汉俄语言接触研究
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摘要
本论文包括绪论、五章正文和结论。绪论首先讨论了语言接触的相关理论,综述语言接触研究和汉俄语言接触研究的历史。如果两种或两种以上的语言发生了某种关系,并且对这两种或两种以上语言产生了影响,这种现象就叫作“语言接触”。促进语言接触的因素是社会接触,即民族交往。语言接触是一种复杂的过程。从不同的角度,可以分为不同的种类,如：1.主动接触与被动接触；2.自然接触与非自然接触；3.口头接触与书面接触；4.直接接触与间接接触；5.亲属语言接触与非亲属语言接触。语言接触结果产生语言借用、混合语和双语现象。文章确定了汉俄语言接触的类型和本文研究的任务,交代了语料来源、研究方法和创新价值。
第一章简述中俄两国关系的历史和现状。两国交流是汉俄语言接触的基础。中国与俄罗斯(包括苏联)既是邻居,又在政治、经济、军事、文化等方面有长期的关系。在中俄交流密切频繁阶段,汉俄语言接触进展很明显,而关系恶化则引起两种语言接触衰退。中俄贸易促使两国民族经常交往。人民在交换货物中互相学习,互相了解新的事物。进口方带进了新事物,也带来了新事物的名称,如俄语借词(?(珍珠)、(?)(茶)等词就是从中国借入的。在19世纪末中东铁路建造开始之后,俄罗斯人大量移民中国。在上世纪50年代中苏友谊时期中国人大批去苏联学习。现在两国举行中俄“国家年”、中俄“语言年”、中俄“旅游年”。按照在不同阶段两国关系的情况,我们得出关于社会交流的哪些方面影响了汉俄语言接触的具体看法。
汉俄语言接触在语音层面几乎没有发生影响,因此我们着重讨论的是词汇和语法两个层面。
第二章讨论俄语中的汉源词汇。查明俄语中汉源词汇既是本文的研究重点之一,也是本文的难点。通过多方面的调查分析我们确定了52个俄语汉源词,并从语音、形态、用法等方面对每个汉源词进行了分析讨论。在分析的过程中,特别注意词的形态特征,即从孤立语进入屈折语时它的形态是否改变。据此可以看出汉源词对俄语的干扰。然后我们对这些汉源词进行了不同角度的分类分析,并展示了关于这些汉源词在俄罗斯人中的知晓度的一次调查结果。
第三章讨论汉语中的俄源词汇。俄源汉语词比汉源俄语词多几倍。第一节我们使用类别分析法,把源自俄语的借词分为音译词、意译词、音译加标记词、仿译加标记词、意译加标记词和混译类的词。俄源汉语词属于不同文化层——上层及底层。我们从文化层级角度也进行了分类。社会领域分类包括政治领域词、经济领域词、军事领域词、艺术领域词、文化和教育领域词、生活领域词、科技领域词。通过这些分类可以观察到各领域所受影响程度的不同。
第二节讨论俄源词的汉语化。语言接触是不断发展的,决不会保持原封不动的状态。俄源词进入汉语后,在语法、语音、语义、书写等方面,均会受到汉语的影响并逐渐汉语化。汉语化的方式有：音节声调化、词尾吞蚀化、辅音音节化、音素异体化、音素脱落、词义汉语化和单音节意化语素(如“苏”、“布”)产生并成为能产型语素等。
第四章讨论汉俄语言接触的另一种结果“汉俄混合现象”。本章分析了恰克图混合语、哈尔滨洋泾浜俄语和留学中国的学生使用的汉俄俚语。恰克图混合语是曾在中俄边境使用的商用汉俄混合语。最初的恰克图混合语的有规定性,有教材和词典,双方交流以教材和词典为标准。随着恰克图贸易衰落和中东铁路开始修建,恰克图混合语的使用范围逐渐扩大,并因此发展和丰富了语法。混合语的规定性削弱了,而变异性提高了。许多民族方言词进入了本混合语。恰克图混合语研究者较少,原因是现存的恰克图混合语的原始材料缺乏同质性。现在恰克图混合语几乎已经消失。
哈尔滨“洋泾浜俄语”在上个世纪的老哈尔滨人中口口相传。这种“俄式洋泾浜”只具有口头形式,书面形式仅限于商店的招牌和广告。“洋泾浜俄语”的适用范围包括：街道贸易、服务提供、日常生活交流。交往形式是非正式的。“洋泾浜俄语”的词序符合汉语的词序规定。就词汇层而言,大多数“洋泾浜俄语”的词汇是俄源的,但是也有汉源词。本章对“洋泾浜俄语”的词汇分析还包括对问卷调查的分析。
本章第三节讨论留学生的汉源俄语俚语。这种俚语是本人在学习汉语的留学生中发现的。汉俄俚语只是在留学中国和居住在中国的俄罗斯人内部使用。这种俚语以汉语词汇为主体,而使用俄语语音和语法,具有一般俄语词的形态变化。
第五章讨论汉语在语法方面受到的俄语影响。最明显的影响是句子的延长。20世纪50年代中国和苏联关系密切,中国的政治思想和经济、文化、技术全面学习苏联,影响巨大。中国读者看从俄语翻译成汉语的作品,在汉语写作中也使用长句子。在句法方面,通过对列宁、斯大林著作汉译本的分析,我们讨论了这段时期汉语兴起的几个新的句式：“如果……那么……”句式、“最……之一”句式和“如此……以至……”句式,认为是俄语的汉语译文促进了这种语法结构在汉语中的使用和发展。俄语对于汉语词法也有一定的影响。俄源后缀如“-主义”、“-主义者”、“-性”、“-化”、“-派”、“-分子”,前缀如“非-”、“半-”、“反-”。这些词缀不一定单纯是俄源的,但是大量的俄文汉译作品以及苏联在意识形态方面的影响力使它们在中文里的使用普遍化。
参考文献包括中文的、俄文的和英文的材料。本论文包括两个附件。附件-是汉语中俄源词汇清单。附件二是留学生汉源俄语俚语清单。
本文的创新性贡献在于：
