大屠杀记忆和美国外交
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摘要
基于记忆的观念和情感,影响相关群体界定自身身份和利益,塑造社会政治行为的意愿,并为社会政治运动提供意义架构和动员的工具。因此,集体记忆在政治中存在战略性价值。在全球化和民主化的时代,集体记忆以话语政治的形式广泛渗入软权力的争夺之中。政治家和活动家也经常对集体记忆加以利用甚至滥用,以推进其自身的社会政治议程。
20世纪60年代开始在美国兴起的大屠杀记忆,以一种“忆恶(纳粹主义)颂善(美国信条)”的方式,成为宣扬美国优越论的重要工具,也成为美国犹太人以及更广泛的美国社会塑造和表达美国认同的重要途径。一方面,它塑造了一种关于犹太民族遭受“史无前例的”独特劫难的霸权性话语,并赋予其历史上最大受难者的角色。此种历史受难感,使美国犹太人的犹太民族认同极大增强,并形成一种以群体生存为内核的“公民犹太教”。另一方面,它界定了美国不同群体在大屠杀中的历史责任和权利：基督教因其历史上的“轻蔑教导”以及现实中大量基督徒在大屠杀中的协从,而须部分承担大屠杀的连带罪责；美国政府在犹太人遭受劫难时冷漠旁观,因此成为道义上须受谴责的“冷漠旁观者”。
大屠杀及其留下的记忆,从根本上改变了犹太人和基督徒之间道义资本的分配,以及互动交往的方式。美国主流社会对犹太人充满愧疚和同情,决心与过去决裂而改过自新,他们对犹太人已经多少丧失了道义批判的勇气,而且在很大程度上产生了补偿意愿。而力量已经变得强大的犹太人,则因为悲情记忆而充满恐惧,愤懑不平,并要求为历史上的冤屈获得补偿,而且时刻准备对来自任何地方的危险做出非常强烈且决绝的反应。由此,大屠杀记忆在美国造就了一个强大、内聚、富有战斗精神的亲以色列政治势力,而且还获得了许多基督徒的同情和支持。另外,大屠杀记忆还为亲以势力提供了意义架构和动员的象征及工具,提供了用以压制对以批判的强大舆论武器：“反犹主义”标签。
大屠杀记忆,还因其善恶分明的特性,成为推动20世纪末期以来美国积极卷入人权外交,尤其反对“种族灭绝”的意义架构和动员工具。从90年代“人道主义干预”理念和实践的不断发展,再到21世纪初反种族灭绝倡议网络和草根运动在美国的初步形成,大屠杀记忆成为美国重新改造世界秩序和国际规范以实现“美国治下的和平”的重要动力之一。
Those norms and emotions based on memories help groups to define their own identities and interests, to shape their will to participate in social-political movements, and to provide them instruments of framing and mobilization. Therefore, collective memories could have strategic values in politics. In a world of globalization and democratization, they could be involved in the contests of soft power. Moreover, politicians and activists frequently use and even abuse them to advance their agendas.
In terms of memorizing the evil of the Nazi and magnifying the superiority of American creed, Holocaust memory, which arisen in American culture since the 1960s, has become an important propaganda instrument to express America's self-superiority, and also an important way to shape and express their American identity for the Jews in American and even more general American society. On the one hand, the Holocaust memory helps to construct the hegemonic rhetoric that Jewish people suffered'unprecedented'and'particular'tragedy, and to concede them the most suffered in the human history. It is this feeling of ever suffering that made American Jews greatly strengthen their Jewish identity and build a new kind of "Civil Judaism" with collective survival as its core creed. On the other hand, the Holocaust memory makes clear different historical responsibilities and rights of different groups in the Holocaust:Christians should assume some of the related guilt and responsibility because of the "the teaching of contempt" to Jewish people in the long history and many of its members'collaboration (with Nazi) in the Holocaust; American government should be morally accused as "indifferent bystander" because of its indifference during the suffering of Jewish people.
The Holocaust and its memory has fundamentally changed the way of mutual intercourse and the distribution of moral capital between Christians and Jews. Mainstream society of America have been filled with so much regret and empathy to Jewish people that they have decided to break from the past and start with a clean slate, that they have lost certain moral courage to criticize Jews. While Jewish people, who now have become more powerful, are calling for compensation for the historical injustice, fear and resent in their mind, and prepared to react fiercely and decidedly to dangers from anywhere. Thus, the Holocaust memory helps to construct powerful, cohesive pro-Israeli political interest groups in U.S., which have also gained empathy and support from many Christians. The Holocaust memory has provided pro-Israeli groups not only the instruments and symbols of framing and mobilization, but also a powerful rhetorical weapon to protect Israel from criticizing, that is, the label of 'anti-semitism'.
For its character of clear division between good and evil, the Holocaust memory has become an instrument of framing and mobilization for America to promote human rights diplomacy, especially anti-genocide, since the end of 20th century. From the evolvement of the norms and practice of'humanitarian intervention'during 1990s, to emergence of anti-genocide advocacy network and grass-roots movement at the beginning of 21st century, the Holocaust memory has been one of the most important impetuses for America to reshape the world order and international norms.
20世纪60年代开始在美国兴起的大屠杀记忆,以一种“忆恶(纳粹主义)颂善(美国信条)”的方式,成为宣扬美国优越论的重要工具,也成为美国犹太人以及更广泛的美国社会塑造和表达美国认同的重要途径。一方面,它塑造了一种关于犹太民族遭受“史无前例的”独特劫难的霸权性话语,并赋予其历史上最大受难者的角色。此种历史受难感,使美国犹太人的犹太民族认同极大增强,并形成一种以群体生存为内核的“公民犹太教”。另一方面,它界定了美国不同群体在大屠杀中的历史责任和权利：基督教因其历史上的“轻蔑教导”以及现实中大量基督徒在大屠杀中的协从,而须部分承担大屠杀的连带罪责；美国政府在犹太人遭受劫难时冷漠旁观,因此成为道义上须受谴责的“冷漠旁观者”。
大屠杀及其留下的记忆,从根本上改变了犹太人和基督徒之间道义资本的分配,以及互动交往的方式。美国主流社会对犹太人充满愧疚和同情,决心与过去决裂而改过自新,他们对犹太人已经多少丧失了道义批判的勇气,而且在很大程度上产生了补偿意愿。而力量已经变得强大的犹太人,则因为悲情记忆而充满恐惧,愤懑不平,并要求为历史上的冤屈获得补偿,而且时刻准备对来自任何地方的危险做出非常强烈且决绝的反应。由此,大屠杀记忆在美国造就了一个强大、内聚、富有战斗精神的亲以色列政治势力,而且还获得了许多基督徒的同情和支持。另外,大屠杀记忆还为亲以势力提供了意义架构和动员的象征及工具,提供了用以压制对以批判的强大舆论武器：“反犹主义”标签。
大屠杀记忆,还因其善恶分明的特性,成为推动20世纪末期以来美国积极卷入人权外交,尤其反对“种族灭绝”的意义架构和动员工具。从90年代“人道主义干预”理念和实践的不断发展,再到21世纪初反种族灭绝倡议网络和草根运动在美国的初步形成,大屠杀记忆成为美国重新改造世界秩序和国际规范以实现“美国治下的和平”的重要动力之一。
Those norms and emotions based on memories help groups to define their own identities and interests, to shape their will to participate in social-political movements, and to provide them instruments of framing and mobilization. Therefore, collective memories could have strategic values in politics. In a world of globalization and democratization, they could be involved in the contests of soft power. Moreover, politicians and activists frequently use and even abuse them to advance their agendas.
In terms of memorizing the evil of the Nazi and magnifying the superiority of American creed, Holocaust memory, which arisen in American culture since the 1960s, has become an important propaganda instrument to express America's self-superiority, and also an important way to shape and express their American identity for the Jews in American and even more general American society. On the one hand, the Holocaust memory helps to construct the hegemonic rhetoric that Jewish people suffered'unprecedented'and'particular'tragedy, and to concede them the most suffered in the human history. It is this feeling of ever suffering that made American Jews greatly strengthen their Jewish identity and build a new kind of "Civil Judaism" with collective survival as its core creed. On the other hand, the Holocaust memory makes clear different historical responsibilities and rights of different groups in the Holocaust:Christians should assume some of the related guilt and responsibility because of the "the teaching of contempt" to Jewish people in the long history and many of its members'collaboration (with Nazi) in the Holocaust; American government should be morally accused as "indifferent bystander" because of its indifference during the suffering of Jewish people.
The Holocaust and its memory has fundamentally changed the way of mutual intercourse and the distribution of moral capital between Christians and Jews. Mainstream society of America have been filled with so much regret and empathy to Jewish people that they have decided to break from the past and start with a clean slate, that they have lost certain moral courage to criticize Jews. While Jewish people, who now have become more powerful, are calling for compensation for the historical injustice, fear and resent in their mind, and prepared to react fiercely and decidedly to dangers from anywhere. Thus, the Holocaust memory helps to construct powerful, cohesive pro-Israeli political interest groups in U.S., which have also gained empathy and support from many Christians. The Holocaust memory has provided pro-Israeli groups not only the instruments and symbols of framing and mobilization, but also a powerful rhetorical weapon to protect Israel from criticizing, that is, the label of 'anti-semitism'.
For its character of clear division between good and evil, the Holocaust memory has become an instrument of framing and mobilization for America to promote human rights diplomacy, especially anti-genocide, since the end of 20th century. From the evolvement of the norms and practice of'humanitarian intervention'during 1990s, to emergence of anti-genocide advocacy network and grass-roots movement at the beginning of 21st century, the Holocaust memory has been one of the most important impetuses for America to reshape the world order and international norms.
引文
1 纳粹大屠杀主要指二战期间纳粹德国对欧洲犹太人以及其他群体的集体迫害和灭绝,英文中专用名词为"Holocaust",另一个为来自希伯来语的专用名词“Shoah"为行文便利,下文中若无特指,就以“大屠杀”指称“纳粹大屠杀”
2See William L. Shulman(edit). Association of Holocaust Organizations 2009 Directory[Ml.Houston:Holocaust Museum Houston 2009
3 "List of Holocaust films", http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List of Holocaust films上网时间为2010年6月13日。
4 1945年1月27日,苏联红军解放了奥斯威辛集中营,国际大屠杀纪念日即以这一日期确定为每年的1月27日。
5 到2004年,至少有20个州有关于大屠杀教育的立法,有26个州设立了大屠杀学术的标准。参见,Yair Auron. The Pain of Knowledge:Holocaust and Genocide Issues in Education[M].London:Transaction Publishers,2005:pp.111-112.
6 乔纳森·D.萨纳,胡浩译.美国犹太教史[M].郑州：大象出版社,2009：285
(?)See Association of Holocaust Organization,2009 Directory.
Yair Auron. The Pain of Knowledge:Holocaust and Genocide Issues in Education [M], London Transaction Publishers,2005:110.
Yair Auron. The Pain of Knowledge:Holocaust and Genocide Issues in EducationfMJ. London Transaction Publishers.2005:115.
10 Peter Novick. The Holocaust in American Life[M]. Boston and New York:A Mariner Book, 1999:63.
11Helene Flanzbaum(edit.). The Americanization of the Holocaust[M], Baltimore:The Johns Hopkins University Press,1999:9.
12 代表性著作有,David S. Wyman. The Abandonment of The Jews:America and the Holocaust, 1941-1945[M]. New York:1985; David S. Wyman(ed.), American and the Holocaust, Vol.13: Responsibility for America's Failure[M].New York:1991; W. D. Rubinstein. The Myth of Rescue:why the democracies could not have saved more Jews from the Nazis[M]. New York: 1997; Richard Breitman and Alan M. Kraut. American Refugee Policy and European Jewry, 1933-1945[M.].Bloomington, Ind.:1987; Martin Gilbert. Auschwitz and the Allies[M].New York:1981.
13 Rafael Medoff. The Deafening Silence:American Jewish Leaders and the Holocaust[M].New York:1987; Haskel Lookstein. Were We Our Brothers'Keepers? The Public Response of American Jews to the Holocaust,1938-1944[M]. New York:1985; David S. Wyman, American and the Holocaust, Vol.5:American Jewish Disunity[M]. New York:1990; Aaron Berman. Nazism, the Jews and American Zionism:1933-1948[M].Detroit:1990; David H. Shpiro. From Philanthropy to Activism:the Political Transformation of American Zionism in the Holocaust Years,1933-1945[M]. New York:Pergamon Press,1994; Jerold S. Auerbach. Are We One? Jewish Identity in the United States and Israel[M].New Jercey:Rutgers University Press,2001.
"* Deborah Lipstadt. Beyond Belief:The American Press and the Coming of the Holocaust, 1933-1945[M].New York:1986; Hertzel Fishman. American Protestantism and A Jewish State[M].Detroit:1973; Edwin Black. IBM and the Holocaust:the Strategic Alliance between Nazi Germany and America's Most Powerful Corporation[M]. New York:Three Rivers Press,2002.
15 参见,Leonard Dinnerstein. America and the Survivors of the Holocaust[M]. New York:1982; Haim Genizi. America's Fair Share:the Admission and the Resettlement of Displaced Persons, 1945-1952[M].Detroit:1993; William B. Helmreich. Against All Odds:Holocaust Survivors and the Successful Lives They Made in America[M].New York:1992.
b Peter Novick. The Holocaust in American Life[M].Boston and New York:A Mariner Book, 1999.
17 Melvin I. Urofskv. We Are One:American Jewrv and Israel[M].New York:Anchor Press,1978.
18 Michael Berenbaum. After Tragedy and Triumph:Essays in Modern Jewish Thought and the American Experience[M].New York:Cambridge University Press,1990.
19 在这方面,相关著作主要有William Shawcross. The Quality of Mercy:Cambodia, Holocaust and Modern Conscience[M].New York:1984; Samantha Power. "A Problem From Hell": American and the Age of Genocide[M]. New York:Harper Perennial,2003; Fred A. Lazin. The Struggle for Soviet Jewry in American Politics:Israel Versus the American Jewish Establishment[M]. New York:Lexington Books,2005; Allen D. Hertzke. Freeing Gods Children:The Unlikely Alliance for Global Human Rights[M].Maryland:Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc.,2004.
20 Norman G. Finkelstein. The Holocaust Industry:Reflection on the Exploitation of Jewish Suffering[M].New York:2000.
"'Norman G. Finkelstein. Beyond Chutzpah:on the Misuse of Anti-Semitism and the Abuse of History[M]. Los Angeles:University of California Press,2008.
Alan S. Rosenbaum. Is the Holocaust Unique?[M]. Boulder:Westview Press,2009.
吉米斯·杨对西方许多国家大屠杀纪念场馆、纪念日活动进行了研究,阐释了不同场馆的不同艺术风格及其表达的社会政治话语(参见James E. Young. The Texture of Memory: Holocaust Memorials and Meaning[M]. New Haven:Yale University Press,1993。塞德尔则细致地剖析了纽约大屠杀纪念馆从其酝酿、推进、建成过程中的社会政治背景,及其与美国其他主要纪念馆的差异。(参见Rochelle G. Saidel. Never Too Late To Remember:The Politics Behind New York City's Holocaust Museum[M]. New York:Holmes & Meier Publishers,1996；另外,温伯格和艾丽丽,以及利林塔尔等,都对华盛顿的美国大屠杀纪念馆的酝酿和建成过程中的种种错综复杂的斗争进行了深入阐述(参见,Jeshajahu Weinerg & Rina Elieli. The Holocaust Museum in Washington[M]. New York:1995; Edward T. Linenthal. Preserving Memorv:the Struggle to Create America's Holocaust Museum[M]. New York: 1995;.
Jeffrey Shandler. While America Watches:Televising the Holocaust[M].New York:Oxford University Press,1999.
Alan Mintz. Popular Culture and the Shaping of Holocaust Memory in America[M]. Seattle and London:University of Washington Press,2001.
Yair Auron. Holocaust and Genocide Issue in Education:the Pain of Knowledge[M].New Brunswick& London:Transaction Publishers.2005.
27 参见,陈恒、耿相新.大屠杀：历史与记忆[M].郑州：大象出版社,2007：79-80.
28 潘光、金应忠(编著).1990以色列·犹太学研究[C].上海：上海社会科学院出版社,1991；唐培吉.上海犹太人[M].上海：上海三联书店,1992。
29 潘光、王健.一个半世纪以来的上海犹太人：犹太民族史上的东方一页[M].北京：社会科学文献出版社,2002；王健.上海犹太社会生活史[M].上海：上海辞书出版社,2008；潘光、王健.犹太人与中国：近代以来两个古老文明的交往和友谊[M].北京：时事出版社,2010；潘光(主编).犹太人忆上海(回忆录)[C].上海：上海市政协文史资料编辑部,1995；潘光等.犹太人在上海[M].上海：上海画报出版社,1995(2005年再版)：潘光.犹太人在中国[M].北京：五洲传播出版社,2001(2005年再版)。
30 张倩红.欧洲犹太人的毁灭[J].世界史研究动态,1991(8)
31 徐新.反犹主义解析[M].上海：上海三联书店,1996.32 朱坚劲.600万犹太人魂断欧罗巴——第二次世界大战中纳粹屠杀犹太人纪实[M].上海：上海人民出版社,1995；杨曼苏.犹太大劫难——大屠杀纪实[M].北京：中国社会科学出版社,1995。
33 潘光、余建华、王健.犹太民族复兴之路[M].上海：上海社会科学院出版社,1998。
34 主要论文有：潘光.试论纳粹大屠杀及其对犹太民族和文明的影响[J].世界历史,2000(2)；张倩红.略论大屠杀对犹太人社会心理的影响[J].中东研究,2000(3)；时春荣.大屠杀’对以色列犹太人的影响[J].西亚非洲,2003(2)；张倩红.后大屠杀时代：大屠杀的社会后果分析[J].史学月刊,2005(9)；周桂银.奥斯维辛、战争责任和国际关系伦理[J].世界历史,2005(9)。这一时期还有一些对重要的大屠杀著作(如《现代性与大屠杀》、《艾希曼在耶路撒冷》等)进行评论的文章也相继发表。
35 徐新.论犹太人铭记大屠杀的方式[J].南京社会科学,2006(10)。
36 罗衡林.通向死亡之路：纳粹统治时期德意志犹太人的生存状况[M].北京：人民出版社,2006。
37 陈恒、耿相新.纳粹屠犹：历史与记忆[M].郑州：大象出版社,2007.
38 徐贲.人以什么理由来记忆[M].长春：吉林出版集团有限责任公司,2008。
39 潘光、汪舒明、盛文沁(主编).纳粹大屠杀的政治和文化影响[M].北京：时事出版社,2009。
40 李工真.文化的流亡：纳粹时代欧洲知识难民研究[M].北京：人民出版社,2010.
