of Kushan Artμ, Ars Orientalis,1968, Vol.7, pp.121-146.
    Chakrabarti, Dilip K. A History of Indian Archaeology: from the Beginning to1947,New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers,1988.
    Chandra, Rai Govind. Indian Symbolism: Symbols as Sources of Our Customs andBeliefs, New Delhi: Munshirm Manoharlal Publishers Pvt.Ltd,1996.
    Coomaraswamy, Ananda K. The Origin of the Buddha Imageμ, The Art Bulletin,1927,Vol.9, No.4, pp.287-329.
    . Elements of Buddhist Iconography, New Delhi: Munshiram ManoharlalPublishers Pvt. Ltd.,1998.
    . The Indian Craftsman, London: Probsthain&Co.,1909.
    . The Transformation of Nature in Art, New York: Dover Publications,1956.
    . aksas: Essays in the Water Cosmology, New Delhi: Indira Gandhi NationalCentre for the Arts,1993.
    Cunningham, Alexander. Report for the Years1872-73, Vol.5, New Delhi:Archaeological Survey of India,2000.
    Dallapiccola, A.L. Hindu Visions of the Sacred, London: British Museum,2004.
    Dani, Ahmad Hasan. Origin of the Buddha Image: The Chilas Evidenceμ, Journal ofCentral Asia,1987, Vol.10, No.2, pp.37-50.
    ——. History of Pakistan: Pakistan through Ages, Sang-E-Meel Publications,2007.
    ——. The Historic City of Taxila, Tokyo: Centre for East Asian Cultural Studies,1986.
    Dar, Saifur Rahman. Criteria and Problems of the Study of Gandhāra Artμ, Journal ofCentral Asia,1990, Vol.8, No.2, pp.149-190.
    ——. Taxila and the Classical Worldμ, Journal of Central Asia,1983, Vol.6, No.1,pp.113-139.
    . Toilet Trays from Gandhāra and Beginning of Hellenism in Pakistanμ, Journalof Central Asia,1979, Vol.2, No.2, pp.141-184.
    Deambi, B.K.Koul. History and Culture of Ancient Gandhāra and Western Himalayas,New Delhi: Ariana Publishing House,1985.
    Dehejia, Vidya. On Modes of Visual Narration in Early Buddhist Artμ, The ArtBulletin,1990, Vol.72, No.3, pp.374-392.
    .Discourse in Early Buddhist Art: Visual Narratives of India, New Delhi:Munshiram Manoharlal,1997.
    . Indian Art, London: Phaidon Press,1997.
    Dobbins, K.Walton. Gandhāra Buddha Image with Inscibed Datesμ, East and West,1968, Vol.18, pp.281-288.
    . Gandhāran Art from Stratified Excavationsμ, East and West,1973, Vol.23,pp.279-295.
    . Two Gandhāran Reliquariesμ, East and West,1968, Vol.18, pp.151-162.
    Dye, Joseph M. Two Fragmentary Gandhāran Narrative Reliefs in the PeshawarMuseum: A Study of Gandhāran Representations of the Four Encountersμ, ArtibusAsiae,1976, Vol.38, No.2/3, pp.219-245.
    Evans, Kirsti. Epic Narratives in the Hoysala Temples: The Rāmāyana, Mahābhārata,and Bhāgavata Purāna in Halebid, Belur, and Amrtapura, Leiden; New York:Brill,1997.
    Faccenna, Domenico Note on a Decoraive Motif Appearing on a Blanket in aGandhāran Art Reliefμ, Journal of Central Asia,1995, Vol.18, No.2, pp.1-15.
    Filigenzi, Anna. Narrative Art in Gandhāraμ, Ancient Civilizations from Scythia toSiberia,2003, Vol.9, No.3-4, pp.350-380.
    Fontein, Jan. Narrative Sculpture and Literary Traditions in South and Southeast Asia,Boston: Brill,2000.
    Foucher, Alfred. Notes on the Ancient Geography of Gandhāra: A Commentary on aChapter of Hiuan Tsang, Bombay: Bhartiya Pub.House,1974.