1.双向研究的架构和思路：既研究汉语对俄语的影响,也研究俄语对汉语的影响,避免了单纯从一个方向研究造成的片面和局限。由于此前关于俄语对汉语影响的成果较多,本文把重点放在汉语对俄语影响的发掘和分析,弥补了以往汉俄语言接触研究中长期存在的一项空白。
2.发掘旧语料和发现新语料：汉源俄语词和汉俄混合语大多成为已经或即将消失的历史陈迹,本研究从相关文献和调查访问中进行了发掘整理,使之重现出当年风貌；另外又发现了一种新生的留学生汉俄俚语。这样在材料上明显有别于同类研究。
3.知晓度调查：汉源俄语词和俄汉洋泾浜现在在当地民众中的知晓程度究竟怎样,一直是个不能说清楚的问题。我们通过问卷调查,得出了对于每个词不同认知层级的人数比例的准确数据。借此可以看出汉俄语言接触的深度和各个词的活跃程度。这在汉俄语言接触研究中尚属首次。
The presented dissertation consists of an introduction, five chapters and a conclusion. The introduction discusses theory of language contact, outlines the studies on language contact and the Chinese-Russian language contact in particular. If two or more languages happen to have some kind of relations, in the process of which there is a certain influence on two or more languages, such a phenomenon is called "language contact". The language contact is mainly influenced by social factors and interaction between nations. The language contact is a complicated process. The language contact that occurs between people who speak different languages can be divided into different types according to different criteria. For instance,1) active vs. passive contact,2) natural vs. unnatural contact,3) oral vs. written contact,4) direct vs. indirect contact,5) language contact between related vs. unrelated languages. Language contacts result in the appearance of borrowed vocabulary (loan words), mixed languages and bilingualism. The chapter determines the type of the Chinese-Russian language contact and objectives of the research, describes the sources of language materials, the methods of the research, its novelty and value.
The first chapter mainly introduces the history and the present situation of the relationship between China and Russia. The interaction of the countries forms the basis of the Chinese-Russian language contact. China and Russia (including the Soviet Union) have a long history of the interaction. Two countries are neighbors. The communication between the countries covers economic, military, cultural, political and other spheres of the everyday life. The period of close and active interaction between China and Russia highlights the obviousness of the progress of the Chinese-Russian language contact. However, the period of deteriorating relations drastically reduces the intensity of the language contact existing between China and Russia.