41 钟志清的主要作品有：当代以色列作家研究[M].北京：人民文学出版社,2006年；身份与记忆：论希伯来语大屠杀文学中的英雄主义[J].外国文学评论,2008：4;希伯来语大屠杀文学与大屠杀幸存者作家[J].四川师范大学学报,2008：4;“艾赫曼审判”与以色列人的大屠杀记忆[J].中国图书评论,2006：4;艾赫曼审判后以色列大屠杀叙事文学[J].犹太研究,2004：3。
42 王炎.奥斯威辛之后：犹太大屠杀记忆的影像生产[M].北京：生活·读书·新知三联书店,2007。
43 赵杰.论美国政府对纳粹暴政下欧洲犹太难民的政策『J].南都学刊,1996(5)。
44 徐崇亮.论美国犹太‘大屠杀后意识’小说[J].当代外国文学,1996(3)；张群.永远无法弥合的伤痕——美国犹太文学中的大屠杀小说刍议[J].东华大学学报,2002(4)。
45 汪舒明.纳粹大屠杀、美国犹太人和人权外交[J].社会科学,2009(11)。
46 汪舒明.大屠杀与犹太民族的现实主义转向[J].世界民族,2010(2)。
47 这样的历史案例屡见不鲜：在15世纪的伊比利亚半岛,犹太人在社会政治中的影响力极大。1492年,西班牙从整体上对犹太人实行了广泛的驱逐和迫害。犹太人必须在改宗基督教和受到残酷的宗教迫害之间作出选择。许多人为此逃离伊比利亚半岛,而改宗者则仍被基督徒视为伪信徒,被蔑称为“马兰诺”(即“猪猡”)。犹太人在苏联建国初期也曾经对苏联社会政治拥有强大的影响力,但后来也遭受了反犹主义。当然,最典型的例子就是犹太人在德国的命运。
这种悔罪潮流在西方尤其明显,如美国就其历史上对黑人、华工、口裔等少数族裔群体的不公正待遇进行道歉,澳大利亚等国为其历史上对土著人的罪行进行道歉,基督教(尤其德国)为长期以来的反犹主义和纳粹大屠杀进行道歉和悔罪,南非白人为历史上的种族隔离悔罪等。在亚洲,日本也曾为其对亚洲人民的侵略而道歉。
日本对待其侵略历史的态度经常在改国与东亚邻国之间引发外交和政治纠纷；土耳其在亚美尼亚人大屠杀问题的立场也成为土、亚两国改善关系的严重障碍,还经常影响与北约盟国的关系；南非的种族隔离后遗症迄今远未解决；俄罗斯多次参与瓜分波兰并在二战期间制造“卡廷惨案”,也成为俄波关系中重要障碍；中国国民党60年前在台湾制造的“二·二八事件”,至今仍是台湾社会内部的深刻裂痕,极易被政客利用炒作,诸如此类的例子大量存在,不一而足。
Duncan Bell. Introduction[A]. in Duncan Bell(ed.). Memory, Trauma and World Politics: Reflections on the Relationship between Past and Present[M]. New York:Palgrave Macmillan, 2006:1.
Jay Winter. Notes on the Memory Boom:War, Remembrance and the Uses of Past[A]. in Duncan Bell(ed.). Memory, Trauma and World Politics:Reflections on the Relationship between Past and Present[M]. New York:Palgrave Macmillan,2006:72.
莫里斯·哈布瓦赫,毕然、郭金华译.论集体记忆[M].上海：上海人民出版社,2003：289。
Howard Schuman& Jacqueline Scott. Generations and Collective Memories[J]. American Sociological Review, Vol.54, No.3(June,1989):359-381.
Jeffrey K. Olick. Collective Memory:The Two Cultures[J]. Sociological Theory, Vol.17, No.3 (Nov.1999):333-348.
8 Avishai Margalit. The Ethics of Memory[M]. Cambridge, Mass.:Harvard University Press, 2004:51-52.
王明珂.历史事实、历史记忆与历史心性[J].历史研究,2001(5)。
10 Aleida Assmann. Transformations between History and Memory[J]. Social Research, Vol.75, No.1 (Spring 2008):56.11 研究记忆史的法国历史学家们将历史与记忆的不同特征概括为：记忆鲜活、生动、主观、具体、情感化、跳跃性、不连贯；而历史显得客观、理性、求真、抽象、评判,强调复现过去时的连续性和完整性。参见：沈坚.记忆与历史的博弈：法国记忆史的建构[J].中国社会科学,2010(3)：205-219。
12 Avishai Margalit. The Ethics of Memory[M]. Cambridge, Mass.:Harvard University Press, 2004:67.
13 Rebert F. Berkhofer,邢立军译.超越伟大故事：作为文本和话语的历史[M].北京：北京师范大学出版社,2008：329。
14 Jeffrey Blustein. The Moral Demands of Memory [M]. New York:Cambridge University Press, 2008:191-192.
15 Jeffrey Blustein. The Moral Demands of Memory[M]. New York:Cambridge University Press, 2008:178.
16 See James V. Wertsch. Collective Memory and Narrative Templates[J]. Social Research, Vol.75, No.1(Spring 2008):145 & 147.
Jeffrey Blustein. The Moral Demands of Memory[M]. New York:Cambridge University Press, 2008:200.
18 Duncan Bell(ed.). Memory, Trauma and World Politics:Reflections on the Relationship between Past and Present[M]. New York:Palgrave Macmillan,2006:181.
19 Michael G. Kenny. A Place for Memory:the Interface between Individual and Collective History[J]. Comparative Studies in Society and History, Vol.41, No.3(July,1999):420-437. 20Jeffrey Blustein. The Moral Demands of Memory[M]. New York:Cambridge University Press, 2008:202.
21 莫里斯·哈布瓦赫.论集体记忆[M].上海：上海人民出版社,2003：335。集体记忆甚至可以通过多种多样的艺术形式塑造和表达,许许多多以历史为题材的影视、戏剧节目,都可以发挥这种作用。
22 以文学形式塑造形象和记忆的一个典型就是,西方通过《1984》和《古拉格群岛》这两部拥有广泛读者的小说,以夸张和戏剧化的方式,在西方社会塑造了关于苏联共产主义的令人恐惧的意识形态“他者”形象和记忆。
23 Gay Becker, Yewoubdar Beyene, Pauline Ken. Memory, Trauma, and Embodied Distress:the Management of Disruption in the Stories of Cambodians in Exile[J]. Ethos, Vol.28, No.3(Sep. 2000):320-345.
24 莫里斯·哈布瓦赫.论集体记忆[M].上海：上海人民出版社,2003：73。
Duncan Bell(ed.). Memory, Trauma and World Politics:Reflections on the Relationship between Past and Present[M]. New York:Palgrave Macmillan12006:120.
26 莫里斯·哈布瓦赫.论集体记忆[M].上海：上海人民出版社,2003：407。
莫里斯·哈布瓦赫.论集体记忆[M].上海：上海人民出版社,2003：47。
28 关于相关论述,可以参见：罗伯特·杰维斯,秦亚青译.国际政治中的知觉与错误知觉[M].北京：世界知识出版社,2003：246-270;还可参见,Howard Schuman& Jacqueline Scott. Generations and Collective Memories[J]. American Sociological Review, Vol.54, No.3(June, 1989):359-381.
Richard A. Melanson. Reconstructing Consensus:American Foreign Policy since the Vietnam WarfM]. New York:St. Martin's Press,1991:27-28.
30 许多社会学家和心理学家对负罪感和羞愧感这两种人类社会存在的强烈情感做了区分,一般而言,负罪感乃是因为自身行为对他者产生了危害,但又无法找到被自己或他人认可的正当性或合法性；而愧疚感则由于作了某种不光彩的行为,或在某种情势下表现得软弱无力,而自觉声誉、形象受损。
Jeffrey Blustein. The Moral Demands of Memory[M]. New York:Cambridge University Press, 2008:153.
32 See, Duncan Bell(ed.). Memory, Trauma and World Politics:Reflections on the Relationship between Past and Present[M]. New York:Palgrave Macmillan,2006:123-125; see also, W. James Booth. Communities of Memory. On Identity, Memory and Debt[J]. American Political Science Review, Vol.93, No.2(June,1999):249-263.
33 阿伦·哈斯,梁骏、李丽娜、车锐敏译.大屠杀后遗症[M],北京：北京出版社,2000：2。
34 Howard Schuman & Cheryl Rieger. Historical Analogies, Generational Effects, and Attitudes Toward War[J], American Sociological Review, Vol.57, No.3(Jun.,1992):315-326.
35 莫里斯·哈布瓦赫.论集体记忆[M].上海：上海人民出版社,2003：45,58-59。
36 E.H.卡尔, 陈恒译.历史是什么?[M]北京：商务印书馆,2007：175。
37 Rebert F. Berkhofer.超越伟大故事：作为文本和话语的历史[M].北京：北京师范大学出版社,2008：332。
38 关于身份的此类表述,可参见,阿尔弗雷德·格罗塞,王鲲译.身份认同的困境[M],北京：社会科学文献出版社,2010：3;塞缪尔·亨廷顿,程克雄译.我们是谁?美国国家特性面临的挑战[M].北京：新华出版社,2005：20,23。
39 关于身份形成过程中内在—外在互动的论述,可参见,塞缪尔·亨廷顿.我们是谁?美国国家特性面临的挑战[M].北京：新华出版社,2005：21-22；亚历山大·温特,秦亚青译.国际政治的社会理论[M].上海：上海人民出版社,2004：282。
40 亚历山大·温特.国际政治的社会理论[M].上海：上海人民出版社,2004：287-288。
41 塞缪尔·亨廷顿.我们是谁?美国国家特性面临的挑战[M].北京：新华出版社,2005：23。
42 亨廷顿提出了以下几种身份来源：归属、文化、疆域、政治、经济和社会等,塞缪尔·亨廷顿.我们是谁?美国国家特性面临的挑战[M].北京：新华出版社,2005：24-25。
43 亚历山大·温特.国际政治的社会理论[M].上海：上海人民出版社,2004：289。
44 本尼迪克特·安德森,吴叡人译.想象的共同体：民族主义的起源与散布[M].上海：上海世纪出版集团,2008：6。
45 吴叡人.认同的重量[A],参见本尼迪克特·安德森译.想象的共同体：民族主义的起源与散布[M].上海：上海世纪出版集团,2008,导读：17。
46 王立新.美国国家认同的形成及其对美国外交的影响[J].历史研究,2003(4)。
47 Idith Zertal. Israel's Holocaust and the Politics of Nationhood[M].New York:Cambridge University Press,2005:2.
48 沈坚.记忆与历史的博弈：法国记忆史的建构[J].中国社会科学,2010(3)。
49 亚历山大·温特.国际政治的社会理论[M].上海：上海人民出版社,2004：205。
50 David Thelen. Memory and American History[J]. The Journal of American History, Vol.75, No.4(March,1989):1117-1129.
51 Duncan Bell(ed.). Memory, Trauma and World Politics:Reflections on the Relationship between Past and Present[M]. New York:Palgrave Macmillan,2006:37.
52James Booth. Communities of Memory:On Identity, Memory and Debt[J]. American Political Science Review, Vol.93, No.2(June,1999):258.
53 亚历山大·温特.国际政治的社会理论[M].上海：上海人民出版社,2004：205。
54 See James V. Wertsch. Collective Memory and Narrative Templates[J]. Social Research, Vol.75, No.1 (Spring 2008):133-155.
55 关于上述这三种事件对集体认同不同影响的概括,可参见,约恩·吕森.历史思考的新途径[M].上海：世纪出版集团,2005：159-160。
56 约恩·吕森.历史思考的新途径[M].上海：世纪出版集团,2005：94。
57 弗里德里希·尼采,陈涛、周辉荣译.历史的用途与滥用[M].上海：上海世纪出版集团,2007：22,25。
58 关于发生在一战期间的亚美尼亚惨案,欧美社会的主流将之定性为“种族灭绝”(Genocide),有好几个国家的议会还通过了关于亚美尼亚种族灭绝问题的议案。土耳其社会的主流承认那是一场“大屠杀(massacre)",但反对将之“升格”为类似于大屠杀(Holocaust)的“种族灭绝”。显然,是否承认亚美尼亚惨案为种族灭绝,已经成了欧洲是否接纳土耳其的软性标准之
59 Jeffrey Blustein. The Moral Demands of Memory[M]. New York:Cambridge University Press, 2008:163-164.
60 Jeffrey Blustein. The Moral Demands of MemoryfM]. New York:Cambridge University Press, 2008:145.
61 亚当·斯密,余涌译.道德情操论[M].北京：中国社会科学出版社,2003：90。
62 亚当·斯密,余涌译.道德情操论[M].北京：中国社会科学出版社,2003：91。
63 Nyla R. Branscombe(edt). Collective Guilt:International Perspectives[M]. New York: Cambridge University Press,2004:17.
64 Jenny Edikins. Trauma and the Memory of Politics[M]. New York:Cambridge University Press, 2003:114.
65 Paul Edward Gottfried. Multiculturalism and the Politics of Guilt:Toward a Secular Theocracy[M]. London:University of Missouri Press,2002:78.
66 John A. Updegraff, Roxane Cohen Silver and Alison Holman. Searching for and Finding Meaning in Collective Trauma:Results From a National Longitudinal Study of the 9/11 Terrorist Attacks[J]. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol.95, No.3(2008): 709-722.
67 Jeffrey Blustein. The Moral Demands of Memory[M]. New York:Cambridge University Press, 2008:148-170.
68 1940年,斯大林、贝利亚等苏共中央最高领导人命令苏军在卡廷森林秘密屠杀了2万多名被俘波兰军官以及其他波兰精英。直到苏联解体前夕,苏联一直宣称这一事件是纳粹 德国所为,而且拒绝解密相关档案。
69 王明珂.华夏边缘：历史记忆与族群认同[M].北京：社会科学文献出版社,2006：236,242-243。
70 Kimberly Gross and Lisa D'Ambrosio. Framing Emotional Response[J]. Political Psychology, Vol.25, No.1 (Feb.2004):1-29. 71 See Kristen Renwick Monroe. Morality and a Sense of Self:The Importance of Identity and Categorization for Moral Action[J]. American Journal of Political Science, Vol.45, No.3(July 2001):491-507.
72 See Hona E. de Hooge, Seger M. Breugelmans, and Marcel Zeelenberg. Not So Ugly After All: Shame Acts as a Commitment Device[J]. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol.95, No.4(2008):933-943. Also, Rupert Brown, Roberto Gonzalez, Hanna Zagefka, Jorge Manzi. Nuestra Culpa:Collective Guilt and Shame as Predictors of Reparation for Historical Wrongdoing[J]. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol.94, No.1(2008):75-90.
73 关于德国人对大屠杀以及犹太民族的看法,笔者曾在2008年至2010年间多次访谈在上海犹太研究中心从事大屠杀历史教研志愿服务工作的奥地利志愿者林马丁(Martin Warner)、劳伦斯和多米尼克等,他们向我生动地描绘了德国人因大屠杀而产生的深重的负罪感和愧疚感,以及对犹太民族的道义责任。
74 Emily M. Zitek, Alexander H. Jordan, Benoit Monin, and Frederick R. Leach. Victim Entitlement to Behave Selfishly[J]. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol.98, No.2(2010):245-255.
75 王小鲁.我触摸到属于他人的伤痕[N].经济观察报,2010,6(7)：47.
76 罗伯特·杰维斯.国际政治中的知觉与错误知觉[M].北京：世界知识出版社,2003：227。
77 David Patrick Houghton. Historical Analogies and the Cognitive Dimension of Domestic Policymaking[J]. Political Psychology, Vol.19, No.2(June 1998):279-303.
78 关于这两者的相似之处,可参见Mark Schlesinger & Richard R.Lau. The Meaning and Measure of Policy Metaphors[J]. The American Political Science Review, Vol.94, No.3(Sept. 2000):611-626; Keith L. Shimko. Metaphors and Foreign Policy Decision Making[J]. Political Psychology, Vol.15, No.4(Dec.1994):655-671.
79 参见张清敏、潘丽君.类比、认知与毛泽东的对外政策[J].世界经济与政治,2010(11)：54-72.
80 See Roland Paris. Kosovo and the Metaphor War[J]. Political Science Quarterly, Vol.117,No.3(2002)：.该文主要分析借喻在政治辩论中的作用,但笔者认为,在意义架构和政治动员中,借喻的作用和功能也适用于历史类比。
81 参见Mark Schlesinger & Richard R.Lau. The Meaning and Measure of Policy Metaphors[J]. The American Political Science Review, Vol.94, No.3(Sept.2000):611-626.
82 Howard Schuman & Cheryl Rieger. Historical Analogies, Generational Effects, and Attitudes Toward War.
83 Jeffrey Blustein. The Moral Demands of Memory [M]. New York:Cambridge University Press, 2008:203.
84 杰维斯对“历史禁锢想象”这种倾向做了深入分析。参见罗伯特·杰维斯.国际政治中的知觉与错误知觉[M].北京：世界知识出版社,2003：226-227。
85 W. James Booth. The Work of Memory:Time, Identity, and Justice[J]. Social Research, Vol.75, No.1 (Spring 2008):253,255.
86 弗里德里希·尼采.历史的用途与滥用[M].上海：上海世纪出版集团,2007：55。
1 诺曼·波德霍雷茨,美国新保守派重要元老,1960-1990年担任《评论》杂志主编,对美国新保守派产生巨大影响。
2 Norman Podhoretz. My Love Affair with America:the Cautionary Tale of a Cheerful ConservativefMl. New York:The Free Press,2000:234-235.
3 Kirsten Fermaglich. American Dreams and Nazi Nightmares:Early Holocaust Consciousness and Liberal America,1957-1965[M].Waltham:Brandeis University Press,2006:5.
4 See, Peter Novick. The Holocaust in American Life[M].Boston and New York:A Mariner Book, 1999:85.
5 经典的锡安主义(Zionism,又译作“犹太复国主义”)致力于使犹太人摆脱流散处境下的卑屈无助、受人厌憎的贱民地位,回归巴勒斯坦复兴犹太民族家园,并将“可怜的”“犹太人”重新塑造成自豪、健康、现代、开放、在自己土地上劳作、使用自己的语言的“希伯来人”,成为受人喜欢的“沙布拉(Sabra)"。
6 参见钟志清.身份与记忆：论希伯来语大屠杀文学中的英雄主义[A],载潘光、汪舒明、盛文沁主编.纳粹大屠杀的政治和文化影响[C].北京：时事出版社,2009：66-67。
7 Kirsten Fermaglich. American Dreams and Nazi Nightmares:Early Holocaust Consciousness and Liberal America,1957-1965[M].Waltham:Brandeis University Press,2006:14.
8 1953年和1954年,先后有Gerald Reitlinger所著的《最后解决》(The Final Solution)和
Leon Poliakov所著的《憎恨的恶果》(Harvest of Hate)两书引人美国,但只在很少的学者中获得了注意,关于这两部书的简要评论也寥寥无几。
9 Judith E. Doneson. The American History of Anne Frank's Diary[J]. Holocaust and Genocide Studies, Vol.2, No.1 (1987):149-160.
10 See Alan Mintz. Popular Culture and the Shaping of Holocaust Memory in America[M]. Seattle and London:University of Washington Press,2001:17-19. And, Judith E. Doneson. The American History of Anne Frank's Diary[J]; also, Alvin H. Rosenfeld. The Americanization of the Holocaust.[J]. Commentary, June 1995.
11 约翰·J.米尔斯海默、斯蒂芬·M.沃尔特,王传兴.以色列游说集团与美国对外政策[M].上海：上海世纪出版集团,2009：109。
12 Lawrence Baron. The Holocaust and American Public Memory,1945-1960[J]. Holocaust and Genocide Studies, Vol.17, No.1 (Spring,2003):62-88. 13 Peter Novick. The Holocaust in American Life[M].Boston and New York:A Mariner Book, 1999:133.