    . The Beginnings of Buddhist Art and other Essays in Indian and Central-AsianArchaeology, translated by L. A. Thomas and F. W. Thomas, London: HumphreyMilford,1917.
    Gail, Adalbert J. The Four Principal Events in the Life of the Buddha: New Light onthe Freer Panelsμ, East and West,1992, Vol.42, pp.467-472.
    Getty, Alice. Gods of Northern Buddhism: Their History and Iconography, New York:Dover Publications,1988.
    Goswami, Jaya. Cultural History of Ancient India: A Socio-Economic andReligio-Cultural Survey of Kapisa and Gandhāra, Delhi: Agam Kala Prakashan,1979.
    Grüwedel, Albert. Buddhist Art in India, London: Susil Gupta,1965.
    Gupta, Nilima Sen. Cultural History of Ancient India Kapisa and Gandhāra, Delhi:Sundeep Prakashan,1984.
    Gupta, S.P. Elements of Indian Art: Including Temple Archtecture, Iconography andIconometry, New Delhi: Indraprastha Museum of Art and Archaeology,2007.
    Gupta, Shyamala. The Beautiful in Indian Art, New Delhi: Munshiram ManoharlalPublishers Pvt. Ltd.,1979.
    Hallade, Madeleine. Indien, Gandhāra: Begegnung wischen Orient und Okzident,Fribourg: Office du Livre,1975.
    . The Gandhāra Style and the Evolution of Buddhist Art, London: Thames&Hudson,1968.
    Harmatta, J. Ed. History of Civilizations of Central Asia, Vol.2, Paris: UNESCOPublishing,1994.
    Hauser, Beatrix. From Oral Tradition to Folk Art·: Reevaluating Bengali ScrollPaintingsμ, Asian Folklore Studies,2002, Vol.61, No.1, pp.105-122.
    Hawkes, Jason&Akira Shimada. Eds. Buddhist Stupas in South Asia: RecentArchaeological, Art-Historical, and Historical Perspectives, Delhi; Oxford:Oxford University Press,2009.
    Hazra, Kanai Lal. Royal Patronage of Buddhism in Ancient India, Delhi: D.K.Publications,1984.
    Huntington, C. John. The Iconography and Iconology of Maiterya Images inGandhāraμ, Journal of Central Asia,1984, Vol.7, No.1, pp.133-178.
    Huntington, Susan L. The Art of Ancient India: Buddhist, Hindu, Jain, New York:Weatherhill,1985.
    Jain, Jyotindra. Ed. Picture Showmen: Insights into the Narrative Tradition in Indianart,Mumbai: Marg Publications on behalf of National Centre for the Performing Arts,1998.
    Jhanji, Rekha. The Sensuous in Art: Reflections on Indian Aesthetics, Shimla: IndianInstitute of Advanced Study in association with Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi,1989.
    Ju-hyung, Rhi. Gandhāran Images of the “ravastī Miracle”: An IconographicReassessment, Thesis (Ph.D), Ann Arbor, Mich.: UMI,1994.
    Karetzky, Patricia Eichenbaum. Hellenistic Influences on Scences of the Life of theBuddha in Gandhāraμ, Oriental Art,1989, Vol.35, pp.163-168.
    Karlsson, Klemens. The Formation of Early Buddhist Visual Cultureμ, MaterialReligion, Vol.2, No.1, pp.68-95.
    Kaushik, Garima. Symphony in Stone Festivities in Early Buddhism, Jaipur: LiteraryCircle,2007.
    Khan, Muhammad Wali Ullah. Inception of Gandhāra Sculptureμ, East and West,1964,Vol.15, No.1, pp.53-61.
    Kramrisch, Stella. Artist, Patron, and Public in Indiaμ, The Far Eastern Quarterly,1956, Vol.15.No.3, pp.335-342.
    . Image of Buddha from Gandhāraμ, Philadelphia Museum of Art Bulletin,1966,Vol.61, No.289, pp.37-39.