The trade between China and Russia contributed to the development of frequent interactions between the countries. In the process of exchanging goods people learned from each other, received knowledge about some new realia. The country, which imported this knowledge, gained information on some new goods. At the same time a new word identifying this new type of goods appeared in the recipient language. For instance, such words were "pearl" and "tea", both borrowed from the Chinese language. A massive immigration of Russian people to China began with the start of the Eastern railroad's construction at the end of the19th century. During the period of Chinese-Russian friendship many Chinese went to the Soviet Union to study. Contemporarily the cultural sphere of interaction between the countries features such events as the Chinese-Russian "national years", the Chinese-Russian "language years", the Chinese-Russian "years of tourism". The specificity of relationship between the countries in different periods reveals social factors influencing the Chinese-Russian language contact.
We assume that the phonetic level was free from influence in the Chinese-Russian language contact. Therefore we focus our main attention on the grammar and vocabulary.
In the second chapter we discuss the Russian vocabulary of the Chinese origin. The ascertainment of Russian lexical units of the Chinese origin is one of the key points of the presented research, as well as one of its difficulties. The analysis of the results of a wide range survey revealed52Russian words of the Chinese origin. The phonetic, morphologic, grammar analysis of the each word was carried out. While analyzing the lexical units, we payed attention to the morphology of the word. We observed whether the morphology of a word of the isolating language changes when it is borrowed by the inflexional language. This can be seen from the interference of the Chinese vocabulary into the Russian language. Afterwards the categorization of the given vocabulary was completed. Apart from that, the chapter contains results of the survey, showing the awareness of the Russian people that the given Russian words are of Chinese origin.
The third chapter dwells upon the Chinese words of the Russian origin. The amount of the Chinese words of the Russian origin is much bigger than the amount of the Russian words of the Chinese origin. In the first part the taxonomic method of the analysis was implemented. The borrowed vocabulary was classified into phonemic loans, semantic loans, marked phonemic loans, marked semantic loans, caiques and hybrid words. The Chinese words of the Russian origin belong to different levels of culture:the upper level and the bottom level. We also conducted an analysis concerning the levels of culture. The categories of the social spheres include:political, economic, military, art, culture and educational spheres, life sphere, science and technology sphere. The taxonomy displays that the impact on these spheres has been different.
The second part of this chapter discusses the Chinesation of words of the Russian origin. The language contact continually develops and does not keep its original condition. Words of the Russian origin after entering the Chinese language experience certain grammatical, phonetic, semantic, grammatological and other changes. The influence of the Chinese language gradually causes the Chinesation of the vocabulary. The means of the Chinesation include:the change of a tone stress, swallowing of words ends, consonant changes, change of morphemes, omission of morphemes and changes in the meaning of a word.
The forth chapter describes another outcome of the Chinese-Russian language contact-"Chinese-Russian mixed languages". The chapter includes the analysis of three Chinese-Russian mixed languages, they are:Kyahta mixed language, Harbin Russian pidgin and the slang of Russian students in China. Kyahta mixed language is a Chinese-Russian mixed language used by merchants on the Chinese-Russian border. In the beginning Kyahta mixed language had a structure, dictionaries, teaching materials. Both sides regarded the dictionaries and teaching materials as an example. The fall of Kyahta trade and the start of the Chinese Eastern railroad construction resulted in the spread of Kyahta mixed language. This development enriched the language. The structure of the language became weak and many variants appeared. Many dialect words entered this mixed language. There are few researchers of Kyahta mixed language. There is a lack of homogeneity in the materials of Kyahta language. At present Kyahta mixed language almost became extinct.
In the last century Harbin "Russian pidgin" was spread from mouth to mouth among the citizens of Harbin. This "Russian like pidgin" only has an oral form. The written form only includes some shops signs (on displays of shops) and advertisement. The usage of the "Russian pidgin" includes:street trade, service providing, casual conversations. The type of interaction is informal. The word order in the "Russian pidgin" corresponds to the rules of the Chinese language. Speaking about the vocabulary of the "Russian pidgin", it contains words of the Russian origin, but there are words of the Chinese origin as well. The analysis of the "Russian pidgin's" vocabulary also includes a questionnaire survey's analysis.
The third part of this chapter describes the Chinese-Russian slang of the Russians who live in China. This slang was found out by us in the circle of foreign students in China. This Chinese-Russian slang is used by the Russian people who live and study in China. The main vocabulary of this slang is Chinese, but the pronunciation and grammar rules are of the Russian language. The ordinary Russian morphology is applied.