14 Peter Novick. The Holocaust in American Life[M].Boston and New York:A Mariner Book, 1999:148-149.
Raul Hilberg. The Politics of Memory:the Journey of a Holocaust Historian[M]. Chicago:Ivan R. Dee,1996:123.
16 Marianne R. Sanua. Let Us Prove Strong:The American Jewish Committee,1945-2006[Ml. Waltham, Mass.:Brandeis University Press,2007:32. 1'Peter Novick. The Holocaust in American Life[M].Boston and New York:A Mariner Book, 1999:12,207.
Yair Auron. The Pain of Knowledge:Holocaust and Genocide Issues in Education[M].London: Transaction Publishers.2005:109.
19 Laurence Mordekhai Thomas. Suffering as a Moral Beacon:Blacks and Jews[A], in Helene Flanzbaum. The Americanization of the Holocaust[M]:200-201.
20 Thomas D. Fallace. The Origins of Holocaust Education in American Public Schools[J]. Holocaust and Genocide Studies, Vol.20, No.l, Spring 2006:80-102. "'Stephen R. Haynes. Holocaust Education at American Colleges and Universities:A Report on the Current Situation[J]. Holocaust and Genocide Studies, Vol.12, No.2, Fall 1998:282-307.
11 U.S. Catholic Conference. Catholic Teaching on the Shoah:Implementing the Holy See's We Remember[R]. Washington:1999.
23Yair Auron. the pain of Knowledge:Holocaust and Genocide Issues in Education[M].London: Transaction Publishers.2005:111-112.
James E. Young. America's Holocaust:Memory and the Politics of Identity [A], in Helene Flanzbaum. The Americanization of the Holocaust[M]:72.
ZJ See William L. Shulman(edit.). Association of Holocaust Organization,2009 Directory[M].Houston:Holocaust Museum Houston,2009.
26 Yair Auron. The Pain of Knowledge:Holocaust and Genocide Issues in Education[M].London: Transaction Publishers.2005:110.
Yair Auron. The Pain of Knowledge:Holocaust and Genocide Issues in Education[M].London: Transaction Publishers.2005:115.
28 Peter Novick. The Holocaust in American Life[M].Boston and New York:A Mariner Book, 1999:13.
29 反诽谤联盟(ADL)为重要的美国犹太非政府组织,成立于1913年,长期致力于反对反犹主义,捍卫犹太人的安全和利益,曾长期与“美国犹太人委员会”和“美国犹太人大会”并称为三大“防卫”组织。
30 Facing History and Ourselves National Foundation. Facing History and Ourselves Resource Book[M]. Brookline, Massachusetts,1994,'Introduction", p. xxiii.
31 Facing History and Ourselves National Foundation. Facing History and Ourselves Resource Book[M]. Brookline, Massachusetts,1994:Preface, p. xvii.
32 President's Commission on the Holocaust. Report to the President[R]. Washington:Sept.27, 1979:5-6.
33 James E. Young. America's Holocaust:Memory and the Politics of Identity[A]. Helene Flanzbaum(edit). The Americanization of the Holocaust[M]:72.
34 Edward T. Linenthal. The Boundaries of Memory:the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum[J]. American Quarterly, Vol.46, No.3(Sep.1994):406-433.
35 Rochelle G. Saidel. Never Too Late to Remember:the Politics Behind New York City's Holocaust Museum[M]. New York:Holmes & Meier,1996:218-219.
36 James E. Young. The Texture of Memory:Holocaust Memorials and Meaning[M]. New Haven: Yale University Press,1993:307.
37Rochelle G. Saidel. Never Too Late to Remember:the Politics Behind New York City's Holocaust Museum[M]. New York:Holmes & Meier,1996:216.
38 David B. MacDonald. Identity Politics in the Age of Genocide:the Holocaust and Historical Representation[M].London and New York:Routledge,2008:23.
Address by Ruth Bader Ginsburg, at the Capital Rotunda, Apr.22,2004.
0 Address by Senator Joseph I. Lieberman, at the Capital Rotunda, Apr.19,2007.
41 [伊朗]拉明·贾汉贝格鲁著,杨祯钦译：《柏林谈话录》,上海：译林出版社,2002年版,第18页。
42 Raul Hilbere. The Destruction Of The Eurooean Jews[Ml. Yale University Press.2003. c1961.
43 Gerald Reitlinger. The Final Solution:The Attempt To Exterminate The Jews Of Europe, 1939-1945[M]. New York:Barnes,1961,cl953.
Lucy Dawidowicz. The War Against the Jews[M]. New York:Penguin books,1975.
45 Jewish Values in the Post-Holocaust Future[J], Judaism, Vol.16, No.7(Summer,1967): 277-278.
46 Jewish Values in the Post-Holocaust Future[J], Judaism, Vol.16, No.7(Summer,1967): 281-283.
47 AJC.AJYB,1980[M].New York:AJC,1980:85.
48 “holocaust”词,由希腊语词源“holos”(全部)和“kaustos”(烧烤)构成,意谓完全烤熟、献祭给众神的牲肉,后来引申为“大规模屠杀”。在这一词的基础上,后来又进一步出现了更流行的“the Holocaust”,特指二战期间纳粹对犹太人等群体的集体大屠杀。参见王炎：“纳粹大屠杀的哲学思考：特殊性与普遍性”,潘光、汪舒明、盛文沁主编：《纳粹大屠杀的政治和文化影响》,时事出版社2009年版,第52-63页。
49“genocide”(种族灭绝)一词由来自波兰、任教耶鲁大学的犹太裔法学家拉姆金(Raphael Lemkin)于1944年创造,由希腊语的genos(意谓种族或部族)和拉丁语的cide(意谓屠杀)合成,指称旨在灭绝一个民族或宗教群体的罪行。种族灭绝罪以大屠杀为参照原型,成为二战以来国际社会公认的反人类罪中最严重的一种。
50 马丁·吉尔伯特,蔡永良、袁冰洁译.五千年犹太文明史[M].上海：上海三联书店,2010,第209页。
51 Peter Novick. The Holocaust in American Life[M].Boston and New York:A Mariner Book, 1999:67-68.
52 Jeffrey Shandler. While America Watches:Televising the Holocaust[M].New York:Oxford University Press,1999:203.
53 Abigail Pogrebin. Stars of David[M].New York:Broadway Books,2005:34.
54 Edward T. Linenthal. The Boundaries of Memory:the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum[J]. American Quarterly, Vol.46, No.3(Sep.1994):406-433.
55 美国大屠杀纪念馆所展出的实物或图片,一部分来自难民及其家属的捐赠,另一些来自奥斯维辛大屠杀纪念博物馆。
56 Alison Landsberg. America, the Holocaust, and the Mass Culture of Memory:Toward a Radical Politics of Empathy[M]. New German Critique, Vol.71 (Spring-Summer,1997):63-86.
(?)Peter Novick. The Holocaust in American Life[M].Boston and New York:A Mariner Book, 1999:215-221.
38 Michael Berenbaum. After Tragedy and Triumph:Essays in Modern Jewish Thought and the American Experience[M].New York:Cambridge University Press,1990:31.
(?)William Styron. Sophie's Choice[M]. New York:Random House,1976.该书1976牛出版后就获得巨大成功,很快荣获普利策奖,在美国热销1000多万册。当然,一些犹太人认为该书过多地聚焦于基督徒在大屠杀中的受难,因此对之提出了许多批评。该书中文版2010年由人民文学出版社出版。
60 See Alice L. Eckardt. Post-Holocaust Theology:A Journey out of the Kingdom of Night[J]. Holocaust and Genocide Studies, Vol.1 No.2(1986):229-240.
61 Tom Lawson. Shaping the Holocaust:the Influence of Christian Discourse on Perceptions of the European Jewish Tragedy[J]. Holocaust and Genocide Studies, Vol.2l,No.3(Winter 2007): 404-420.
62 Kazimierz Lukomski. Poland on Trial-Shoah[A]. in Polish American Congress. Polish Americans Reflect on Shoah[M]. Chicago:1986:11.
(?)历史化指历史学界试图用常规的理论去解释大屠杀,使之“降格”为与普通历史事件一样可以理解和分析的研究对象；而政治化则包含大屠杀记忆文化中出现的“非犹太化”、
64 Jewish Values in the Post-Holocaust Future[J]. Judaism, Vol.16, No.7(Summer,1967):289.“美国化”、否定大屠杀、胡乱比附等等趋向。
65 Yehuda Bauer. A History of the Holocaust[M].New York:F Watts,1982:332.
00 Michael Berenbaum. After Tragedy and Triumph:Essays in Modern Jewish Thought and the American Experience[M].New York:Cambridge University Press,1990:29.
Alice L. Eckardt and A. Roy Eckardt. The Holocaust and the Enigma ot Uniqueness:A Philosophical Effort at Practical Clarification[J]. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Vol.450(July 1980):165-178.
Michael Berenbaum. After Tragedy and Triumph:Essays in Modern Jewish Thought and the American Experience[M].New York:Cambridge University Press,1990:24-25.
Michael Berenbaum. After Tragedy and Triumph:Essays in Modern Jewish Thought and the American Experience[M].New York:Cambridge University Press,1990:28.
70 Alan S. Rosenbaum. Is the Holocaust Unique?[M]. Boulder:Westview Press,2009该书1996年初版,后又于2001年和2009年两次再版,并先后添加了若干篇新文章。
See Gavriel D. Rosenfeld. The Politics of Uniqueness:Reflections on the Recent Polemical Turn in Holocaust and Genocide Scholarshi[J]. Holocaust and Genocide Studies, Vol.13, No.1 (Spring 1999):28-61
72 Steven Katz. The Uniqueness ot the Holocaust:The Historical Dimension[A], in edit. Alan S. Rosenbaum. Is the Holocaust Unique?[M]. Boulder:Westview Press,2009:55-74.
73Richard L. Rubenstein. Religion and the Uniqueness of the Holocaust[A]. in Alan S. Rosenbaum. Is the Holocaust Unique?[M]. Boulder:Westview Press,2009:39-46.
Israel W. Charny. Forward[A]. in Alan S. Rosenbaum. Is the Holocaust Unique?[M]. Boulder Westview Press,2009:xi
'" Ian Hancock. Responses to the Porrajmos:the Romani Holocaust[A]. in Alan S. Rosenbaum. Is the Holocaust Unique?[M]. Boulder:Westview Press,2009:75-102.
David E. Stannard. Uniqueness as Denial:the Politics of Genocide Scholarship[A]., in Alan S. Rosenbaum. Is the Holocaust Unique?[M]. Boulder:Westview Press,2009:295-340.
" See Gavriel D. Rosenfeld. The Politics of Uniqueness:Reflections on the Recent Polemical Turn in Holocaust and Genocide Scholarship[J].
78 Address by Colin L. Powell. Secretary of State, at the Capital Rotunda. Abr.27.2003.
79 Address by Barack Obama, President, at the Capital Rotunda, Apr.23,2009.
80 王炎.纳粹大屠杀的哲学思考：特殊性与普遍性[A].潘光、汪舒明、盛文沁(主编).纳粹大屠杀的政治和文化影响『M]：52-63.
81 See http://www.ihr.org/main/about.shtml浏览时间2010年9月25日。
82 Deborah Lipstadt. Denying the Holocaust:the Growing Assault on Truth and Memory[M]. New York:The Free Press.1993:138.
83 Marianne R. Sanua. Let Us Prove Strong:The American Jewish Committee,1945-2006[M]. Waltham, Mass.:Brandeis University Press,2007:353.
84 See, Deborah E. Lipstadt. The Bitburg Controversy[A]. in AJYB,1987:21-3
85 福音派重要领导人之一杰里·法尔维尔(Jerry Falwell)公开地批评里根,而葛培理和帕特·罗伯逊(Pat Robertson)则在幕后做里根的工作。葛培理本人在十天里就两次与里根面谈,还与第一夫人南希长谈,指出参拜军人陵园将严重损害里根在国内外的道义权威。
86 Deborah E. Lipstadt. The Bitburg Controversy[A]:29.
87Marianne R. Sanua. Let Us Prove Strong:The American Jewish Committee,1945-2006[M]. Waltham, Mass.:Brandeis University Press,2007:306-308.
88 阿伦·哈斯,梁骏等译.大屠杀后遗症[M].北京：北京出版社,2000：11。
89 阿伦·哈斯,梁骏等译.大屠杀后遗症『M].北京：北京出版社,2000：134。
90 Peter Novick. The Holocaust in American Life[M].Boston and New York:A Mariner Book, 1999:171.
91 Charles S. Liebman & Steven M. Cohen. Two Worlds of Judaism:the Israeli and American Experiences[M]. New Haven and London:Yale University Press,1990:33.
92 乔纳森·D.萨纳,胡浩译.美国犹太教史[M].郑州：大象出版社2009：283。
93 Charles S. Liebman & Steven M. Cohen. Two Worlds of Judaism:the Israeli and American Experiences[M]. New Haven and London:Yale University Press,1990:31.
94 参见潘光、余建华、王健.犹太民族复兴之路[M].上海：上海社会科学院出版社,1998：12-13。
95 Howard F. Stein. The Holocaust, the Uncanny, and the Jewish Sense of History[J]. Political Psychology, Vol.5, No.1(1984).
96Michael A. Meyer. Jewish Identity in the Modern World[M].Seattle & London:University of Washington Press,1990:34.
97 Daniel Bar-Tal and Dikla Antebi. Beliefs About Negative Intentions of the World: A Study of the Israeli Siege Mentality[J], Political Psychology, Vol.13, No.4 (Dec,1992):633-645
98 Jonathan S. Woocher. The'Civil Judaism'of Communal Leaders[A], in AJYB,1981[M]. New York:AJC,1981:149-169.
99 在这一问题上,美国犹太裔学者丹尼尔·J.古德哈根(Daniel Jonah Goldhagen)在《希特勒的志愿行刑者》一书中提出了非常激进的指控：大屠杀的罪魁祸首不是少数纳粹精英,而是许许多多被“灭绝性反犹主义”所煽动的德国大众。早在希特勒上台前150年,这种致命的反犹病毒已经深深嵌入德国文化中,成为德意志民族独特性格和文化的一部分。大屠杀反映了德意志民族心底最深处的渴望,是整个民族的计划。See Daniel Jonah Goldhagen. Hitler's Willing Executioners:Ordinary Germans and the HolocaustfM]. New York:Alfred A. Knopf,199601998年,其中文版由新华出版社出版。古德哈根的观点等于起诉了整个德意志民族,由此引起德国人的严重不满。如德国学者克劳斯·费舍尔就将这种观点视为是对整个德国民族的诽谤。参见[德]克劳斯·费舍尔著,钱坤译：《德国反犹史》,江苏人民出版社2007年版,第4页。但在美国,占德哈根的著作却大受追捧,他因此获得了美国政治学学会的嘉奖。
100 Armin F. Boyens. The Ecumenical Community and the Holocaust[J]. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Sciences, Vol.450(July 1980).
Elie Wiesel. Memoirs:All Rivers Run to the Sea[M].New York:Schocken Books,1995:69.
2 Eugene J. Fisher and Leon Klenicki(edits). Spiritual Pilgrimage:Texts on Jews and Judaism, 1979-1995[M]. New York:The Crossroad Publishing Company,1995:112.
(?)Report of the Commission of Faith and Order of the World Council of Churches,1967, Bristo UK.
104 "Ecumenical Considerations on Jewish-Christian Dialogue", by World Council of Churches,1982.该报告由教会与犹太民族谘商委员会(The Consultation of the Church and the Jewish People)起草,并于1982年被接受为指导基督教与犹太人之间对话合作关系的正式文件。
105 "Alliance of Baptist Statement on Jewish-Christian Relations", Match 4,1995, by the Alliance of Baptists.
106 "A Sacred Obligation:Rethinking Christian Faith in Relation to Judaism and the Jewish People", Sept.1,2002, by the Christian Scholars Group on Christian-Jewish Relations.
107"Christian-Jewish Dialogue", Resolution by General Convention of the Episcopal Church in U.S.A.,Dec,1979.
108 "Declaration to the Jewish Community", April 18,1994, by the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America.
"'Eugene J. Fisher and Leon Klenicki(edits). Spiritual Pilgrimage:Texts on Jews and Judaism, 1979-1995[M]. New York:The Crossroad Publishing Company,1995:7.
110 "We Remember:A Reflection on the Shoah", by Commission for Religious Relations with the Jews, March 16,1998.
111"Response to Vatican Document We Remember:A Reflection on the Shoah", by International Jewish Committee on Interreligious Consultations, March 20,1998.
112 Daniel Jonah Goldhagen. A Moral Reckoning:The Role of the Catholic Church in the Holocaust and its Unfulfilled Duty ofRepair[M].New York:First Vintage Books,2003:44.
113 Daniel Jonah Goldhagen. A Moral Reckoning:The Role of the Catholic Church in the Holocaust and its Unfulfilled Duty of Repair[M].New York:First Vintage Books,2003:143.
114 Daniel Jonah Goldhagen. A Moral Reckoning:The Role of the Catholic Church in the Holocaust and its Unfulfilled Dutv of Repair[M].New York:First Vintaee Books.2003:225. 228.
115 引自戴维·施梅特(David Cymet)2011年1月23日致上海犹太中心主任潘光研究员的信。
116 "Catholic Teaching on the Shoah:Implementing the Holy See's We Remember", by United States Catholic Conference, Washington, D.C.,2001:9-10.
117 See Lawrence Baron. The Holocaust and American Public Memory,1945-1960[J]. Holocaus and Genocide Studies, Vol.17, No.1 (Spring,2003):79.
118 Address by Susan Eisenhower, at the Capital Rotunda, May 5,2005.
119 Address by Laura Bush, First Lady, at the Capital Rotunda, May 5,2005.
120 沃尔特·拉克,徐方、阎瑞松译.犹太复国主义史[M].上海：上海三联书店,1992：670。
121 本雅明·内塔尼亚胡,田在玮、莎文译.持久的和平[M].北京：世界知识出版社,2009：258-259。
122 Arthur D. Morse. While Six Million Died:A Chronicle of American Apathy[M].New York: The Overlook Press.1998:383.
123 See David S. Wyman. The Abandonment of the Jews:America and the Holocaust,1941-1945[M]:preface.
124President's Commission on the Holocaust. Report to the President[R], Washington:Sept.2 1979:6-8. Peter Novick. The Holocaust in American Life[M].Boston and New York:A Mariner Book, 1999:56-57.
Address by Fred S. Zeidman, Chairman of United States Holocaust Memorial Council, at the Capital Rotunda, April 23,2009.
127 Peter Novick. The Holocaust in American Life[M].Boston and New York:A Mariner Book, 1999:p.48.
128 Address by Joshua B. Bolten, Chief of Staff to the President, at the Capital Rotunda, May 1, 2008.
129 See, Martin Gilbert. Auschwitz and the Allies:A Devastating Account of How the Allies Responded to the News of Hitler's Mass Murder[M].New York:An Owl Book, Henry Holt and Company,1981:339-341.
130 William D. Rubinstein. The Myth of Rescue:Why the Democracies Could not Have Saved More Jews from the Nazis[M]. New York:Routledge,1997.