    Krishan, Y. The Emergence of the Buddha Image, Gandhāra versus Mathuraμ,Oriental Art,1988, Vol.34, pp.255-275..
    . Was Gandhāra Art a Product of Mahāyāna Buddhism?μ, Journal of the RoyalAsiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland,1964, No.3/4, pp.104-119.
    . The Buddha Image: Its Origin and Development, New Delhi: MunshiramManoharlal Publishers,1996.
    Krishna, Nanditha. Sacred Animal of India, New Delhi: Penguin Books,2010.
    Kumar, Pramod. Concept of Beauty in Indiaμ, International Journal of CosmeticSurgery and Aesthetic Dermatology,2004, Vol.4, No.4, pp.261-264.
    Liebert, G sta. Iconographic Dictionary of the Indian Religions:Hinduism-Buddhism-Jainism, Delhi: Sri Satguru Publications,1986.
    Linrothe, Rob. Inquiries into the Origin of the Buddha Image: A Reviewμ, East andWest,1992, Vol.43, pp.241-255.
    Mair, Victor H. Painting and Performance: Chinese Picture Recitation and Its IndianGenesis, Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press,1988.
    Malandra, Geri Hockfield. Mara's Army: Text and Image in Early Indian Artμ, Eastand West,1981, Vol.31, pp.121-130.
    Mani, Buddha Rashmi. The Kushan Civilization: Studies in Urban Developments andMaterial Culture, Delhi: B.R.Publ.Corp.,1987.
    Marshall, John. Buddhist Art of Gandhāra: The Story of the Early School, Its Birth,Growth and Decline, New Delhi: Oriental Books Reprint Corporation,1980.
    Mathur, Suman. Art and Culture under the Kusānas, Delhi: Bharatiya Kala Prakashan,1998.
    Miller, Barbara Stoler. The Powers of Art: Patronage in Indian Culture, Delhi: OxfordUniversity Press,1992.
    Misra, Ram Nath. Yaksha Cult and Iconography, New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal,1981.
    Mitchell, W.J.T. Iconology: Image, Text, Ideology, Chicago: The Univesity of ChicagoPress,1986.
    Moor, Edward. The Hindu Pantheon, New Delhi: Asian Educational Services,1981.
    Müller, F. Max. Lectures on the Origin and Growth of Religion, London: Longmans,Green,1878.
    Muni, Bharata. The Nātya āstra, Dehil: Sri Satguru Publications, Second RevisedEdition, Reprinted,2006.
    Murthy, K.Krishna. The Gandhāra Sculptures: A Cultural Survey, Delhi: AjantaPublications,1977.
    Myer, Prudence R. Bodhisattvas and Buddhas: Early Buddhist Images from Mathurāμ,Artibus Asiae,1986, Vol.47, No.2, pp.107-142.
    Nadiem, Ihsan H. Buddhist Gandhāra, History, Art and Architecture, Lahore:Sang-E-Meel Pubulications,2008.
    Nagar, Shanti Lal. Buddha in Gandhāra Art and Other Buddhist Sites, Delhi: BuddhhistWorld Press,2010.
    . Jātakas in Indian Art, Delhi: Parimal Publications,1993.
    Narain, A. K. Ed. Studies in Buddhist Art of South Asia, New Delhi: Kanak,1985.
    Naravan, Kirin. Storytellers, Saints, and Scoundrels: Folk Narrative in Hindu ReligiousTeaching, Pennsylvania: University of Pennsylvania Press,1989.
    Nehru, Lolita. Origins of the Gandhāran Style, Delhi: Oxford University Press,1989.
    Panofsky, Erwin. Studies in Iconology: Humanistic Themes in the Art of theRenaissance, New York: Harper&Row,1972.
    Parimoo, Ratan. Life of Buddha in Indian Sculpture (Ashta-Maha-Pratiharya): AnIconological Analysis, New Delhi: Kanak Pubns.,1982.
    Patra, Chittaranjan. Life in Ancient India as Depicted in the Dighā-Nikāya, Calcutta:Punthi-Pustak,1996.