The fifth chapter describes the influence of the Russian language on the Chinese grammar. The50s of the20th century is the flourishing time of the Chinese-Russian relationship. In the spheres of politics, economy, culture, science and technology China learnt from Russia. The impact is substantial. The readers of many political books were under the influence of the translation from the Russian language, which caused the lengthening of the Chinese sentences. As a result long sentences in the Chinese language became a common event. By analyzing the works of Lenin, Stalin and other writers, we traced the Russian origins of some Chinese grammar constructions. In that period the Chinese language borrowed the following grammar cliche:“如果……那么……”("if...then..."),“最……之一”("one of the best.."),“如此……以至……”("that way... that.."). The influence of the Russian language resulted into the development and the usage of some Chinese grammar structures. The impact of the Russian language on the Chinese morphology is obvious. These morphemes include one-syllable and multi-syllable morphemes. Monosyllabic morphemes include the "苏" and'‘布”.In addition to words, the Chinese language also contains a number of Russian affixes, such as:“-主义”,“-主义者”,“-性”,“-化”,“-派”,“-分子”.Prefixes include the following:“非-”,“半-”,“反-”
References of the presented paper contain a number of Chinese, Russian and English books. There are three applications to the thesis. The application one has a list of the Russian words of the Chinese origin. Each word has a2language definitions. The application two has a list of the Chinese words of the Russian origin. The application three contains the materials of The Chinese-Russian mixed language and a list of words of the Chinese-Russian slang of foreign students. This list contains definitions of the words and examples of their usage.
The thesis's novelty contribution is in:
1. The structure of the thesis and its ideas are double sided. In other words, it reflects the influence of the Russian language on the Chinese language and the influence of the Chinese language on the Russian language. The research avoided limitedness and narrowness of the one-side analysis. As there are comparatively a number of the results of the Russian language's influence on the Chinese language, the presented thesis is analyzing the most important of them. Besides the paper bridges the gap concerning the influence of the Chinese language on the Russian language.
2. The study of the old language materials and the new ones. A substantial part of the Russian words of the Russian origin and the vocabulary of the mixed languages are becoming or already became extinct. The presented thesis is arranging all the materials of the research and the results of the surveys, restoring the original appearance. Besides, the Chinese-Russian slang in the circles of foreign students was examined. Such materials significantly differ from the similar studies.
3. The awareness survey. The level of the acknowledgement of the Chinese words of the Russian origin and the vocabulary of the Chinese-Russian pidgin among the local people is a not easy-to-answer question. Through the questionnaire survey, we obtained the accurate data of different cognitive levels for each word. On this basis the activity level of each word and the depth of the Chinese-Russian language contact can be seen. In this respect this paper is the first research among similar works.