1 定居点建设是否停止,一直是阻碍巴以和平进程中的一个直接障碍。
2 当然,二战以来德国对以和对犹政策表现出更加强烈的道义色彩,大屠杀在德国和奥地利等国都留下了根深蒂固的集体负罪感。除了国家层面的带有明显忏悔和补偿性的政策,每一年都会有数万德国人在以色列从事志愿工作。许多人都有一种为犹太人做点贡献以表达赎罪的渴望。奥地利法律还规定,年轻人可以以从事与大屠杀教育有关的志愿服务来替代服兵役的义务。从2006年开始,上海犹太研究中心每年都有数名由“奥地利大屠杀志愿服务”组织派遣的志愿人员。
3 参见：约翰·J.米尔斯海默、斯蒂芬·M.沃尔特,王传兴译.以色列游说集团与美国对外政策[M].上海：上海世纪出版集团,2009。2006年春,两位作者首先在哈佛大学和芝加哥大学的网站上发表的同名报告,并随后在《伦敦书评》杂志上发表了题为“以色列游说集团”的论文,次年,该报告的扩充版成书出版。
4 斯蒂芬·M.沃尔特,郭盛、王颖译.驯服美国权力：对美国首要地位的全球回应[M].上海：上海世纪出版集团,2008：182。
5 自二十世纪70年代以来,犹太人在美国已经被视为“白人”。犹太背景不仅不再成为受到社会排斥的因素,在很多情况下甚至已经成为个有利因素。可以说,犹太人此时已经成为美国主流社会的一部分。但是,犹太人仍然保存着独特的命运感和历史感,保留着其独特的宗教文化传统,保留着强烈的犹太民族认同,因此,在其自我意识中,犹太人又经常自视为少数族裔群体的一员。本章所指的主流社会就是以WASP为核心的美国白人基督教社会。
6 Address by Colin L. Powell, Secretary of State, at the Capital Rotunda,27 April,2003.
'Lawrence Baron. The Holocaust and American Public Memory, 1945-196O[J]. Holocaust and Genocide Studies, Vol.17, No.1(Spring,2003):65.
8 Walter Russell Mead. The New Israel and the Old:Why Gentile American Backs the Jewish State[J]. Foreign Affairs, July/August 2008:28-46. 9 Allis Radosh and Ronald Radosh. A Safe Haven:Harry S. Truman and the Founding of Israel[M]. New York:Harper Collins,2009:51-52.
10 哈里·杜鲁门,李石译.杜鲁门回忆录(下卷)[M].北京：东方出版社,2007：162-164。
11 Allis Radosh and Ronald Radosh. A Safe Haven:Harry S. Truman and the Founding of Israel[M]. New York:Harper Collins,2009:345.
12 Melvin I. Urofsky. We Are One! American Jewry and Israel [M].New York:Anchor Press 1978·
3 Egal Feldman. Reinhold Niebuhr and Jews[J]. Jewish Social Studies, Vol.ⅩLⅥ, No.3-4 157-158. (Summer/Fall 1984)
14Hertzel Fishman. American Protestantism and a Jewish State[M]. Detroit:Wayne State University Press,1973:79
15 Eyal Naveh. Unconventional'Christian Zionist':The Theologian Reinhold Niebuhr and His Attitude Toward the Jewish National Movement[J]. Studies in Zionism, Vol.11, No.2(1990).
16 Eyal Naveh. Unconventional'Christian Zionist':The Theologian Reinhold Niebuhr and His Attitude Toward the Jewish National Movement[J]. Studies in Zionism, Vol.11, No.2(1990):61.
17 T.F. Torrance. The Israel of God:Israel and the Incarnation[J]. Interpretation, Vol.Ⅹ,No.3(July 1956)
18 Peter Gardella. Gentile Zionism[J]. Midstream, May 1991.
19 Carl Hermann Voss and David A. Rausch. American Christians and Israel,1948-1988[J]. American Jewish Archives, Vol. Ⅺ, No.1 (April 1988).
20 Yaacov Ariel. Philosemites or Antisemites? Evangelical Christian Attitudes toward Jews, Judaism, and the State of Israel[J]. Jerusalem:The Vidal Sassoon International Center for the Study of Antisemitism,2002:16.
21Gabnel Shelter. Dynamics of Dependence:U.S.-Israeli Relations[M]. Colorado:Westview Press.1987:41.
22 Gabriel Sheffer. Dynamics of Dependence:U.S.-Israeli Relations[M]. Colorado:Westview Press.1987:48-49
23 Gabriel Sheffer. Dynamics of Dependence:U.S.-Israeli Relations[M]. Colorado:Westview Press,1987:66-67
24 2010年夏,笔者在夏威夷参加“亚太安全研究中心”(APCSS)举办的关于国际恐怖主义的研修班的过程中,曾就大屠杀历史问题询问过多位美国军官。笔者发现,他们中的绝大多数人都了解这一悲剧历史,而且他们也从不批判以色列的政策。研讨会中来自埃及的学员多次问及美方组织者对以色列相关政策看法,但后者一直在为以色列辩护。在我的访谈过程中,一名年轻军官称自己并未去参观过华盛顿的大屠杀纪念馆,原因就是看了一些关于大屠杀的书籍和影视,觉得犹太人实在悲惨,再去纪念馆就一定会难以忍受那种悲痛之情。
25 "Biden at GA:U.S.-Israel Ties'Unbreakable'", November 7,2010, JTA News.
26 Oscar and Mary F. Handlin. The Acquisition of Political and Social Rights by the Jews in the United States[J]. AJC. AJYB,1955[M]. New York:AJC,1955:87.
27 乔纳森·D.萨纳,胡浩译.美国犹太教史[Ml.郑州：大象出版社,2009：236。
28 See Elliot Cohen. Mr. Zanuck's'Gentleman's Agreement':Reflections of Hollywood's Second Film About Anti-Semitism[J]. Commentary,1948(5):51-56.
29 罗森堡为一名亲苏联的美国犹太人,1950年,他被控充当苏联的间谍,为苏联获取有关美国原子弹技术的相关情报,1953年,他被判死刑。
30 Peter Novick. The Holocaust in American Life[M].Boston and New York:A Mariner Book, 1999:166,237.
31 Melvin I. Urofsky. We Are One:American Jewry and Israel[M].New York:Anchor Press, 1978:328.
32 See http://www.wymaninstitute.org/press/2004-09-13.php,上网日期2011年3月1日。前面已经论及,怀伊曼是一名研究大屠杀历史的基督徒背景的学者。他后来还创办了以他的名字命名的大屠杀研究所。
33 Oscar and Mary F. Handlin. The Acquisition of Political and Social Rights by the Jews in the United States[J]. AJC. AJYB,1955[M]. New York:AJC,1955:91.
34 AJC, AJ Y B,1946[M]. New York:AJC,1946:.280.
35 Marianne R, Sanua. Let Us Prove Strong:The American Jewish Committee,1945-2006[M]. Waltham, Mass.:Brandeis University Press,2007:14-15,48,151.
36 "An Address to the Churches", by International Council of Christians and Jews, Seelisberg, Switzerland,1947.
37"The Christian Approach to the Jews", in Concerns of the Churches, Report of Committee Ⅳ of the First Assembly of the World Council of Churches, Sept.4,1948.
38 "Nostra Aetate:Declaration on the Relation of the Church to Non-Christian Religions", proclaimed by His Holiness, Pope Paul VI, Oct.28,1965.
39 L.斯维德勒,刘利华.全球对话的时代[M].北京：中国社会科学出版社,2006：166。
40 See Deborah Dash Moore. Jewish GIs and the Creation of the Judeo-Christian Tradition[J]. Religion and American Culture, Vo.8, No.1(Winter,1998).
41 Mark Silk. Notes on the Judeo-Christian Tradition in America[J]. American Quarterly, Vol.36, No.1 (Spring 1984):65-85.
42 Daniel Jonah Goldhagen. A Moral Reckoning:The Role of the Catholic Church in the Holocaust and its Unfulfilled Duty of Repair[M].New York:First Vintage Books,2003: 210-211.
43 Daniel Jonah Goldhagen. A Moral Reckoning:The Role of the Catholic Church in the Holocaust and its Unfulfilled Duty of Repair[M].New York:First Vintage Books,2003:268. 44 See "Nostra Aetate:Declaration on the Relation of the Church to Non-Christian Religions", by Pope Paul VI, Oct.28,1965.
45 Eugene J. Fisher and Leon Klenicki(edits). Spiritual Pilgrimage:Texts on Jews and Judaism 1979-1995[M]. New York:The Crossroad Publishing Company,1995:63. 46 "A Sacred Obligation:Rethinking Christian Faith in Relation to Judaism and the Jewish People", Sept.1,2002, by the Christian Scholars Group on Christian-Jewish Relations. 47 AJC.AJYB,1980[M]. New York:AJC,1980:85.
48 Stephen R. Haynes. Christian Holocaust Theology:A Critical Reassessmen[J]. Journal of the American Academy of Religion, Vol.62, No.2(Summer,1994).
49 A. Roy Eckardt. Is There a Way Out of the Christian Crime? The Philosophic Question of the HoIocaust[J]. Holocaust and Genocide Studies, Vol.1, No.l(1986):121-126.
50 Alice L. Eckardt. Post-Holocaust Theology:A Journey Out of the Kingdom of Night[J]. Holocaust and Genocide Studies, Vol.1, No.2(1986):229-240.
51 Stephen R. Haynes. Christian Holocaust Theology:A Critical Reassessment[J]. Journal of the American Academy of Religion, Vol.62, No.2(Summer,1994). 52 Matthew R. Kerhel. A Part and Apart:Jewish American, the Media and American Politics[A]. in L. Sandy Maisel, eds. Jews in American Politics [M]. Lanham:Rowman and Littlefield Publishers,2001:126.
53 David Vital. Power, Powerlessness & the Jews[J]. Commentary. January 1990:24. Were Jews':Violence and the Construction of Modern Jewish Identity[A], in Peter Y.
54 Elliott Horowitz.'They Fought Because They Were Fighters and They Fought Because They Medding(edit.). Jews and Violence:Images, Ideologies, Realities[M].New York:Oxford University Press,2002:22-23.
55 Alice L. Eckardt. Power and Powerlessness:The Jewish Experience[A]. Israel W. Charny(edit.). Toward the Understanding and Prevention of Genocide[C]. Boulder:Westview Press,
56 二战前,流散地犹太人中主要有两种犹太民族主义：一种为流散地民族主义,倾向于保1984:188.持和发展流散地的犹太自治生活,并不主张回归巴勒斯坦；另一种为锡安主义,主张回归巴勒斯坦,重建犹太民族家园,实现犹太人社会生活的“正常化”。两者的共性在于,他们都强调犹太人是一个民族：尽管他们都愿意忠于所居住国,但他们都不愿夸耀自己的爱国主义或宣称自己归属于所居国。此外,他们都推崇犹太民族在巴勒斯坦的独立时代,推崇古代反抗罗马帝国统治的民族英雄马卡比(Macabees)。See Ezra Mendelsohn. On
57 汉斯·约纳斯,张荣译.奥斯维新之后的上帝观念[M].北京：华夏出版社,2003.Modern Jewish Politics[M]. New York:Oxford University Press,1993:19-20.第7页。
58 现实主义和保守主义都认为人性本恶,而且都推崇权力政治。参见工公龙.现实主义和保守主义[J].世界经济与政治,2004(2)：41-42。
59 See M. Ben Mollov. The Jewish Experience as An Influence on Hans J. Morgenthau's Realism[Jl. Jewish Political Studies Review(Spring,2000).
60 汉斯·摩根索,肯尼思·汤普森(修订).国家间政治：寻求权力与和平的斗争(影印版)[M].北京：北京大学出版社,2004：36。
61 See M. Ben Mollov. Power and Spirituality in the Thought of Hans J. Mogenthau[J]. Jewish Political Studies Review(Spring 1998):103.
Irving Greenberg. Religious Values After the Holocaust:A Jewish View[A]. Abraham J. Peck(edit). Jews and Christian After the Holocaust[M]. Philadelphia:Fortress Press,1982:7
63 Milton Himmelfarb. In the Light of Israel's Victory [J]. Commentary(Oct.1967):57.
64 潘光、陈超南、余建华.犹太文明[M].北京：中国社会科学出版社,1999：287-289。
Hannah Arendt. The Jew as Pariah:a Hidden Tradition[J]. Jewish Social Studies(April 1944):121-122.
(?)犹太教法有613条律令。
67 Jewish Values in the Post-Holocaust Future:A Symposiu[J]. Judaism(Summer 1967):272-273.两年后,他又进一步阐发了这一思想,参见Emil L. Fackenheim. Jewish Faith and the Holocaust:A Fragment[J]. Commentary(August 1969).
Michael E. Staub. Tom at the Roots:the Crisis of Jewish Liberalism in Postwar America[M]. New York:Columbia University Press,2002:133. Michael E. Staub. Torn at the Roots:the Crisis of Jewish Liberalism in Postwar America[M]. New York:Columbia University Press,2002:135.
70 潘光、余建华、王健.犹太民族复兴之路[M].上海：上海社会科学院出版社,1998：157-158。
71 经典的锡安主义要求犹太人离开客居地,移民并定居巴勒斯坦,重建犹太民族家园,以实现自由、安全、尊严和犹太社会生活的“正常化”。而美国犹太人大多期望融入美国主流社会,享有美国的繁荣和安全。他们将美国视为新耶路撒冷,而很少有人愿意移民以色列。但是,他们高度关切和支持以色列的生存和繁荣,他们的锡安主义主要从这种意义上来界定。
72 Daniel J. Elazar. American Political Theory and the Political Notions of American Jews: Convergences and Contradictions[J]. The Jewish Journal of Sociology(December 1966):18.
73 David H. Shpiro. From Philanthropy to Activism:the Political Transformation of American Zionism in the Holocaust Years,1933-1945[M].New York:Pergamon Press,1994, Introduction, XXV.
74 重要领导人有布兰戴斯(Louis D. Brandeis)、富兰克夫特(Felix Frankfurter)、晋劳斯库(Joseph M. Proskauer)、怀斯拉比(Steven S. Wise)等
75 Jerold S. Auerbach. Rabbis & Lawyers:the Journey from Torah to Constitution[M], Bloomington:Indiana University Press,1993:172-173.
76 Jerold S. Auerbach. Are We One? Jewish Identity in the United States and Israel[M].New Jersey:Rutgers University Press,2001:66-68.
77 沃尔特·拉克.犹太复国主义史[M].上海：上海三联书店,1992：668.
78 沃尔特·拉克.犹太复国主义史[M].上海：上海三联书店,1992：667.
79 大卫·鲁达夫斯基,傅有德等译.近现代犹太宗教运动：解放与调整的历史[M].济南：山东大学出版社,2000：342。
80 沃尔特·拉克.犹太复国主义史[M].上海：上海三联书店,1992：663-664。
81 美国犹太人联合会(AJConference)成立于1943年,旨在表达美国犹太人共同立场以解决欧洲犹太人的政治问题,当时共有几十个全国性和地方性的犹太组织为其成员组织。
82 David H. Shpiro. From Philanthropy to Activism:the Political Transformation of American
83 David H. Shpiro. From Philanthropy to Activism:the Political Transformation of American Zionism in the Holocaust Years,1933-1945[M].New York:Pergamon Press,1994:14U-141.
84 David H. Shpiro. From Philanthropy to Activism:the Political Transformation of American Zionism in the Holocaust Years,1933-1945[M].New York:Pergamon Press,
85 激进锡安主义领导人在联合国讨论分治决议前夕向白宫发起强大的政治和宣传攻势,对Zionism in the Holocaust Years,1933-1945[M].New York:Pergamon Press,杜鲁门“纠缠不休”,甚至“政治威胁”,让杜鲁门感到不安和恼火。杜鲁门回忆道：“我觉得我从来没有受到像这次这么厉害的针对白宫的压力和宣传”。分治决议通过后,他们又纷纷向杜鲁门提出要求,而且往往用一种“言词激动”的“吵嘴”方式,使得杜鲁门相当反感,甚至拒绝接见德高望重的温和派锡安主义领导人魏兹曼。参见：[美]《杜鲁门回忆录-下卷》,北京：东方出版社,2007：196,198。
86 Melvin I. Urofsky. We Are One:American Jewry and Israel[M].New York:Anchor Press,1978: 226-227.
87Michael E. Staub. Torn at the Roots:the Crisis of Jewish Liberalism in Postwar Amenca[M]. New York:Columbia University Press,2002:25.
88 Marc Dollinger. Quest for Inclusion:Jews and Liberalism in Modern America[M], New Jersey: Princeton University Press,2000:114.
89 Lawrence H. Fuchs. The Political Behavior of American Jews[M]. Illinois:The Free Press 1956:101.
90 Seymour Martin Lipset and Earl Raab. Jews and the New American Scene[M].Massachusetts: Harvard University Press,1995:117-118.
91 Jonathan D. Sarna. American Judaism:A History[M]. New Haven:Yale University Press,2004: 316.
92 Melvin I. Urofsky. We Are One:American Jewry and lsrael[M].New York:Anchor Press, 1978:356.
93 Jonathan D. Sarna. American Judaism:A History[M]. New Haven:Yale University Press,2004: 307.
94 Peter Novick. The Holocaust in American Life[M].Boston and New York:A Mariner Book, 1999:189.
95 Jonathan D. Sarna. American Judaism:A History[M]. New Haven:Yale University Press,2004: 333.
(?)雅各·瑞德·马库斯，杨波、宋立宏、徐娅囡译.美国犹太人：1585-1990年,一部历史[M].上海：上海人民出版社,2004：244。
97 Melvin I. Urofsky. We Are One:American Jewry and Israel[M].New York:Anchor Press, 1978:357.
98 Melvin I. Urofsky. We Are One:American Jewry and Israel[M].New York:Anchor Press,1978: 444.
99Daniel I. Elazar. The New Jewish Politics[M]. Jerusalem:The Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs/Center for Jewish Community Studies,1988:5-6.
100 Jack Wertheimer. Jewish Organizational Life in the United States Since 1945[A], David Singer(Edit). American Jewish Year Book 1995[Ml,New York:AJC,1995:.73.
101 Jack Wertheimer. Jewish Organizational Life in the United States Since 1945[A]:55.
102 Jack Wertheimer. Jewish Organizational Life in the United States Since 1945[A]:48-49.
103 Yosef Gorny. The State of Israel in Jewish Public Thought:the Quest for Collective Identity[M].New York:New York University Press,1994:149.
104 See Ilan Peleg and Paul Scham. Israeli Neo-Revisionism and American Neoconservatism:The Unexplored Parallels[J].Middle East Journal, Vol.61, No.1 (Winter 2007).
105 Norman Podhoretz. Is It Good for the Jews?[J]. Commentary(February 1972).
106 American Jews and Israel-A Symposium[J]. Commentary(February 1988):21-75
107 阿伦·哈斯,梁骏等译.大屠杀后遗症[M].北京：北京出版社,2000：118。
108 阿伦·哈斯,梁骏等译.大屠杀后遗症[M].北京：北京出版社,2000：201。
107 Nancy Isserman. Political Tolerance and Intolerance:Using Qualitative Interviews to Understand the Attitudes of Holocaust Survivors[J]. Contemporary Jewry, Vol.29,
110 哈拉尔德·韦尔策,季斌等译.社会记忆：历史、回忆、传承[M].北京：北京大学出版No.l(2009):21-47.社,2007：256-257。
111 Michael J. A. Wohl, Nyla R. Branscombe. Remembering Historical Victimization:Collective Guilt for Current Ingroup Transgressions[J]. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology.