    Prakash, Buddha. Political and Social Movements in Ancient Punjab (from the VedicAge up to the Mauryan Period),1964, Reprint, Lahore: Aziz Publishers,1976.
    Raghavan, V. Ed. The Rāmāyana Tradition in Asia, New Delhi: Sahiya Akademi,1980.
    Rahman, Ghani Ur. The Seven Steps of the New Born Bodhisattava Sakyamuniμ,Journal of Asian Civilization,2009, Vol.32, No.1, pp.25-38.
    Rajan, K.V. Soundara. Secularism in Indian Art, New Delhi: Abhinav Publications,1988.
    Rapson, E.J. Ed. The Cambridge History of India, Vol.1.Ancient India, Cambridge:Cambridge Unviersity Press,1922.
    Ray, Ardhendusekhar. Crafts and Technology in Ancient India: from the Earliest Timesto the Gupta Period, Delhi: S.S. Publishers,1998.
    Roberts, Eileen. Greek Deities in the Buddhist Art of Indiaμ, Oriental Art,1959, Vol.5,pp.114-119.
    Rosenfield, John M. The Dynastic Arts of the Kushans, New Delhi: MunshiramManoharlal Publishers,1993,1967.
    Rowland, Benjamin. A Note on the Invention of the Buddha Imageμ, Harvard Journalof Asiatic Studies,1948, Vol.11, No.1/2, pp.181-186.
    . A Revised Chronology of Gandhāra Sculptureμ, The Art Bulletin,1936, Vol.18,No.3, pp.387-400.
    . Bodhisattvas or Deified Kings: A Note on Gandhāra Sculptureμ, Archives of theChinese Art Society of America,1961, Vol.15, pp.6-12.
    . Gandhāra and Early Christian Art: Buddha Palliatusμ, American Journal ofArchaeology,1945, Vol.49, No.4, pp.445-448.
    . Gandhāra and Late Antique Art: The Buddha Imageμ, American Journal ofArchaeology,1942, Vol.46, No.2, pp.223-236.
    . Gandhāra Art in Romeμ, Artibus Asiae,1958, Vol.21, No.3/4, pp.282-284.
    . Gandhāra, Rome and Mathura: The Early Relief Styleμ, Archives of the ChineseArt Society of America,1956, Vol.10, pp.8-17.
    . The Hellenistic Tradition in North Western Indiaμ, Art Bulletin,1949, Vol.31,No.1, pp.1-10.
    . The Vine-Scroll in Gandhāraμ, Artibus Asiae,1956, Vol.19, No.3/4,pp.353-361.
    .The Art and Architecture of India: Buddhist, Hindu, Jain, London; Baltimore,USA: Penguin Books,1953.
    Roy, Sourindranath. The Story of Indian Archaeology,1784-1947, New Delhi:Archaeological Survey of India,1961.
    Salmony, Alfred. Notes on a Stone Sculpture from Gandhāraμ, Artibus Asiae,1954,Vol.17, No.1, pp.29-33.
    Salomon, Richard. Ancient Buddhist Scrolls from Gandhāra, Seattle: University ofWashington Press,1999.
    Schapio, Meyer. Words and Pictures: On the Literal and the Symbolic in theInterpretation of a Text, The Hague: Mouton,1973.
    Sengupta, Gautam. Archaeology of Early Historic South Asia, New Dehil: PragatiPublications,2008.
    Sharma, R.C. Ed. Buddhism and Gandhāra Art, New Delhi: Aryan Books Interantional,2004.
    , Ed. Interaction between Brahmanical and Buddhist Art, New Delhi:D.K.Printworld Ltd.,2004.
    Sinha, B.P. Archaeology and Art of India, Delhi: Sundeep Prakashan,1979.
    Sivaramamurti, C. Chitraspsutra of the Vishnudharmottara, New Delhi: KanakPublications,1978.
    . Rishis in Indian Art and Literature, New Delhi: Kanak Publications,1981.
    . The Painter in Ancient India, New Delhi: Abhinav Publications,1978.