第一章简述中俄两国关系的历史和现状。两国交流是汉俄语言接触的基础。中国与俄罗斯(包括苏联)既是邻居,又在政治、经济、军事、文化等方面有长期的关系。在中俄交流密切频繁阶段,汉俄语言接触进展很明显,而关系恶化则引起两种语言接触衰退。中俄贸易促使两国民族经常交往。人民在交换货物中互相学习,互相了解新的事物。进口方带进了新事物,也带来了新事物的名称,如俄语借词(?(珍珠)、(?)(茶)等词就是从中国借入的。在19世纪末中东铁路建造开始之后,俄罗斯人大量移民中国。在上世纪50年代中苏友谊时期中国人大批去苏联学习。现在两国举行中俄“国家年”、中俄“语言年”、中俄“旅游年”。按照在不同阶段两国关系的情况,我们得出关于社会交流的哪些方面影响了汉俄语言接触的具体看法。
汉俄语言接触在语音层面几乎没有发生影响,因此我们着重讨论的是词汇和语法两个层面。
第二章讨论俄语中的汉源词汇。查明俄语中汉源词汇既是本文的研究重点之一,也是本文的难点。通过多方面的调查分析我们确定了52个俄语汉源词,并从语音、形态、用法等方面对每个汉源词进行了分析讨论。在分析的过程中,特别注意词的形态特征,即从孤立语进入屈折语时它的形态是否改变。据此可以看出汉源词对俄语的干扰。然后我们对这些汉源词进行了不同角度的分类分析,并展示了关于这些汉源词在俄罗斯人中的知晓度的一次调查结果。
第三章讨论汉语中的俄源词汇。俄源汉语词比汉源俄语词多几倍。第一节我们使用类别分析法,把源自俄语的借词分为音译词、意译词、音译加标记词、仿译加标记词、意译加标记词和混译类的词。俄源汉语词属于不同文化层——上层及底层。我们从文化层级角度也进行了分类。社会领域分类包括政治领域词、经济领域词、军事领域词、艺术领域词、文化和教育领域词、生活领域词、科技领域词。通过这些分类可以观察到各领域所受影响程度的不同。
第二节讨论俄源词的汉语化。语言接触是不断发展的,决不会保持原封不动的状态。俄源词进入汉语后,在语法、语音、语义、书写等方面,均会受到汉语的影响并逐渐汉语化。汉语化的方式有：音节声调化、词尾吞蚀化、辅音音节化、音素异体化、音素脱落、词义汉语化和单音节意化语素(如“苏”、“布”)产生并成为能产型语素等。
第四章讨论汉俄语言接触的另一种结果“汉俄混合现象”。本章分析了恰克图混合语、哈尔滨洋泾浜俄语和留学中国的学生使用的汉俄俚语。恰克图混合语是曾在中俄边境使用的商用汉俄混合语。最初的恰克图混合语的有规定性,有教材和词典,双方交流以教材和词典为标准。随着恰克图贸易衰落和中东铁路开始修建,恰克图混合语的使用范围逐渐扩大,并因此发展和丰富了语法。混合语的规定性削弱了,而变异性提高了。许多民族方言词进入了本混合语。恰克图混合语研究者较少,原因是现存的恰克图混合语的原始材料缺乏同质性。现在恰克图混合语几乎已经消失。
哈尔滨“洋泾浜俄语”在上个世纪的老哈尔滨人中口口相传。这种“俄式洋泾浜”只具有口头形式,书面形式仅限于商店的招牌和广告。“洋泾浜俄语”的适用范围包括：街道贸易、服务提供、日常生活交流。交往形式是非正式的。“洋泾浜俄语”的词序符合汉语的词序规定。就词汇层而言,大多数“洋泾浜俄语”的词汇是俄源的,但是也有汉源词。本章对“洋泾浜俄语”的词汇分析还包括对问卷调查的分析。
本章第三节讨论留学生的汉源俄语俚语。这种俚语是本人在学习汉语的留学生中发现的。汉俄俚语只是在留学中国和居住在中国的俄罗斯人内部使用。这种俚语以汉语词汇为主体,而使用俄语语音和语法,具有一般俄语词的形态变化。
第五章讨论汉语在语法方面受到的俄语影响。最明显的影响是句子的延长。20世纪50年代中国和苏联关系密切,中国的政治思想和经济、文化、技术全面学习苏联,影响巨大。中国读者看从俄语翻译成汉语的作品,在汉语写作中也使用长句子。在句法方面,通过对列宁、斯大林著作汉译本的分析,我们讨论了这段时期汉语兴起的几个新的句式：“如果……那么……”句式、“最……之一”句式和“如此……以至……”句式,认为是俄语的汉语译文促进了这种语法结构在汉语中的使用和发展。俄语对于汉语词法也有一定的影响。俄源后缀如“-主义”、“-主义者”、“-性”、“-化”、“-派”、“-分子”,前缀如“非-”、“半-”、“反-”。这些词缀不一定单纯是俄源的,但是大量的俄文汉译作品以及苏联在意识形态方面的影响力使它们在中文里的使用普遍化。
参考文献包括中文的、俄文的和英文的材料。本论文包括两个附件。附件-是汉语中俄源词汇清单。附件二是留学生汉源俄语俚语清单。
本文的创新性贡献在于：
1.双向研究的架构和思路：既研究汉语对俄语的影响,也研究俄语对汉语的影响,避免了单纯从一个方向研究造成的片面和局限。由于此前关于俄语对汉语影响的成果较多,本文把重点放在汉语对俄语影响的发掘和分析,弥补了以往汉俄语言接触研究中长期存在的一项空白。
2.发掘旧语料和发现新语料：汉源俄语词和汉俄混合语大多成为已经或即将消失的历史陈迹,本研究从相关文献和调查访问中进行了发掘整理,使之重现出当年风貌；另外又发现了一种新生的留学生汉俄俚语。这样在材料上明显有别于同类研究。
3.知晓度调查：汉源俄语词和俄汉洋泾浜现在在当地民众中的知晓程度究竟怎样,一直是个不能说清楚的问题。我们通过问卷调查,得出了对于每个词不同认知层级的人数比例的准确数据。借此可以看出汉俄语言接触的深度和各个词的活跃程度。这在汉俄语言接触研究中尚属首次。
The presented dissertation consists of an introduction, five chapters and a conclusion. The introduction discusses theory of language contact, outlines the studies on language contact and the Chinese-Russian language contact in particular. If two or more languages happen to have some kind of relations, in the process of which there is a certain influence on two or more languages, such a phenomenon is called "language contact". The language contact is mainly influenced by social factors and interaction between nations. The language contact is a complicated process. The language contact that occurs between people who speak different languages can be divided into different types according to different criteria. For instance,1) active vs. passive contact,2) natural vs. unnatural contact,3) oral vs. written contact,4) direct vs. indirect contact,5) language contact between related vs. unrelated languages. Language contacts result in the appearance of borrowed vocabulary (loan words), mixed languages and bilingualism. The chapter determines the type of the Chinese-Russian language contact and objectives of the research, describes the sources of language materials, the methods of the research, its novelty and value.