112 乔纳森·D.萨纳.美国犹太教史[M].：288。从70年代开始,这两个节日也为美国犹太Vol.94, No.6(2008):988-1006.人广泛遵守。
113 Tom Segev. The Seventh Million:the lsraeli and the Holocaust[Ml.New York:An Owl Books. 1991:433..
114 Idith Zertal. Israel's Holocaust and the Politics of Nationhood[M].New York:Cambridge University Press,2005:95-96.
115 Idith Zertal. Israel's Holocaust and the Politics of Nationhood[M].New York:Cambridge University Press,2005:99.
116 Tom Segev. The Seventh Million:the Israeli and the Holocaust[M].New York:An Owl Books, 1991:396.
117Tom Segev. The Seventh Million:the Israeli and the Holocaust[M].New York:An Owl Books, 1991:398.
118 Address by PM Netanyahu to the UN General Assembly,24 Sep.2009以色列外交部网 http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/Foreign+Relations/Israel+and+the+UN/Speeches+-+statements/A ddress_PM_Netanyahu_UN_General_Assembly_24-Sep-2009.htm,上网时间2011年3月3日。
119 该组织成立于1968年,用以暴抗暴的方式对付指向犹太人的暴力行为,煽动种族主义,被美国定为恐怖组织,在以色列被立法禁止。
120 Michael E. Staub. Torn at the Roots:the Crisis of Jewish Liberalism in Postwar America[M]. New York:Columbia University Press,2002:226
IZ1 Rochelle G. Saidel. Never Too Late to Remember:the Politics Behind New York City's Holocaust Museum[M]. New York:Holmes & Meier,1996:29-30.
122Jeffrey Shandler. While America Watches:Televising the Holocaust[M].New York:Oxford University Press,1999:164..
123 Peter Novick. The Holocaust in American Life[M].Boston and New York:A Mariner Book, 1999:158.
124 Avraham Burg. The Holocaust is Over; We must Rise from its Ashes[M]. New York:Palgrave Macmillan.2008:43. 125 AJC.AJYB,1985[M]. New York:AJC,1985:111.
126 Gary Rosenblatt. Wiesel to Obama:Pressure on Israel is not the Way[A]. The Jewish Week, May 6,2010.
127 Address by Sallai Meridor, Israeli Ambassador to the U.S, May 1,2008, at U.S. Capital Rotunda, Washington, D.C..
128 Daniel Jonah Goldhagen. A Moral Reckoning:The Role of the Catholic Church in the Holocaust and its Unfulfilled Duty of Repair[M].New York:First Vintage Books,2003: 218-219.
129 肯定性行动为1970年代美国对非裔等历史上的受害群体提供的补偿性政策。根据该政策,这些群体在入学、就业等许多方面都获得了某一固定额度的优待,如政府公共部门、学校和企业等特意为非裔确定并保留一个最低名额。
130 See Alan Dershowitz. The Case for Israel[M].John Wiley and Sons. Inc,2003:62.
131 穆夫提为伊斯兰教的宗教领袖称号。
132 Idith Zertal. Israel' s Holocaust and the Politics of Nationhood[M].New York:Cambridge University Press,2005:101-103.
133 本雅明·内塔尼亚胡,田在玮、莎文译.持久的和平[M].北京：世界知识出版社,2009：156-159。
134 Idith Zertal. Israel's Holocaust and the Politics of Nationhood[M].New York:Cambridge University Press,2005:118-120.
135 本雅明·内塔尼亚胡.持久的和平[M].北京：世界知识出版社,2009：159-160。
136 Abraham H. Foxman. Never Again:The Threat of the New Anti-Semitism[M].New York:
Harper San Francisco,2003:198.
137 Daniel Pipes. Hitler's Mideast Legacy[J]. Australia/Israel Review, Vol.35, No.5(2010):28-2
138 Jeffrey Herf. Naming Names in Foreign Policy[J]. Australia/Israel Review, Vol.35, No.5(2010):32.
139 Matthias Kuentzel.'Global Vision':Iran's Holocaust Denial[A]. Alan S. Rosenbaum. Is the Holocaust Unique?[M]. Boulder:Westview Press,2009:239.
140 德新社,2011年3月24日电,莫斯科。
141 Jeffrey Herf. Naming Names in Foreign Policy[J]. Australia/Israel Review, Vol.35, No.5(2010): 30.
142 Idith Zertal. Israel's Holocaust and the Politics of Nationhood[M].New York:Cambridge University Press,2005:173.
143 约翰·J.米尔斯海默、斯蒂芬·M.沃尔特,王传兴译.以色列游说集团与美国对外政策[M].上海：上海世纪出版集团,2009：272。关于反犹主义标签的政治威力,还可参见保罗·芬德利,武秉仁、戴克伟译.美国亲以色列势力内幕[M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司,1990：379-380。
144 See "A Sacred Obligation:Rethinking Christian Faith in Relation to Judaism and the Jewish People", Sept.1,2002, by the Christian Scholars Group on Christian-Jewish Relations.
145 约翰·J.米尔斯海默、斯蒂芬·M.沃尔特.以色列游说集团与美国对外政策[M].上海上海世纪出版集团,2009：271。
146 保罗·芬德利.美国亲以色列势力内幕[M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司,1990：300。
147 Daniel Jonah Goldhagen. A Moral Reckoning:The Role of the Catholic Church in the Holocaust and its Unfulfilled Duty of Repair[M].New York:First Vintage Books,2003: 218-219.
148 Abraham H. Foxman. Never Again:The Threat of the New Anti-Semitism[M].New York: Harper San Francisco,2003:17.
l49 Matthias Kuentzel.'Global Vision':Iran's Holocaust Denial[A]. Alan S. Rosenbaum. Is the Holocaust Unique?[M]. Boulder:Westview Press,2009:239.
150 转引自王震.浅论当代中东地区反犹情绪的形成和演变[A].参见潘光、汪舒明、罗爱玲主编.犹太人在美国：一个成功族群的发展和影响[C].北京：时事出版社,2010：362。
151 保罗·芬德利.美国亲以色列势力内幕[M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司,1990：142.
152 杰米·卡特,郭仲德译.牢墙内的巴勒斯坦[M].西安：西北大学出版社,2007：135。
153 Elliott Abrams. What Carter Missed in the Middle East[A]. The Washington Post, September 8, 2009.
154 参见杰米·卡特,郭仲德译.牢墙内的巴勒斯坦[M].译者序。
"Mearsheimer and Walt's Anti-Israel Screed:A Relentless Assault in Scholarly Guise", www.adl.org, March 24,2006.
156 Eliot A. Cohen. Yes, It's Anti-Semitic[A]. Washington Post, April 5,2006.
157 Ruth R. Wisse. Israel Lobby[A]. The Wall Street Journal, March 22,2006.
158 保罗·芬德利.美国亲以色列势力内幕[M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司,1990：379.
159 Arlene Stein. Whose Memories? Whose Victimhood? Contests for the Holocaust Frame in Recent Social Movement Discourse[J]. Sociological Perspectives, Vol.41, No.3,1998.
160 伊扎克·B.辛格,万紫等译.傻瓜吉姆佩尔,北京：人民文学出版社,2006：368。
161 Michael Berenbaum. After Tragedy and Triumph:Essays in Modern Jewish Thought and the American Experience[M].New York:Cambridge University Press,1990:80-81.
162 AJC.AJYB,2003[M]. New York:AJC,2003:150-151.
163 Peter Novick. The Holocaust in American Life[M].Boston and New York:A Mariner Book, 1999:281.
164 Deborah E. Lipstadt. Invoking the Holocaust[J]. Judaism, Vol.30, No.3(Summer 1981): 335-344.
Leonard Fein. Where Are We? The Inner Life of America's Jews[M]. New York:Harper and Row, Publishers,1988:69.
166 See Norman Finkelstein. The Holocaust Industry:Reflections on the Exploitation of Jewish Suffering[M].New York,2001; Also AJYB,2001:193.
1Allen D. Hertzke, Freeing Gods Children:The Unlikely Alliance for Global Human Rights[M].New York:Rowman & Littlefield Publisher, INC.,2004:128-129.
2 Fred A. Lazin. The Struggle for Soviet Jewry in American Politics:Israel Versus the American Jewish Establishment[M].Lanham:Lexington Books,2005:33.
3 乔纳森·D.萨纳,胡浩译.美国犹太教史[M].郑州：大象出版社,2009：264。
4 Fred A. Lazin, The Struggle for Soviet Jewry in American Politics:Israel Versus the American Jewish Establishment, p.298.
5 Address by President Jimmy Carter, at Capital Rotunda, April 24,1979. See President's Commission on the Holocaust. Report to the President[R]. Washington:Sept.27,1979:29
6 Allen D. Hertzke, Freeing Gods Children:The Unlikely Alliance for Global Human Rights[M].New York:Rowman & Littlefield Publisher, INC.,2004:172.
7 Gareth Evens. The Responsibility to Protect:Ending Mass Atrocity Crimes Once and for All[M].Washington, D.C.:Brookings Institution Press,2008:15.
8 大规模暴行(mass atrocity)主要包含了种族灭绝(Genocide)、战争罪(war crimes)、种族清洗(ethnic cleansing)和反人类罪(crimes against humanity)这四种罪行,种族灭绝罪是其中最为严重的一种。
9 Leo Mates. The Holocaust and International Relations[A]. Lyman H. Legters(edit.). Western Society After the Holocaust[M].Colorado:Westview Press,1983:135.
10 彼特·辛格,应奇、杨立峰译.一个世界：全球化伦理[M].北京：东方出版社.2005：115.
11Samantha Power. A Problem From Hell":American and the Age of Genocide[M].New York: Harper Perennial,2002:17. 12 Samantha Power. A Problem From Hell":American and the Age of Genocide[M].New York: Harper Perennial,2002:42. 13 Samantha Power. A Problem From Hell":American and the Age of Genocide[M].New York: Harper Perennial,2002:54.
14 该组织由法国的“世界以色列人联盟”(the Alliance Israelite Universelle)、英国的“英国犹太联合会”(Anglo-Jewish Association)和“美国犹太人委员会”组成,1947年获得联合国经济社会理事会的正式咨商地位。1997年,美国犹太人委员会单独获得谘商地位。
15 AJC.AJYB,1949[M].NewYork:AJC,1949:493.
16 该公约将“种族灭绝罪”界定为“任何有意实施的全部或部分毁灭某一民族、族裔、种族或宗教群体的行为。”包括对该群体成员进行屠杀或从肉体和精神上施以严重伤害：故意是群体的生活条件恶化以使其整体或部分地毁灭：在该群体内强行实施旨在阻碍其繁育的措施；将该群体的儿童强制转移至另一群体。不过,公约中关于“种族灭绝”的定义,却是一个在不同国家集团和不同社会群体之间引起广泛争议的话题。许多西方的国际人权活动家们或法学家主张将一国大规模屠杀和毁灭某一政治(60年代印尼屠杀其境内50万共产党员)和社会群体(如纳粹对同性恋者、残疾者的消灭)行为也纳入种族灭绝的范畴。实际上,在他们的讨论中,这样的行为和情境也往往被纳入种族灭绝的范畴。更加激进的定义,甚至纳入了所谓“文化种族灭绝”的概念,来指称一国对某一少数群体文化同化的政策。另外,公约定义中出现的“有意”、“部分”等定义也在不同群体问存在争议。因此,西方人权阵营认为这一公约存在许多缺陷。
7 Samantha Power. A Problem From Hell”:American and the Age of Genocide[M].New York: Harper Perennial,2002:59.
18 David B. MacDonald. Identity Politics in the Age of Genocide:the Holocaust and Historical Representation[M].London and New York:Routledge,2008:29.
19 Samantha Power. A Problem From Hell":American and the Age of Genocide[M].New York: Harper Perennial,2002:483.
20 See Julie Flint and Alex de Waal. Case Closed:A Prosecutor Without Borders[J]. World Affairs(Spring 2009).
21 威廉·A.夏巴斯,黄芳译.国际刑事法院导论[M].北京：中国人民公安大学出版社,2006：31.
22 Gareth Evens. The Responsibility to Protect:Ending Mass Atrocity Crimes Once and for All[M].Washington, D.C.:Brookings Institution Press,2008:31.
23 Gareth Evens. The Responsibility to Protect:Ending Mass Atrocity Crimes Once and for All[M].Washington, D.C.:Brookings Institution Press,2008:41-42.
24 See Samantha Power. The United States and Genocide Law[A]. in Sarah B. Sewall & Carl Kaysen(edits). The United States and the International Criminal Court[M].New York:Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, INC.,2000:166.
25 参见周琪.美国人权外交政策[M].上海：上海人民出版社,2001：468.
26 参见周琪.美国人权外交政策[M].上海：上海人民出版社,2001：461.
Peter Ronayne. Never Again? The United States and the Prevention and Punishment of Genocide since the Holocaust[M].New York:Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, INC, 2001:20-22.
28 See Samantha Power. The United States and Genocide Law[A]., in Sarah B. Sewall & Carl Kaysen(edits). The United States and the International Criminal Court[M].New York:Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, INC.,2000:168.
Peter Ronayne. Never Again? The United States and the Prevention and Punishment of Genocide since the Holocaust[M].New York:Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, INC,2001:26-27.事实上,美国倒是经常因为未通过反种族灭绝公约而受到苏联的嘲讽和抨击,以至于这一问题常使美国政府感到尴尬。
30 Peter Ronayne. Never Again? The United States and the Prevention and Punishment of Genocide since the Holocaust[M].New York:Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, INC, 2001:30-31.
Michael Galchinsky. Jews and Human Rights:Dancing at Three Weddings[M].New York: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, INC.,2008:94.
阿瑟·古德伯格(Arthur Goldberg,1908-1990),著名的犹太裔律师和政治活动家,曾任美国劳工部长(1961-1961年)、最高法院法官(1962-1965年)、驻联合国大使(1965-1968年)。
33 Peter Ronayne. Never Again? The United States and the Prevention and Punishment of Genocide since the Holocaust[M].New York:Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, INC,2001: 25.
34 为纪念病逝的兰托斯,2008年,“人权连线”更名为“兰托斯人权理事会”(Tom Lantos Human Rights Commission),
35 杰罗米·J.西斯塔克(Jerome J. Shestack),美国著名民权律师,国际人权活动家,曾在1979年至1980年担任美国驻联合国人权理事会大使,1997年至1998年任美国律师协会主席,还曾担任美国大屠杀纪念馆执行委员会成员。
36 托马斯·勃根泰尔(Thomas Buergenthal,1934-),纳粹大屠杀幸存者,著名律师,国际人权活动家,曾长期担任海牙国际法院法官,还曾长期关注和推动国际(尤其拉丁美洲)人权事务。参见Jo M. Pasqualucci. Thomas Buergenthal:Holocaust Survivor to Human Rights Advocate[J]. Human Rights Quarterly, Vol.18(1996).
Peter Konayne. Never Again? The United States and the Prevention and Punishment or Genocide since the Holocaust[M].New York:Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, INC,2001: 34.
38 Samantha Power. A Problem From Hell":American and the Age of Genocide[M].New York: Harper Perennial,2002:159.
Peter Ronayne. Never Again? The United States and the Prevention and Punishment of Genocide since the Holocaust[M].New York:Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, INC,2001: 35.
40 Genocide Treaty Controversy [J]. in Congressional Digest, December 1984,p.296.
41 Genocide Treaty Controversy[J]. in Congressional Digest, December 1984, p.300.
42 Genocide Treaty Controversy[J]. in Congressional Digest, December 1984, p.313.
43 Samantha Power. A Problem From Hell":American and the Age of Genocide[M].New York: Harper Perennial,2002:165.
44 Peter Novick. The Holocaust in American Life[M].Boston and New York:A Mariner Book, 1999:241.
45 Samantha Power. A Problem From Hell":American and the Age of Genocide[M].New York: Harper Perennial,2002:124.
46 Samantha Power. A Problem From Hell":American and the Age of Genocide[M].New York: Harper Perennial,2002:130.
47 Jack Anderson. Cambodia:A Modern-Day Holocaust[N]. Washington Post, May 3,1978:E10.
48 Samantha Power. A Problem From Hell":American and the Age of Genocide[M].New York: Harper Perennial,2002:129.
49 Donald W. Beachler. Arguing about Cambodia:Genocide and Political Interest[J]. Holocaust and Genocide Studies, Vol.23, No.2(Fall 2009):214-238.
50 Donald W. Beachler. Arguing about Cambodia:Genocide and Political Interest[J]:222.
51 Samantha Power. A Problem From Hell":American and the Age of Genocide[M].New York: Harper Perennial,2002:216.
52 Samantha Power. A Problem From Hell":American and the Age of Genocide[M].New York: Harper Perennial,2002:173.
" Samantha Power. A Problem From Hell":American and the Age of Genocide[M].New York: Harper Perennial,2002:234.
54 Vigen Guroian. Post-Holocaust Political Morality:the Litmus of Bitburg and the Armenian Genocide Resolution[J]. Holocaust and Genocide Studies, Vol.3, No.3,1988:305-322.
55 Nathan Guttman. Jewish Lobby Sits out Vote on Armenian Genocide[N]. Forward, March 19,2010.在该次投票中,众议院外委会以23对22票通过了决议案,而所有7名犹太裔议员都投下了赞成票。此前,土耳其向来重视美国犹太组织在土耳其与美国和以色列关系中的影响,其领导人访问华盛顿都会与犹太领导人会谈。而2009年上台的总理埃尔多安显然忽视了犹太组织对美国中东政策的影响。在2009年12月访问华盛顿时并未与犹太社团领导人见面,导致美国犹太组织与土耳其关系疏远。
56 Jeffrey Shandler. While America Watches:Televising the Holocaust[M].New York:Oxford University Press,1999:244.
57 See Peter Novick. The Holocaust in American Life[M].Boston and New York:A Mariner Book, 1999:251.
58 AJC.AJYB,1994[M].New York" AJC,1994:121.
59 Peter Ronayne. Never Again? The United States and the Prevention and Punishment of Genocide since the Holocaust[M].New York:Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, INC,2001: 119.
60 Samantha Power. A Problem From Hell":American and the Age of Genocide[M].New York: Harper Perennial,2002:283.
61 Peter Ronayne. Never Again? The United States and the Prevention and Punishment of Genocide since the Holocaust[M].New York:Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, INC,2001: 115.
62 Samantha Power. A Problem From Hell":American and the Age of Genocide[M].New York: Harper Perennial,2002:297.
63 Samantha Power. A Problem From Hell":American and the Age of Genocide[M].New York: Harper Perennial,2002:308.
64 AJC.AJYB,1997[M].New York:AJC,1997:151.
Samantha Power. A Problem From Hell":American and the Age of Genocide[M].New York: Harper Perennial,2002:431.
Alan E. Steinweis. The Auschwitz Analogy:Holocaust Memory and American Debates over Intervention in Bosnia and Kosovo in the 1990[J]. Holocaust and Genocide Studies, Vol.19,
67 1993年,18名美国的维和人员所乘的直升机在索马里首都摩加迪沙被当地军阀击落,他No.2(Fall 2005):276-289.们的尸体被索马里人拖着,在摩加迪沙街头示众庆祝。这些画面传回美国,使美国颜而扫地,克林顿政府也饱受质疑。此后数年中,美国对域外军事干预可能导致的失败心有余悸。
68 Stephen Wertheim. A Solution From Hell:the United States and the Rise of Humanitarian Intervention.1991-2003[J]. Journal of Genocide Research. Vol.12. No.3-4(Sept.-Dec.