    Smith, V. A. The Graeco-Roman Influence on the Civilization of Ancient Indiaμ,Journal of Asiatic Society of Bengal,1889, Vol.58, No.3, pp.107-198.
    Snodgrass, Adrian. The Symbolism of the Stūpa, Ithaca, N.Y.: Southeast Asia Program,Cornell University,1985.
    Soper, Alexander C. Aspects of Light Symbolism in Gandhāran Sculptureμ, ArtibusAsiae,1949, Vol.12, No.4, pp.314-330.
    . Aspects of Light Symbolism in Gandhāran Sculpture (Continuation)μ, ArtibusAsiae,1949, Vol.12, No.3, pp.252-283.
    . The Roman Style in Gandhāraμ, American Journal of Archaeology,1951,Vol.55, No.4, pp.301-319.
    Srinivasan, Doris Meth. Ed. On the Cusp of an Era: Art in the Pre-Kusāna World,Leiden; Boston: Brill,2007.
    Srivastava, A.L. Silpa-Sri: Studies in Indian Art and Culture, Delhi: Sundeep Prakashan,1990.
    Stone, Elizabeth Rosen. The Buddhist Art of Nāgārjunakonda, Delhi: MotilalBanarsidass Publishers,1994.
    Straten, Roelof Van. An Introduction to Iconography, Switzerland: Gordon and Breach,1994.
    Stratton, Alfred William. A Dated Gandhāra Figureμ, Journal of the AmericanOriental Society,1903, Vol.24, pp.1-6.
    Subrahmanyam, B. Jātakas in Buddhist Thought and Art, Delhi: Bharatiya KalaPrakashan,2009.
    . Jātakas in Buddhist Thought and Art, Delhi: Bharatiya Kala Prakashan,2009.Taddei, Maurizo. Iconographic Considerations on a Gandhāra Relief in theNationlal Museum of Oriental Art in Romeμ, East and West,1963, Vol.14, pp.38-54.
    Taddei, Maurizo. On a Hellenistic Model Use in Some Gandhāran Reliefs in Swatμ,East and West,1964-65, Vol.15, No.3-4, pp.174-179.
    Thakur, Manoj K. India in the Age of Kanishka, Delhi: Oriental Book Centre,1998.
    Thakur, Vijay Kumar. Urbanization in Ancient India, New Delhi: Abhinav,1981.
    Thapar, Romila. Cultural Pasts: Essays in Early Indian History, New Delhi: OxfordUniversity Press,2000.
    . From Lineage to State: Social Formations in the Mid-First Millennium B.C. inthe Ganga Valley, Bombay: Oxford University Press,1984.
    Thomas, E.J. The Life of Buddha as Legend and History, London: Routledge&KeganPaul,1931.
    Tissot, Francine. The Art of Gandhara, Buddhist Monks'art, on the North-West Frontierof Pakistan, Paris: Librairie Adrien Maisonneuve,1986.
    Trivedi, S.D.&Atul Jairath, Myths and Legends in Indian Art, Delhi: Agam KalaPrakashan,2009.
    Tucci, Giuseppe. A Peculiar Image from Gandhāraμ, East and West,1968, Vol.18,pp.289-292.
    Varma, K.M. Technique of Gandhāran and Indo-Afghan Stucco Images, Santiniketan:Proddu,1987.
    Wenzel, Marian. Echoes of Alexander the Great: Silk Route Portraits from Gandhāra,London: Eklisa Anstalt,2000.
    Wintemitz, Maurice. A History of Indian Literatrue, Vol.3, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass,1981-1985.
    Zimmer, Heinrich Robert. Myths and Symbols in Indian Art and Civilization, Princeton:Princeton University Press,1972.
    Zwalf, W. The Shrines of Gandhāra, London: British Museum,1979.

© 2004-2018 中国地质图书馆版权所有 京ICP备05064691号 京公网安备11010802017129号

地址:北京市海淀区学院路29号 邮编:100083

电话:办公室:(+86 10)66554848;文献借阅、咨询服务、科技查新:66554700