The first chapter mainly introduces the history and the present situation of the relationship between China and Russia. The interaction of the countries forms the basis of the Chinese-Russian language contact. China and Russia (including the Soviet Union) have a long history of the interaction. Two countries are neighbors. The communication between the countries covers economic, military, cultural, political and other spheres of the everyday life. The period of close and active interaction between China and Russia highlights the obviousness of the progress of the Chinese-Russian language contact. However, the period of deteriorating relations drastically reduces the intensity of the language contact existing between China and Russia.
The trade between China and Russia contributed to the development of frequent interactions between the countries. In the process of exchanging goods people learned from each other, received knowledge about some new realia. The country, which imported this knowledge, gained information on some new goods. At the same time a new word identifying this new type of goods appeared in the recipient language. For instance, such words were "pearl" and "tea", both borrowed from the Chinese language. A massive immigration of Russian people to China began with the start of the Eastern railroad's construction at the end of the19th century. During the period of Chinese-Russian friendship many Chinese went to the Soviet Union to study. Contemporarily the cultural sphere of interaction between the countries features such events as the Chinese-Russian "national years", the Chinese-Russian "language years", the Chinese-Russian "years of tourism". The specificity of relationship between the countries in different periods reveals social factors influencing the Chinese-Russian language contact.
We assume that the phonetic level was free from influence in the Chinese-Russian language contact. Therefore we focus our main attention on the grammar and vocabulary.
In the second chapter we discuss the Russian vocabulary of the Chinese origin. The ascertainment of Russian lexical units of the Chinese origin is one of the key points of the presented research, as well as one of its difficulties. The analysis of the results of a wide range survey revealed52Russian words of the Chinese origin. The phonetic, morphologic, grammar analysis of the each word was carried out. While analyzing the lexical units, we payed attention to the morphology of the word. We observed whether the morphology of a word of the isolating language changes when it is borrowed by the inflexional language. This can be seen from the interference of the Chinese vocabulary into the Russian language. Afterwards the categorization of the given vocabulary was completed. Apart from that, the chapter contains results of the survey, showing the awareness of the Russian people that the given Russian words are of Chinese origin.
The third chapter dwells upon the Chinese words of the Russian origin. The amount of the Chinese words of the Russian origin is much bigger than the amount of the Russian words of the Chinese origin. In the first part the taxonomic method of the analysis was implemented. The borrowed vocabulary was classified into phonemic loans, semantic loans, marked phonemic loans, marked semantic loans, caiques and hybrid words. The Chinese words of the Russian origin belong to different levels of culture:the upper level and the bottom level. We also conducted an analysis concerning the levels of culture. The categories of the social spheres include:political, economic, military, art, culture and educational spheres, life sphere, science and technology sphere. The taxonomy displays that the impact on these spheres has been different.
The second part of this chapter discusses the Chinesation of words of the Russian origin. The language contact continually develops and does not keep its original condition. Words of the Russian origin after entering the Chinese language experience certain grammatical, phonetic, semantic, grammatological and other changes. The influence of the Chinese language gradually causes the Chinesation of the vocabulary. The means of the Chinesation include:the change of a tone stress, swallowing of words ends, consonant changes, change of morphemes, omission of morphemes and changes in the meaning of a word.