69 Michael Galchinsky. Jews and Human Rights:Dancing at Three Weddings[M].New York: 2010):149-172. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, INC.,2008:99.
70 Samantha Power. A Problem From Hell":American and the Age of Genocide[M].New York: Haiper Perennial,2002:386.
71 Leon Weiseltier. Force Without Force[J]. The New Republic(Apr.26,1999):29.
Stephen Wertheim. A Solution From Hell:the United States and the Rise of Humanitarian Intervention.1991-2003I[J]. Journal of Genocide Research Vol 12 No 3-4(Sent-Dec2010) 24.
73 科索沃本为南斯拉夫塞尔维亚共和国的自治省,其境内的塞尔维亚族和阿尔巴尼亚族之间一直存在围绕土地和权力等方面争夺,时有冲突。1989年,米洛舍维奇政府收回了其自治地位。
Roland Paris. Kosovo and Metaphor War[J]. Political Science Quarterly, Vol.117, No.3(2002):423-450.
75 AJC. AJYB,2000[M].New York:AJC,2000:216.
76 Roland Paris. Kosovo and Metaphor War[J]. Political Science Quarterly, Vol.117, No.3(2002
77 Samantha Power. A Problem From Hell":American and the Age of Genocide[M].New York: Harper Perennial,2002:448-449.
78 Samantha Power. A Problem From Hell":American and the Age of Genocide[M].New York: Harper Perennial,2002:449.
79 Mark Mazower. Saviors & Sovereigns:The Rise and Fall of Humanitarianism[J]. World Affairs, March/April,2010.
80 Katherine Bischoping & Andrea Kalmin. Public Opinion About Comparisons to the Holocaust[J]. The Public Opinion Quarterly, Vol.63, No.4(Winter,1999):485-507.
81 参见Genocide Prevention Task Force. Preventing Genocide:A Blueprint for U.S. Policymakers[R], Washington:2008:xxii该小组由美国大屠杀纪念馆、美国外交学院和美国和平研究所三大机构共同招集一批专家组成,由两位克林顿时期的高官领衔。报告提交国会后,受到两党绝大多数议员的支持。
82 Mark Mazower. Saviors & Sovereigns:The Rise and Fall of Humanitarianism[J]. World Affairs, March/April,2010.
83 See Israel W. Chamy(edit.). Toward the Understanding and Prevention of Genocide Proceeding of the International Conference on the Holocaust and Genocide[M]. Boulder and
84 Herbert Hirsch. Anti-Genocide:Building an American Movement to Prevent London:Westview Press.1984. Genocide[M].Westport:Praeger Publishers,2002:35-36.
85 2002年,美国出于国家利益通过了《苏丹和平法》,对苏丹政府施加了强大压力,迫使苏丹政府与南部叛乱武装达成和平协定,给予南部地区更大自治权,吸纳南部叛乱组织领导人担任重要职务。在美国著名学者艾伦·赫茨克看来,这正是达尔富尔的反政府叛乱大爆发的外部激励因素。(参见Allen D. Hertzke. The Shame of Darfur[J]. First Things, Oct.2005：16-22)。南北议和刺激了南方叛乱组织的观点也获得了斯科特·斯特劳斯(Scott Straus)的赞同。参见Scott Straus. Darfurand the Genocide Debate[J]. Foreign Affairs,Vol.84, No.l(Jan./Feb.2005):123-133.
Mahmood Mamdani. Saviors and Survivors:Darfur, Politics, and the War on TerrorfM]. Cape Town. South Africa:HSRC Press.2009:24.
87 Scott Straus. Darfur and the Genocide Debate[J]. Foreign Affairs,Vol.84, No.1 (Jan./Feb. 20051:123-133.
88 Mahmood Mamdani. Saviors and Survivors:Darfur, Politics, and the War on Terror[M]. Cape Town. South Africa:HSRC Press.2009:34-37.
89 Peter K. Bechtold. Darfur, The ICC and the American Politics[J]. Middle East Policy, Vol.XVI, No.2(Summer 2009). 90 Mahmood Mamdani. Saviors and Survivors:Darfur, Politics, and the War on Terror[M]. Cape Town, South Africa:HSRC Press,2009:51.
91 David C. Gompert. China's Responsibility to Protect[N]. in Washington Post, June 17,2008.(网络版),浏览时间为2008年7月18日。
92 参见：Annual Report 2008, by Genocide Intervention Network,2009.
93 Peter K. Bechtold. Darfur, The ICC and the American Politics[J]. Middle East Policy, Vol.XVI, No.2(Summer2009).
94 大部分大屠杀教研组织以及学者对于美国对外政策制定及其辩论的参与并不那么积极,而且不同的组织关注重点大不相同。西蒙·维森塔尔中心等主要关切世界各地的反犹和 反以状况,致力于捍卫犹太人的安全和利益,体现出较明显的犹太特色。但也有不少组织高度关注包括种族灭绝在内的国际人权事务,其中尤以美国大屠杀纪念馆和怀伊曼大屠杀研究所为典型。从巴尔干危机和达尔富尔危机来看,大屠杀教研组织的参与美国对外政策的辩论正变得越来越明显。美国大屠杀纪念馆的“良知委员会”及其重要成员在后冷战时期推动美国实施的“人道主义干预”中发挥了非常重要的舆论宣传和道义支持作用。而怀伊曼研究所在达尔富尔危机问题上也非常积极,曾多次组织社会名流或大屠杀研究学者呼吁干预达尔富尔危机。2008年9月15日,该研究所纠合了130名重要的大屠杀研究学者联合致信国际刑事法院,要求以种族灭绝罪起诉苏丹总统。关于该信可参见"130 Holocaust Scholars Urge:Prosecute Sudan's President for Genocide", http://www.wymaninstitute.org/press/2008-9-15.php,浏览日期2011年3月1日。
95 Annual Report 2008, by Genocide Intervention Network,2009, p.24.
96 玛格丽特·E.凯克、凯瑟琳·辛金克,韩召颖、孙丽英译.超越国界的活动家：国际政治中的倡议网络[M].北京：北京大学出版社,2005：13-18。
97 玛格丽特·E.凯克、凯瑟琳·辛金克.超越国界的活动家：国际政治中的倡议网络[M],2005：18-28。
98 关于马克·哈尼斯受到《来自地狱的麻烦》的影响,可参见Katie Becker. In the Face of Genocide[N]. Swarthmore College Bulletin, Oct.2009,网络版,2011年2月24日浏览。关于“学生反种族灭绝联盟”组织创始人受该书的影响,其网站也做了简要描述,可参见http://www.standnow.org/about/who,2011年2月24日浏览。
99 Mahmood Mamdani. Saviors and Survivors:Darfur, Politics, and the War on Terror[M]. Cape Town, South Africa:HSRC Press,2009:65. 100 See President Bush Visits the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum[N]. April 18,2007, http://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2007/04/20070418.html浏览时间为2010年3月16日。
101 Darren Brunk. Dissecting Darfur:Anatomy of a Genocide Debate[J]. International Relations, Vol.22, No.1(2008):25-44.
101 参见Mahmood Mamdani. Saviors and Survivors:Darfur, Politics, and the War on Terror[M]. Cape Town, South Africa:HSRC Press,2009:62.
102 Rachel Silverman and David Silverman. Never Again, Again:Jewish Groups And Individuals Fuel Darfur Rallies[N]. www.jta.org, August 10,2007.浏览时间2008年5月21日。
Mahmood Mamdani. Saviors and Survivors:Darfur, Politics, and the War on Terror[M]. Cape Town, South Africa:HSRC Press,2009:70.
105 David Lanz. Save Darfur:A Movement and Its Discontents[J]. African Affairs, Vol.108, No.433(August 18,2009).
(?)David Lanz. Save Darfur:A Movement and Its Discontents[J]. African Affairs, Vol.108, No.433(August 18,2009).
107 AJC, AJYB,2007[M].New York:AJC,2007:73.
I08 See Allen D. Hrertzke. Freeing God's Children:the Unlikelv Alliance of Global Human Rights[M].New York:Rowman & Littlefield Publisher, INC.,2004:145.
Jacob Berkman. Jews once again lead call to end the crisis in Darfur[N]. www.jta.org, Sept.18,2005.浏览时间为2008年4月18日。
110 查姆·伯曼特,冯炜译.犹太人[M].上海：上海三联书店,1992：2。
111 Abraham H. Foxman. Never Again? The Threat of the New Anti-semitism[M]. New York: 112 HarperCollins Publishers, Inc.,2003:3.
113 David A. Harris and Ruth Messinger. Bitter Jewish Experience Means Community Can't Be Silent On Darfur[N]. www.jta.org,July17,2005笔者浏览时间为2008年4月21日。
113 斯皮尔伯格非常关切关于大屠杀历史的教育,为此,他建立了“大屠杀基金会”'(TheShoah Foundation),以记录和保存全球各地的大屠杀幸存者的事迹。在一篇采访中,他承认拍摄《辛德勒的名单》的动因是为了使这个基金会能继续存在。(参见Abigail Pogrebin. Stars of David:Prominent Jews Talk About Jewish[M]. New York:Broadway Books,2005:34.)
Sandee Brawarsky. Ruth Messinger-Repairing the World[A]. The Jewish Week, Dec.30, 2005.
115 如2004年美国拉比中央大会的年会关于苏丹达尔富尔问题的决议就是如此表述的,参见"Crisis in Sudan", www.ccar.org,June2004美国犹太人委员会2005年5月6日关于达尔富尔问题的宣言也存在类似弊端,参见"AJC Statement on Darfur:Indifference must never be response to genocide", www.AJC.org, May 6,2005浏览时间为2008年6月28日。
116 “反诽谤联盟(ADL)”对此作了澄清,指出受苏丹政府支持的阿拉伯民兵武装(Janjaweed)及其达尔富尔的受害者都是穆斯林(参见http://www.adl.org/sudan/)。另外,著名学者艾伦·赫茨克(Allen D. Hertzke)也强调了冲突双方都是穆斯林,只不过信仰苏菲派(Sufi)伊斯兰教的黑人部族并不愿接受苏丹政府更激进的伊斯兰化政策,也不满于他们在苏丹政府(阿拉伯人主导)统治下受忽视和被边缘化的处境(参见Allen D. Hertzke. The Shame of Darfur[J])。
117 Jodi Eichler-Levine and Rosemary R. Hicks.'As Americans Against Genocide':The Crisis in Darfur and Interreligious Political Activism[J]. American Quarterly, Vol.59, No.3(Sept.2007):717,721.
118 Jodi Eichler-Levine and Rosemary R. Hicks.'As Americans Against Genocide':The Crisis in Darfur and Interreligious Political Activism[J]. American Quarterly, Vol.59, No.3(Sept.2007):720.
119 Jodi Eichler-Levine and Rosemary R. Hicks.'As Americans Against Genocide':The Crisis in Darfur and Interreligious Political Activism[J]. American Quarterly, Vol.59, No.3(Sept.2007):721.
120 Tod Lindberg. The Only Way to Prevent Genocide[J]. Commentary, April,2009.
121 Mahmood Mamdani. Saviors and Survivors:Darfur, Politics, and the War on Terror[M]. Cape Town, South Africa:HSRC Press,2009:21,63.
122 Mahmood Mamdani. Saviors and Survivors:Darfur, Politics, and the War on Terror[M]. Cape Town, South Africa:HSRC Press,2009:284.
123 Alan J. Kuperman. The Moral Hazard of Humanitarian Intervention:Lessons from the Balkans[J]. International Studies Quarterly, Vol.52, No.l(March 2008):49-80.
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4 James V. Wertsch. Collective Memory and Narrative Templates[J]. Social Research, Vol.75, No.l, (Spring 2008):133-155.
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17 玛格丽特·E.凯克、凯瑟琳·辛金克,韩召颖,孙英丽译.超越国界的活动家：国际政治中的倡议网络[M].北京：北京大学出版社,2005：239。
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20 克劳福德(Neta C.Crawford)将这种状况归于四个原因：理性主义泛滥、外交决策分析中更重视认知、恐惧被学者视为不言而喻,以及研究方法上的困难。参见Neta C. Crawford. The Passion of World Politics:Propositions on Emotion and Emotional Relationships[J]. International Security, Vol.24, No.4(Spring 2000):116-156.
Jonathan Mercer. Rationality and Psychology in International Politics[J]. International Organization, Vol.59(Winter 2005):77-106.
(?)参见尹继武.情绪、理性以及国际政治世界[J].欧洲研究,2007(6)：75-93。尹继武先生有力推进了中国国际关系研究中政治心理学的运用,他尤其注重情绪(emotion)在国际政治中的重要影响。对于"emotion"一词,笔者更加倾向于译作“情感”,而在中文中,“情绪”通常为“情感”的外在表现。
23 Neta C. Crawford. The Passion of World Politics:Propositions on Emotion and Emotional Relationships[J]. International Security, Vol.24, No.4(Spring 2000):116-156.
24 Martha Finnemore and Kathryn Sikkink. International Norm Dynamics and Political Change[J]. International Organization, Vol.52, No.4(Autumn,1998):887-917.
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http://www.wymaninstitute.org怀伊曼大屠杀研究所
http://www,mfa. gov.i1以色列外交部
www,adl.org反诽谤联盟
http://www,standnow.org学生反种族灭绝联盟
http://www,whitehouse.archives,gov白宫档案馆
http://www,jta.org犹太电讯社
http://www,forward,com《前进报》
http://www,ccar.org拉比中央大会
http://www.AJC.org美国犹太人委员会
http://www.USHMM.org美国大屠杀纪念馆
http://www,jcpa.org耶路撒冷公共事务研究中心
http://www,yadvashem.org亚德·瓦谢姆大屠杀纪念馆
http://www,inogs.com国际种族灭绝研究者网络
http://genocideintervention.net国际种族灭绝干预网络
http://www,savedarfur.org拯救达尔富尔联盟
2See William L. Shulman(edit). Association of Holocaust Organizations 2009 Directory[Ml.Houston:Holocaust Museum Houston 2009
3 "List of Holocaust films", http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List of Holocaust films上网时间为2010年6月13日。
4 1945年1月27日,苏联红军解放了奥斯威辛集中营,国际大屠杀纪念日即以这一日期确定为每年的1月27日。
5 到2004年,至少有20个州有关于大屠杀教育的立法,有26个州设立了大屠杀学术的标准。参见,Yair Auron. The Pain of Knowledge:Holocaust and Genocide Issues in Education[M].London:Transaction Publishers,2005:pp.111-112.
6 乔纳森·D.萨纳,胡浩译.美国犹太教史[M].郑州：大象出版社,2009：285
(?)See Association of Holocaust Organization,2009 Directory.
Yair Auron. The Pain of Knowledge:Holocaust and Genocide Issues in Education [M], London Transaction Publishers,2005:110.
Yair Auron. The Pain of Knowledge:Holocaust and Genocide Issues in EducationfMJ. London Transaction Publishers.2005:115.
10 Peter Novick. The Holocaust in American Life[M]. Boston and New York:A Mariner Book, 1999:63.
11Helene Flanzbaum(edit.). The Americanization of the Holocaust[M], Baltimore:The Johns Hopkins University Press,1999:9.
12 代表性著作有,David S. Wyman. The Abandonment of The Jews:America and the Holocaust, 1941-1945[M]. New York:1985; David S. Wyman(ed.), American and the Holocaust, Vol.13: Responsibility for America's Failure[M].New York:1991; W. D. Rubinstein. The Myth of Rescue:why the democracies could not have saved more Jews from the Nazis[M]. New York: 1997; Richard Breitman and Alan M. Kraut. American Refugee Policy and European Jewry, 1933-1945[M.].Bloomington, Ind.:1987; Martin Gilbert. Auschwitz and the Allies[M].New York:1981.
13 Rafael Medoff. The Deafening Silence:American Jewish Leaders and the Holocaust[M].New York:1987; Haskel Lookstein. Were We Our Brothers'Keepers? The Public Response of American Jews to the Holocaust,1938-1944[M]. New York:1985; David S. Wyman, American and the Holocaust, Vol.5:American Jewish Disunity[M]. New York:1990; Aaron Berman. Nazism, the Jews and American Zionism:1933-1948[M].Detroit:1990; David H. Shpiro. From Philanthropy to Activism:the Political Transformation of American Zionism in the Holocaust Years,1933-1945[M]. New York:Pergamon Press,1994; Jerold S. Auerbach. Are We One? Jewish Identity in the United States and Israel[M].New Jercey:Rutgers University Press,2001.
"* Deborah Lipstadt. Beyond Belief:The American Press and the Coming of the Holocaust, 1933-1945[M].New York:1986; Hertzel Fishman. American Protestantism and A Jewish State[M].Detroit:1973; Edwin Black. IBM and the Holocaust:the Strategic Alliance between Nazi Germany and America's Most Powerful Corporation[M]. New York:Three Rivers Press,2002.
15 参见,Leonard Dinnerstein. America and the Survivors of the Holocaust[M]. New York:1982; Haim Genizi. America's Fair Share:the Admission and the Resettlement of Displaced Persons, 1945-1952[M].Detroit:1993; William B. Helmreich. Against All Odds:Holocaust Survivors and the Successful Lives They Made in America[M].New York:1992.
b Peter Novick. The Holocaust in American Life[M].Boston and New York:A Mariner Book, 1999.
17 Melvin I. Urofskv. We Are One:American Jewrv and Israel[M].New York:Anchor Press,1978.
18 Michael Berenbaum. After Tragedy and Triumph:Essays in Modern Jewish Thought and the American Experience[M].New York:Cambridge University Press,1990.
19 在这方面,相关著作主要有William Shawcross. The Quality of Mercy:Cambodia, Holocaust and Modern Conscience[M].New York:1984; Samantha Power. "A Problem From Hell": American and the Age of Genocide[M]. New York:Harper Perennial,2003; Fred A. Lazin. The Struggle for Soviet Jewry in American Politics:Israel Versus the American Jewish Establishment[M]. New York:Lexington Books,2005; Allen D. Hertzke. Freeing Gods Children:The Unlikely Alliance for Global Human Rights[M].Maryland:Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc.,2004.
20 Norman G. Finkelstein. The Holocaust Industry:Reflection on the Exploitation of Jewish Suffering[M].New York:2000.
"'Norman G. Finkelstein. Beyond Chutzpah:on the Misuse of Anti-Semitism and the Abuse of History[M]. Los Angeles:University of California Press,2008.
Alan S. Rosenbaum. Is the Holocaust Unique?[M]. Boulder:Westview Press,2009.
吉米斯·杨对西方许多国家大屠杀纪念场馆、纪念日活动进行了研究,阐释了不同场馆的不同艺术风格及其表达的社会政治话语(参见James E. Young. The Texture of Memory: Holocaust Memorials and Meaning[M]. New Haven:Yale University Press,1993。塞德尔则细致地剖析了纽约大屠杀纪念馆从其酝酿、推进、建成过程中的社会政治背景,及其与美国其他主要纪念馆的差异。(参见Rochelle G. Saidel. Never Too Late To Remember:The Politics Behind New York City's Holocaust Museum[M]. New York:Holmes & Meier Publishers,1996；另外,温伯格和艾丽丽,以及利林塔尔等,都对华盛顿的美国大屠杀纪念馆的酝酿和建成过程中的种种错综复杂的斗争进行了深入阐述(参见,Jeshajahu Weinerg & Rina Elieli. The Holocaust Museum in Washington[M]. New York:1995; Edward T. Linenthal. Preserving Memorv:the Struggle to Create America's Holocaust Museum[M]. New York: 1995;.
Jeffrey Shandler. While America Watches:Televising the Holocaust[M].New York:Oxford University Press,1999.
Alan Mintz. Popular Culture and the Shaping of Holocaust Memory in America[M]. Seattle and London:University of Washington Press,2001.
Yair Auron. Holocaust and Genocide Issue in Education:the Pain of Knowledge[M].New Brunswick& London:Transaction Publishers.2005.
27 参见,陈恒、耿相新.大屠杀：历史与记忆[M].郑州：大象出版社,2007：79-80.
28 潘光、金应忠(编著).1990以色列·犹太学研究[C].上海：上海社会科学院出版社,1991；唐培吉.上海犹太人[M].上海：上海三联书店,1992。
29 潘光、王健.一个半世纪以来的上海犹太人：犹太民族史上的东方一页[M].北京：社会科学文献出版社,2002；王健.上海犹太社会生活史[M].上海：上海辞书出版社,2008；潘光、王健.犹太人与中国：近代以来两个古老文明的交往和友谊[M].北京：时事出版社,2010；潘光(主编).犹太人忆上海(回忆录)[C].上海：上海市政协文史资料编辑部,1995；潘光等.犹太人在上海[M].上海：上海画报出版社,1995(2005年再版)：潘光.犹太人在中国[M].北京：五洲传播出版社,2001(2005年再版)。
30 张倩红.欧洲犹太人的毁灭[J].世界史研究动态,1991(8)
31 徐新.反犹主义解析[M].上海：上海三联书店,1996.32 朱坚劲.600万犹太人魂断欧罗巴——第二次世界大战中纳粹屠杀犹太人纪实[M].上海：上海人民出版社,1995；杨曼苏.犹太大劫难——大屠杀纪实[M].北京：中国社会科学出版社,1995。
33 潘光、余建华、王健.犹太民族复兴之路[M].上海：上海社会科学院出版社,1998。
34 主要论文有：潘光.试论纳粹大屠杀及其对犹太民族和文明的影响[J].世界历史,2000(2)；张倩红.略论大屠杀对犹太人社会心理的影响[J].中东研究,2000(3)；时春荣.大屠杀’对以色列犹太人的影响[J].西亚非洲,2003(2)；张倩红.后大屠杀时代：大屠杀的社会后果分析[J].史学月刊,2005(9)；周桂银.奥斯维辛、战争责任和国际关系伦理[J].世界历史,2005(9)。这一时期还有一些对重要的大屠杀著作(如《现代性与大屠杀》、《艾希曼在耶路撒冷》等)进行评论的文章也相继发表。
35 徐新.论犹太人铭记大屠杀的方式[J].南京社会科学,2006(10)。
36 罗衡林.通向死亡之路：纳粹统治时期德意志犹太人的生存状况[M].北京：人民出版社,2006。
37 陈恒、耿相新.纳粹屠犹：历史与记忆[M].郑州：大象出版社,2007.
38 徐贲.人以什么理由来记忆[M].长春：吉林出版集团有限责任公司,2008。
39 潘光、汪舒明、盛文沁(主编).纳粹大屠杀的政治和文化影响[M].北京：时事出版社,2009。
40 李工真.文化的流亡：纳粹时代欧洲知识难民研究[M].北京：人民出版社,2010.
41 钟志清的主要作品有：当代以色列作家研究[M].北京：人民文学出版社,2006年；身份与记忆：论希伯来语大屠杀文学中的英雄主义[J].外国文学评论,2008：4;希伯来语大屠杀文学与大屠杀幸存者作家[J].四川师范大学学报,2008：4;“艾赫曼审判”与以色列人的大屠杀记忆[J].中国图书评论,2006：4;艾赫曼审判后以色列大屠杀叙事文学[J].犹太研究,2004：3。
42 王炎.奥斯威辛之后：犹太大屠杀记忆的影像生产[M].北京：生活·读书·新知三联书店,2007。
43 赵杰.论美国政府对纳粹暴政下欧洲犹太难民的政策『J].南都学刊,1996(5)。
44 徐崇亮.论美国犹太‘大屠杀后意识’小说[J].当代外国文学,1996(3)；张群.永远无法弥合的伤痕——美国犹太文学中的大屠杀小说刍议[J].东华大学学报,2002(4)。
45 汪舒明.纳粹大屠杀、美国犹太人和人权外交[J].社会科学,2009(11)。
46 汪舒明.大屠杀与犹太民族的现实主义转向[J].世界民族,2010(2)。
47 这样的历史案例屡见不鲜：在15世纪的伊比利亚半岛,犹太人在社会政治中的影响力极大。1492年,西班牙从整体上对犹太人实行了广泛的驱逐和迫害。犹太人必须在改宗基督教和受到残酷的宗教迫害之间作出选择。许多人为此逃离伊比利亚半岛,而改宗者则仍被基督徒视为伪信徒,被蔑称为“马兰诺”(即“猪猡”)。犹太人在苏联建国初期也曾经对苏联社会政治拥有强大的影响力,但后来也遭受了反犹主义。当然,最典型的例子就是犹太人在德国的命运。
这种悔罪潮流在西方尤其明显,如美国就其历史上对黑人、华工、口裔等少数族裔群体的不公正待遇进行道歉,澳大利亚等国为其历史上对土著人的罪行进行道歉,基督教(尤其德国)为长期以来的反犹主义和纳粹大屠杀进行道歉和悔罪,南非白人为历史上的种族隔离悔罪等。在亚洲,日本也曾为其对亚洲人民的侵略而道歉。
日本对待其侵略历史的态度经常在改国与东亚邻国之间引发外交和政治纠纷；土耳其在亚美尼亚人大屠杀问题的立场也成为土、亚两国改善关系的严重障碍,还经常影响与北约盟国的关系；南非的种族隔离后遗症迄今远未解决；俄罗斯多次参与瓜分波兰并在二战期间制造“卡廷惨案”,也成为俄波关系中重要障碍；中国国民党60年前在台湾制造的“二·二八事件”,至今仍是台湾社会内部的深刻裂痕,极易被政客利用炒作,诸如此类的例子大量存在,不一而足。
Duncan Bell. Introduction[A]. in Duncan Bell(ed.). Memory, Trauma and World Politics: Reflections on the Relationship between Past and Present[M]. New York:Palgrave Macmillan, 2006:1.
Jay Winter. Notes on the Memory Boom:War, Remembrance and the Uses of Past[A]. in Duncan Bell(ed.). Memory, Trauma and World Politics:Reflections on the Relationship between Past and Present[M]. New York:Palgrave Macmillan,2006:72.
莫里斯·哈布瓦赫,毕然、郭金华译.论集体记忆[M].上海：上海人民出版社,2003：289。
Howard Schuman& Jacqueline Scott. Generations and Collective Memories[J]. American Sociological Review, Vol.54, No.3(June,1989):359-381.
Jeffrey K. Olick. Collective Memory:The Two Cultures[J]. Sociological Theory, Vol.17, No.3 (Nov.1999):333-348.
8 Avishai Margalit. The Ethics of Memory[M]. Cambridge, Mass.:Harvard University Press, 2004:51-52.
王明珂.历史事实、历史记忆与历史心性[J].历史研究,2001(5)。
10 Aleida Assmann. Transformations between History and Memory[J]. Social Research, Vol.75, No.1 (Spring 2008):56.11 研究记忆史的法国历史学家们将历史与记忆的不同特征概括为：记忆鲜活、生动、主观、具体、情感化、跳跃性、不连贯；而历史显得客观、理性、求真、抽象、评判,强调复现过去时的连续性和完整性。参见：沈坚.记忆与历史的博弈：法国记忆史的建构[J].中国社会科学,2010(3)：205-219。
12 Avishai Margalit. The Ethics of Memory[M]. Cambridge, Mass.:Harvard University Press, 2004:67.
13 Rebert F. Berkhofer,邢立军译.超越伟大故事：作为文本和话语的历史[M].北京：北京师范大学出版社,2008：329。
14 Jeffrey Blustein. The Moral Demands of Memory [M]. New York:Cambridge University Press, 2008:191-192.
15 Jeffrey Blustein. The Moral Demands of Memory[M]. New York:Cambridge University Press, 2008:178.
16 See James V. Wertsch. Collective Memory and Narrative Templates[J]. Social Research, Vol.75, No.1(Spring 2008):145 & 147.
Jeffrey Blustein. The Moral Demands of Memory[M]. New York:Cambridge University Press, 2008:200.
18 Duncan Bell(ed.). Memory, Trauma and World Politics:Reflections on the Relationship between Past and Present[M]. New York:Palgrave Macmillan,2006:181.
19 Michael G. Kenny. A Place for Memory:the Interface between Individual and Collective History[J]. Comparative Studies in Society and History, Vol.41, No.3(July,1999):420-437. 20Jeffrey Blustein. The Moral Demands of Memory[M]. New York:Cambridge University Press, 2008:202.
21 莫里斯·哈布瓦赫.论集体记忆[M].上海：上海人民出版社,2003：335。集体记忆甚至可以通过多种多样的艺术形式塑造和表达,许许多多以历史为题材的影视、戏剧节目,都可以发挥这种作用。
22 以文学形式塑造形象和记忆的一个典型就是,西方通过《1984》和《古拉格群岛》这两部拥有广泛读者的小说,以夸张和戏剧化的方式,在西方社会塑造了关于苏联共产主义的令人恐惧的意识形态“他者”形象和记忆。
23 Gay Becker, Yewoubdar Beyene, Pauline Ken. Memory, Trauma, and Embodied Distress:the Management of Disruption in the Stories of Cambodians in Exile[J]. Ethos, Vol.28, No.3(Sep. 2000):320-345.
24 莫里斯·哈布瓦赫.论集体记忆[M].上海：上海人民出版社,2003：73。
Duncan Bell(ed.). Memory, Trauma and World Politics:Reflections on the Relationship between Past and Present[M]. New York:Palgrave Macmillan12006:120.
26 莫里斯·哈布瓦赫.论集体记忆[M].上海：上海人民出版社,2003：407。
莫里斯·哈布瓦赫.论集体记忆[M].上海：上海人民出版社,2003：47。
28 关于相关论述,可以参见：罗伯特·杰维斯,秦亚青译.国际政治中的知觉与错误知觉[M].北京：世界知识出版社,2003：246-270;还可参见,Howard Schuman& Jacqueline Scott. Generations and Collective Memories[J]. American Sociological Review, Vol.54, No.3(June, 1989):359-381.
Richard A. Melanson. Reconstructing Consensus:American Foreign Policy since the Vietnam WarfM]. New York:St. Martin's Press,1991:27-28.
30 许多社会学家和心理学家对负罪感和羞愧感这两种人类社会存在的强烈情感做了区分,一般而言,负罪感乃是因为自身行为对他者产生了危害,但又无法找到被自己或他人认可的正当性或合法性；而愧疚感则由于作了某种不光彩的行为,或在某种情势下表现得软弱无力,而自觉声誉、形象受损。
Jeffrey Blustein. The Moral Demands of Memory[M]. New York:Cambridge University Press, 2008:153.
32 See, Duncan Bell(ed.). Memory, Trauma and World Politics:Reflections on the Relationship between Past and Present[M]. New York:Palgrave Macmillan,2006:123-125; see also, W. James Booth. Communities of Memory. On Identity, Memory and Debt[J]. American Political Science Review, Vol.93, No.2(June,1999):249-263.
33 阿伦·哈斯,梁骏、李丽娜、车锐敏译.大屠杀后遗症[M],北京：北京出版社,2000：2。
34 Howard Schuman & Cheryl Rieger. Historical Analogies, Generational Effects, and Attitudes Toward War[J], American Sociological Review, Vol.57, No.3(Jun.,1992):315-326.
35 莫里斯·哈布瓦赫.论集体记忆[M].上海：上海人民出版社,2003：45,58-59。
36 E.H.卡尔, 陈恒译.历史是什么?[M]北京：商务印书馆,2007：175。
37 Rebert F. Berkhofer.超越伟大故事：作为文本和话语的历史[M].北京：北京师范大学出版社,2008：332。
38 关于身份的此类表述,可参见,阿尔弗雷德·格罗塞,王鲲译.身份认同的困境[M],北京：社会科学文献出版社,2010：3;塞缪尔·亨廷顿,程克雄译.我们是谁?美国国家特性面临的挑战[M].北京：新华出版社,2005：20,23。
39 关于身份形成过程中内在—外在互动的论述,可参见,塞缪尔·亨廷顿.我们是谁?美国国家特性面临的挑战[M].北京：新华出版社,2005：21-22；亚历山大·温特,秦亚青译.国际政治的社会理论[M].上海：上海人民出版社,2004：282。
40 亚历山大·温特.国际政治的社会理论[M].上海：上海人民出版社,2004：287-288。
41 塞缪尔·亨廷顿.我们是谁?美国国家特性面临的挑战[M].北京：新华出版社,2005：23。
42 亨廷顿提出了以下几种身份来源：归属、文化、疆域、政治、经济和社会等,塞缪尔·亨廷顿.我们是谁?美国国家特性面临的挑战[M].北京：新华出版社,2005：24-25。
43 亚历山大·温特.国际政治的社会理论[M].上海：上海人民出版社,2004：289。
44 本尼迪克特·安德森,吴叡人译.想象的共同体：民族主义的起源与散布[M].上海：上海世纪出版集团,2008：6。
45 吴叡人.认同的重量[A],参见本尼迪克特·安德森译.想象的共同体：民族主义的起源与散布[M].上海：上海世纪出版集团,2008,导读：17。
46 王立新.美国国家认同的形成及其对美国外交的影响[J].历史研究,2003(4)。
47 Idith Zertal. Israel's Holocaust and the Politics of Nationhood[M].New York:Cambridge University Press,2005:2.
48 沈坚.记忆与历史的博弈：法国记忆史的建构[J].中国社会科学,2010(3)。
49 亚历山大·温特.国际政治的社会理论[M].上海：上海人民出版社,2004：205。
50 David Thelen. Memory and American History[J]. The Journal of American History, Vol.75, No.4(March,1989):1117-1129.
51 Duncan Bell(ed.). Memory, Trauma and World Politics:Reflections on the Relationship between Past and Present[M]. New York:Palgrave Macmillan,2006:37.
52James Booth. Communities of Memory:On Identity, Memory and Debt[J]. American Political Science Review, Vol.93, No.2(June,1999):258.
53 亚历山大·温特.国际政治的社会理论[M].上海：上海人民出版社,2004：205。
54 See James V. Wertsch. Collective Memory and Narrative Templates[J]. Social Research, Vol.75, No.1 (Spring 2008):133-155.
55 关于上述这三种事件对集体认同不同影响的概括,可参见,约恩·吕森.历史思考的新途径[M].上海：世纪出版集团,2005：159-160。
56 约恩·吕森.历史思考的新途径[M].上海：世纪出版集团,2005：94。
57 弗里德里希·尼采,陈涛、周辉荣译.历史的用途与滥用[M].上海：上海世纪出版集团,2007：22,25。
58 关于发生在一战期间的亚美尼亚惨案,欧美社会的主流将之定性为“种族灭绝”(Genocide),有好几个国家的议会还通过了关于亚美尼亚种族灭绝问题的议案。土耳其社会的主流承认那是一场“大屠杀(massacre)",但反对将之“升格”为类似于大屠杀(Holocaust)的“种族灭绝”。显然,是否承认亚美尼亚惨案为种族灭绝,已经成了欧洲是否接纳土耳其的软性标准之
59 Jeffrey Blustein. The Moral Demands of Memory[M]. New York:Cambridge University Press, 2008:163-164.
60 Jeffrey Blustein. The Moral Demands of MemoryfM]. New York:Cambridge University Press, 2008:145.
61 亚当·斯密,余涌译.道德情操论[M].北京：中国社会科学出版社,2003：90。
62 亚当·斯密,余涌译.道德情操论[M].北京：中国社会科学出版社,2003：91。
63 Nyla R. Branscombe(edt). Collective Guilt:International Perspectives[M]. New York: Cambridge University Press,2004:17.
64 Jenny Edikins. Trauma and the Memory of Politics[M]. New York:Cambridge University Press, 2003:114.
65 Paul Edward Gottfried. Multiculturalism and the Politics of Guilt:Toward a Secular Theocracy[M]. London:University of Missouri Press,2002:78.
66 John A. Updegraff, Roxane Cohen Silver and Alison Holman. Searching for and Finding Meaning in Collective Trauma:Results From a National Longitudinal Study of the 9/11 Terrorist Attacks[J]. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol.95, No.3(2008): 709-722.
67 Jeffrey Blustein. The Moral Demands of Memory[M]. New York:Cambridge University Press, 2008:148-170.
68 1940年,斯大林、贝利亚等苏共中央最高领导人命令苏军在卡廷森林秘密屠杀了2万多名被俘波兰军官以及其他波兰精英。直到苏联解体前夕,苏联一直宣称这一事件是纳粹 德国所为,而且拒绝解密相关档案。
69 王明珂.华夏边缘：历史记忆与族群认同[M].北京：社会科学文献出版社,2006：236,242-243。
70 Kimberly Gross and Lisa D'Ambrosio. Framing Emotional Response[J]. Political Psychology, Vol.25, No.1 (Feb.2004):1-29. 71 See Kristen Renwick Monroe. Morality and a Sense of Self:The Importance of Identity and Categorization for Moral Action[J]. American Journal of Political Science, Vol.45, No.3(July 2001):491-507.
72 See Hona E. de Hooge, Seger M. Breugelmans, and Marcel Zeelenberg. Not So Ugly After All: Shame Acts as a Commitment Device[J]. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol.95, No.4(2008):933-943. Also, Rupert Brown, Roberto Gonzalez, Hanna Zagefka, Jorge Manzi. Nuestra Culpa:Collective Guilt and Shame as Predictors of Reparation for Historical Wrongdoing[J]. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol.94, No.1(2008):75-90.
73 关于德国人对大屠杀以及犹太民族的看法,笔者曾在2008年至2010年间多次访谈在上海犹太研究中心从事大屠杀历史教研志愿服务工作的奥地利志愿者林马丁(Martin Warner)、劳伦斯和多米尼克等,他们向我生动地描绘了德国人因大屠杀而产生的深重的负罪感和愧疚感,以及对犹太民族的道义责任。
74 Emily M. Zitek, Alexander H. Jordan, Benoit Monin, and Frederick R. Leach. Victim Entitlement to Behave Selfishly[J]. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol.98, No.2(2010):245-255.
75 王小鲁.我触摸到属于他人的伤痕[N].经济观察报,2010,6(7)：47.
76 罗伯特·杰维斯.国际政治中的知觉与错误知觉[M].北京：世界知识出版社,2003：227。
77 David Patrick Houghton. Historical Analogies and the Cognitive Dimension of Domestic Policymaking[J]. Political Psychology, Vol.19, No.2(June 1998):279-303.
78 关于这两者的相似之处,可参见Mark Schlesinger & Richard R.Lau. The Meaning and Measure of Policy Metaphors[J]. The American Political Science Review, Vol.94, No.3(Sept. 2000):611-626; Keith L. Shimko. Metaphors and Foreign Policy Decision Making[J]. Political Psychology, Vol.15, No.4(Dec.1994):655-671.
79 参见张清敏、潘丽君.类比、认知与毛泽东的对外政策[J].世界经济与政治,2010(11)：54-72.