The forth chapter describes another outcome of the Chinese-Russian language contact-"Chinese-Russian mixed languages". The chapter includes the analysis of three Chinese-Russian mixed languages, they are:Kyahta mixed language, Harbin Russian pidgin and the slang of Russian students in China. Kyahta mixed language is a Chinese-Russian mixed language used by merchants on the Chinese-Russian border. In the beginning Kyahta mixed language had a structure, dictionaries, teaching materials. Both sides regarded the dictionaries and teaching materials as an example. The fall of Kyahta trade and the start of the Chinese Eastern railroad construction resulted in the spread of Kyahta mixed language. This development enriched the language. The structure of the language became weak and many variants appeared. Many dialect words entered this mixed language. There are few researchers of Kyahta mixed language. There is a lack of homogeneity in the materials of Kyahta language. At present Kyahta mixed language almost became extinct.
In the last century Harbin "Russian pidgin" was spread from mouth to mouth among the citizens of Harbin. This "Russian like pidgin" only has an oral form. The written form only includes some shops signs (on displays of shops) and advertisement. The usage of the "Russian pidgin" includes:street trade, service providing, casual conversations. The type of interaction is informal. The word order in the "Russian pidgin" corresponds to the rules of the Chinese language. Speaking about the vocabulary of the "Russian pidgin", it contains words of the Russian origin, but there are words of the Chinese origin as well. The analysis of the "Russian pidgin's" vocabulary also includes a questionnaire survey's analysis.
The third part of this chapter describes the Chinese-Russian slang of the Russians who live in China. This slang was found out by us in the circle of foreign students in China. This Chinese-Russian slang is used by the Russian people who live and study in China. The main vocabulary of this slang is Chinese, but the pronunciation and grammar rules are of the Russian language. The ordinary Russian morphology is applied.
The fifth chapter describes the influence of the Russian language on the Chinese grammar. The50s of the20th century is the flourishing time of the Chinese-Russian relationship. In the spheres of politics, economy, culture, science and technology China learnt from Russia. The impact is substantial. The readers of many political books were under the influence of the translation from the Russian language, which caused the lengthening of the Chinese sentences. As a result long sentences in the Chinese language became a common event. By analyzing the works of Lenin, Stalin and other writers, we traced the Russian origins of some Chinese grammar constructions. In that period the Chinese language borrowed the following grammar cliche:“如果……那么……”("if...then..."),“最……之一”("one of the best.."),“如此……以至……”("that way... that.."). The influence of the Russian language resulted into the development and the usage of some Chinese grammar structures. The impact of the Russian language on the Chinese morphology is obvious. These morphemes include one-syllable and multi-syllable morphemes. Monosyllabic morphemes include the "苏" and'‘布”.In addition to words, the Chinese language also contains a number of Russian affixes, such as:“-主义”,“-主义者”,“-性”,“-化”,“-派”,“-分子”.Prefixes include the following:“非-”,“半-”,“反-”
References of the presented paper contain a number of Chinese, Russian and English books. There are three applications to the thesis. The application one has a list of the Russian words of the Chinese origin. Each word has a2language definitions. The application two has a list of the Chinese words of the Russian origin. The application three contains the materials of The Chinese-Russian mixed language and a list of words of the Chinese-Russian slang of foreign students. This list contains definitions of the words and examples of their usage.
The thesis's novelty contribution is in:
1. The structure of the thesis and its ideas are double sided. In other words, it reflects the influence of the Russian language on the Chinese language and the influence of the Chinese language on the Russian language. The research avoided limitedness and narrowness of the one-side analysis. As there are comparatively a number of the results of the Russian language's influence on the Chinese language, the presented thesis is analyzing the most important of them. Besides the paper bridges the gap concerning the influence of the Chinese language on the Russian language.
2. The study of the old language materials and the new ones. A substantial part of the Russian words of the Russian origin and the vocabulary of the mixed languages are becoming or already became extinct. The presented thesis is arranging all the materials of the research and the results of the surveys, restoring the original appearance. Besides, the Chinese-Russian slang in the circles of foreign students was examined. Such materials significantly differ from the similar studies.
3. The awareness survey. The level of the acknowledgement of the Chinese words of the Russian origin and the vocabulary of the Chinese-Russian pidgin among the local people is a not easy-to-answer question. Through the questionnaire survey, we obtained the accurate data of different cognitive levels for each word. On this basis the activity level of each word and the depth of the Chinese-Russian language contact can be seen. In this respect this paper is the first research among similar works.
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