80 See Roland Paris. Kosovo and the Metaphor War[J]. Political Science Quarterly, Vol.117,No.3(2002)：.该文主要分析借喻在政治辩论中的作用,但笔者认为,在意义架构和政治动员中,借喻的作用和功能也适用于历史类比。
81 参见Mark Schlesinger & Richard R.Lau. The Meaning and Measure of Policy Metaphors[J]. The American Political Science Review, Vol.94, No.3(Sept.2000):611-626.
82 Howard Schuman & Cheryl Rieger. Historical Analogies, Generational Effects, and Attitudes Toward War.
83 Jeffrey Blustein. The Moral Demands of Memory [M]. New York:Cambridge University Press, 2008:203.
84 杰维斯对“历史禁锢想象”这种倾向做了深入分析。参见罗伯特·杰维斯.国际政治中的知觉与错误知觉[M].北京：世界知识出版社,2003：226-227。
85 W. James Booth. The Work of Memory:Time, Identity, and Justice[J]. Social Research, Vol.75, No.1 (Spring 2008):253,255.
86 弗里德里希·尼采.历史的用途与滥用[M].上海：上海世纪出版集团,2007：55。
1 诺曼·波德霍雷茨,美国新保守派重要元老,1960-1990年担任《评论》杂志主编,对美国新保守派产生巨大影响。
2 Norman Podhoretz. My Love Affair with America:the Cautionary Tale of a Cheerful ConservativefMl. New York:The Free Press,2000:234-235.
3 Kirsten Fermaglich. American Dreams and Nazi Nightmares:Early Holocaust Consciousness and Liberal America,1957-1965[M].Waltham:Brandeis University Press,2006:5.
4 See, Peter Novick. The Holocaust in American Life[M].Boston and New York:A Mariner Book, 1999:85.
5 经典的锡安主义(Zionism,又译作“犹太复国主义”)致力于使犹太人摆脱流散处境下的卑屈无助、受人厌憎的贱民地位,回归巴勒斯坦复兴犹太民族家园,并将“可怜的”“犹太人”重新塑造成自豪、健康、现代、开放、在自己土地上劳作、使用自己的语言的“希伯来人”,成为受人喜欢的“沙布拉(Sabra)"。
6 参见钟志清.身份与记忆：论希伯来语大屠杀文学中的英雄主义[A],载潘光、汪舒明、盛文沁主编.纳粹大屠杀的政治和文化影响[C].北京：时事出版社,2009：66-67。
7 Kirsten Fermaglich. American Dreams and Nazi Nightmares:Early Holocaust Consciousness and Liberal America,1957-1965[M].Waltham:Brandeis University Press,2006:14.
8 1953年和1954年,先后有Gerald Reitlinger所著的《最后解决》(The Final Solution)和
Leon Poliakov所著的《憎恨的恶果》(Harvest of Hate)两书引人美国,但只在很少的学者中获得了注意,关于这两部书的简要评论也寥寥无几。
9 Judith E. Doneson. The American History of Anne Frank's Diary[J]. Holocaust and Genocide Studies, Vol.2, No.1 (1987):149-160.
10 See Alan Mintz. Popular Culture and the Shaping of Holocaust Memory in America[M]. Seattle and London:University of Washington Press,2001:17-19. And, Judith E. Doneson. The American History of Anne Frank's Diary[J]; also, Alvin H. Rosenfeld. The Americanization of the Holocaust.[J]. Commentary, June 1995.
11 约翰·J.米尔斯海默、斯蒂芬·M.沃尔特,王传兴.以色列游说集团与美国对外政策[M].上海：上海世纪出版集团,2009：109。
12 Lawrence Baron. The Holocaust and American Public Memory,1945-1960[J]. Holocaust and Genocide Studies, Vol.17, No.1 (Spring,2003):62-88. 13 Peter Novick. The Holocaust in American Life[M].Boston and New York:A Mariner Book, 1999:133.
14 Peter Novick. The Holocaust in American Life[M].Boston and New York:A Mariner Book, 1999:148-149.
Raul Hilberg. The Politics of Memory:the Journey of a Holocaust Historian[M]. Chicago:Ivan R. Dee,1996:123.
16 Marianne R. Sanua. Let Us Prove Strong:The American Jewish Committee,1945-2006[Ml. Waltham, Mass.:Brandeis University Press,2007:32. 1'Peter Novick. The Holocaust in American Life[M].Boston and New York:A Mariner Book, 1999:12,207.
Yair Auron. The Pain of Knowledge:Holocaust and Genocide Issues in Education[M].London: Transaction Publishers.2005:109.
19 Laurence Mordekhai Thomas. Suffering as a Moral Beacon:Blacks and Jews[A], in Helene Flanzbaum. The Americanization of the Holocaust[M]:200-201.
20 Thomas D. Fallace. The Origins of Holocaust Education in American Public Schools[J]. Holocaust and Genocide Studies, Vol.20, No.l, Spring 2006:80-102. "'Stephen R. Haynes. Holocaust Education at American Colleges and Universities:A Report on the Current Situation[J]. Holocaust and Genocide Studies, Vol.12, No.2, Fall 1998:282-307.
11 U.S. Catholic Conference. Catholic Teaching on the Shoah:Implementing the Holy See's We Remember[R]. Washington:1999.
23Yair Auron. the pain of Knowledge:Holocaust and Genocide Issues in Education[M].London: Transaction Publishers.2005:111-112.
James E. Young. America's Holocaust:Memory and the Politics of Identity [A], in Helene Flanzbaum. The Americanization of the Holocaust[M]:72.
ZJ See William L. Shulman(edit.). Association of Holocaust Organization,2009 Directory[M].Houston:Holocaust Museum Houston,2009.
26 Yair Auron. The Pain of Knowledge:Holocaust and Genocide Issues in Education[M].London: Transaction Publishers.2005:110.
Yair Auron. The Pain of Knowledge:Holocaust and Genocide Issues in Education[M].London: Transaction Publishers.2005:115.
28 Peter Novick. The Holocaust in American Life[M].Boston and New York:A Mariner Book, 1999:13.
29 反诽谤联盟(ADL)为重要的美国犹太非政府组织,成立于1913年,长期致力于反对反犹主义,捍卫犹太人的安全和利益,曾长期与“美国犹太人委员会”和“美国犹太人大会”并称为三大“防卫”组织。
30 Facing History and Ourselves National Foundation. Facing History and Ourselves Resource Book[M]. Brookline, Massachusetts,1994,'Introduction", p. xxiii.
31 Facing History and Ourselves National Foundation. Facing History and Ourselves Resource Book[M]. Brookline, Massachusetts,1994:Preface, p. xvii.
32 President's Commission on the Holocaust. Report to the President[R]. Washington:Sept.27, 1979:5-6.
33 James E. Young. America's Holocaust:Memory and the Politics of Identity[A]. Helene Flanzbaum(edit). The Americanization of the Holocaust[M]:72.
34 Edward T. Linenthal. The Boundaries of Memory:the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum[J]. American Quarterly, Vol.46, No.3(Sep.1994):406-433.
35 Rochelle G. Saidel. Never Too Late to Remember:the Politics Behind New York City's Holocaust Museum[M]. New York:Holmes & Meier,1996:218-219.
36 James E. Young. The Texture of Memory:Holocaust Memorials and Meaning[M]. New Haven: Yale University Press,1993:307.
37Rochelle G. Saidel. Never Too Late to Remember:the Politics Behind New York City's Holocaust Museum[M]. New York:Holmes & Meier,1996:216.
38 David B. MacDonald. Identity Politics in the Age of Genocide:the Holocaust and Historical Representation[M].London and New York:Routledge,2008:23.
Address by Ruth Bader Ginsburg, at the Capital Rotunda, Apr.22,2004.
0 Address by Senator Joseph I. Lieberman, at the Capital Rotunda, Apr.19,2007.
41 [伊朗]拉明·贾汉贝格鲁著,杨祯钦译：《柏林谈话录》,上海：译林出版社,2002年版,第18页。
42 Raul Hilbere. The Destruction Of The Eurooean Jews[Ml. Yale University Press.2003. c1961.
43 Gerald Reitlinger. The Final Solution:The Attempt To Exterminate The Jews Of Europe, 1939-1945[M]. New York:Barnes,1961,cl953.
Lucy Dawidowicz. The War Against the Jews[M]. New York:Penguin books,1975.
45 Jewish Values in the Post-Holocaust Future[J], Judaism, Vol.16, No.7(Summer,1967): 277-278.
46 Jewish Values in the Post-Holocaust Future[J], Judaism, Vol.16, No.7(Summer,1967): 281-283.
47 AJC.AJYB,1980[M].New York:AJC,1980:85.
48 “holocaust”词,由希腊语词源“holos”(全部)和“kaustos”(烧烤)构成,意谓完全烤熟、献祭给众神的牲肉,后来引申为“大规模屠杀”。在这一词的基础上,后来又进一步出现了更流行的“the Holocaust”,特指二战期间纳粹对犹太人等群体的集体大屠杀。参见王炎：“纳粹大屠杀的哲学思考：特殊性与普遍性”,潘光、汪舒明、盛文沁主编：《纳粹大屠杀的政治和文化影响》,时事出版社2009年版,第52-63页。
49“genocide”(种族灭绝)一词由来自波兰、任教耶鲁大学的犹太裔法学家拉姆金(Raphael Lemkin)于1944年创造,由希腊语的genos(意谓种族或部族)和拉丁语的cide(意谓屠杀)合成,指称旨在灭绝一个民族或宗教群体的罪行。种族灭绝罪以大屠杀为参照原型,成为二战以来国际社会公认的反人类罪中最严重的一种。
50 马丁·吉尔伯特,蔡永良、袁冰洁译.五千年犹太文明史[M].上海：上海三联书店,2010,第209页。
51 Peter Novick. The Holocaust in American Life[M].Boston and New York:A Mariner Book, 1999:67-68.
52 Jeffrey Shandler. While America Watches:Televising the Holocaust[M].New York:Oxford University Press,1999:203.
53 Abigail Pogrebin. Stars of David[M].New York:Broadway Books,2005:34.
54 Edward T. Linenthal. The Boundaries of Memory:the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum[J]. American Quarterly, Vol.46, No.3(Sep.1994):406-433.
55 美国大屠杀纪念馆所展出的实物或图片,一部分来自难民及其家属的捐赠,另一些来自奥斯维辛大屠杀纪念博物馆。
56 Alison Landsberg. America, the Holocaust, and the Mass Culture of Memory:Toward a Radical Politics of Empathy[M]. New German Critique, Vol.71 (Spring-Summer,1997):63-86.
(?)Peter Novick. The Holocaust in American Life[M].Boston and New York:A Mariner Book, 1999:215-221.
38 Michael Berenbaum. After Tragedy and Triumph:Essays in Modern Jewish Thought and the American Experience[M].New York:Cambridge University Press,1990:31.
(?)William Styron. Sophie's Choice[M]. New York:Random House,1976.该书1976牛出版后就获得巨大成功,很快荣获普利策奖,在美国热销1000多万册。当然,一些犹太人认为该书过多地聚焦于基督徒在大屠杀中的受难,因此对之提出了许多批评。该书中文版2010年由人民文学出版社出版。
60 See Alice L. Eckardt. Post-Holocaust Theology:A Journey out of the Kingdom of Night[J]. Holocaust and Genocide Studies, Vol.1 No.2(1986):229-240.
61 Tom Lawson. Shaping the Holocaust:the Influence of Christian Discourse on Perceptions of the European Jewish Tragedy[J]. Holocaust and Genocide Studies, Vol.2l,No.3(Winter 2007): 404-420.
62 Kazimierz Lukomski. Poland on Trial-Shoah[A]. in Polish American Congress. Polish Americans Reflect on Shoah[M]. Chicago:1986:11.
(?)历史化指历史学界试图用常规的理论去解释大屠杀,使之“降格”为与普通历史事件一样可以理解和分析的研究对象；而政治化则包含大屠杀记忆文化中出现的“非犹太化”、
64 Jewish Values in the Post-Holocaust Future[J]. Judaism, Vol.16, No.7(Summer,1967):289.“美国化”、否定大屠杀、胡乱比附等等趋向。
65 Yehuda Bauer. A History of the Holocaust[M].New York:F Watts,1982:332.
00 Michael Berenbaum. After Tragedy and Triumph:Essays in Modern Jewish Thought and the American Experience[M].New York:Cambridge University Press,1990:29.
Alice L. Eckardt and A. Roy Eckardt. The Holocaust and the Enigma ot Uniqueness:A Philosophical Effort at Practical Clarification[J]. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Vol.450(July 1980):165-178.
Michael Berenbaum. After Tragedy and Triumph:Essays in Modern Jewish Thought and the American Experience[M].New York:Cambridge University Press,1990:24-25.
Michael Berenbaum. After Tragedy and Triumph:Essays in Modern Jewish Thought and the American Experience[M].New York:Cambridge University Press,1990:28.
70 Alan S. Rosenbaum. Is the Holocaust Unique?[M]. Boulder:Westview Press,2009该书1996年初版,后又于2001年和2009年两次再版,并先后添加了若干篇新文章。
See Gavriel D. Rosenfeld. The Politics of Uniqueness:Reflections on the Recent Polemical Turn in Holocaust and Genocide Scholarshi[J]. Holocaust and Genocide Studies, Vol.13, No.1 (Spring 1999):28-61
72 Steven Katz. The Uniqueness ot the Holocaust:The Historical Dimension[A], in edit. Alan S. Rosenbaum. Is the Holocaust Unique?[M]. Boulder:Westview Press,2009:55-74.
73Richard L. Rubenstein. Religion and the Uniqueness of the Holocaust[A]. in Alan S. Rosenbaum. Is the Holocaust Unique?[M]. Boulder:Westview Press,2009:39-46.
Israel W. Charny. Forward[A]. in Alan S. Rosenbaum. Is the Holocaust Unique?[M]. Boulder Westview Press,2009:xi
'" Ian Hancock. Responses to the Porrajmos:the Romani Holocaust[A]. in Alan S. Rosenbaum. Is the Holocaust Unique?[M]. Boulder:Westview Press,2009:75-102.
David E. Stannard. Uniqueness as Denial:the Politics of Genocide Scholarship[A]., in Alan S. Rosenbaum. Is the Holocaust Unique?[M]. Boulder:Westview Press,2009:295-340.
" See Gavriel D. Rosenfeld. The Politics of Uniqueness:Reflections on the Recent Polemical Turn in Holocaust and Genocide Scholarship[J].
78 Address by Colin L. Powell. Secretary of State, at the Capital Rotunda. Abr.27.2003.
79 Address by Barack Obama, President, at the Capital Rotunda, Apr.23,2009.
80 王炎.纳粹大屠杀的哲学思考：特殊性与普遍性[A].潘光、汪舒明、盛文沁(主编).纳粹大屠杀的政治和文化影响『M]：52-63.
81 See http://www.ihr.org/main/about.shtml浏览时间2010年9月25日。
82 Deborah Lipstadt. Denying the Holocaust:the Growing Assault on Truth and Memory[M]. New York:The Free Press.1993:138.
83 Marianne R. Sanua. Let Us Prove Strong:The American Jewish Committee,1945-2006[M]. Waltham, Mass.:Brandeis University Press,2007:353.
84 See, Deborah E. Lipstadt. The Bitburg Controversy[A]. in AJYB,1987:21-3
85 福音派重要领导人之一杰里·法尔维尔(Jerry Falwell)公开地批评里根,而葛培理和帕特·罗伯逊(Pat Robertson)则在幕后做里根的工作。葛培理本人在十天里就两次与里根面谈,还与第一夫人南希长谈,指出参拜军人陵园将严重损害里根在国内外的道义权威。
86 Deborah E. Lipstadt. The Bitburg Controversy[A]:29.
87Marianne R. Sanua. Let Us Prove Strong:The American Jewish Committee,1945-2006[M]. Waltham, Mass.:Brandeis University Press,2007:306-308.
88 阿伦·哈斯,梁骏等译.大屠杀后遗症[M].北京：北京出版社,2000：11。
89 阿伦·哈斯,梁骏等译.大屠杀后遗症『M].北京：北京出版社,2000：134。
90 Peter Novick. The Holocaust in American Life[M].Boston and New York:A Mariner Book, 1999:171.
91 Charles S. Liebman & Steven M. Cohen. Two Worlds of Judaism:the Israeli and American Experiences[M]. New Haven and London:Yale University Press,1990:33.
92 乔纳森·D.萨纳,胡浩译.美国犹太教史[M].郑州：大象出版社2009：283。
93 Charles S. Liebman & Steven M. Cohen. Two Worlds of Judaism:the Israeli and American Experiences[M]. New Haven and London:Yale University Press,1990:31.
94 参见潘光、余建华、王健.犹太民族复兴之路[M].上海：上海社会科学院出版社,1998：12-13。
95 Howard F. Stein. The Holocaust, the Uncanny, and the Jewish Sense of History[J]. Political Psychology, Vol.5, No.1(1984).
96Michael A. Meyer. Jewish Identity in the Modern World[M].Seattle & London:University of Washington Press,1990:34.
97 Daniel Bar-Tal and Dikla Antebi. Beliefs About Negative Intentions of the World: A Study of the Israeli Siege Mentality[J], Political Psychology, Vol.13, No.4 (Dec,1992):633-645
98 Jonathan S. Woocher. The'Civil Judaism'of Communal Leaders[A], in AJYB,1981[M]. New York:AJC,1981:149-169.
99 在这一问题上,美国犹太裔学者丹尼尔·J.古德哈根(Daniel Jonah Goldhagen)在《希特勒的志愿行刑者》一书中提出了非常激进的指控：大屠杀的罪魁祸首不是少数纳粹精英,而是许许多多被“灭绝性反犹主义”所煽动的德国大众。早在希特勒上台前150年,这种致命的反犹病毒已经深深嵌入德国文化中,成为德意志民族独特性格和文化的一部分。大屠杀反映了德意志民族心底最深处的渴望,是整个民族的计划。See Daniel Jonah Goldhagen. Hitler's Willing Executioners:Ordinary Germans and the HolocaustfM]. New York:Alfred A. Knopf,199601998年,其中文版由新华出版社出版。古德哈根的观点等于起诉了整个德意志民族,由此引起德国人的严重不满。如德国学者克劳斯·费舍尔就将这种观点视为是对整个德国民族的诽谤。参见[德]克劳斯·费舍尔著,钱坤译：《德国反犹史》,江苏人民出版社2007年版,第4页。但在美国,占德哈根的著作却大受追捧,他因此获得了美国政治学学会的嘉奖。
100 Armin F. Boyens. The Ecumenical Community and the Holocaust[J]. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Sciences, Vol.450(July 1980).
Elie Wiesel. Memoirs:All Rivers Run to the Sea[M].New York:Schocken Books,1995:69.
2 Eugene J. Fisher and Leon Klenicki(edits). Spiritual Pilgrimage:Texts on Jews and Judaism, 1979-1995[M]. New York:The Crossroad Publishing Company,1995:112.
(?)Report of the Commission of Faith and Order of the World Council of Churches,1967, Bristo UK.
104 "Ecumenical Considerations on Jewish-Christian Dialogue", by World Council of Churches,1982.该报告由教会与犹太民族谘商委员会(The Consultation of the Church and the Jewish People)起草,并于1982年被接受为指导基督教与犹太人之间对话合作关系的正式文件。
105 "Alliance of Baptist Statement on Jewish-Christian Relations", Match 4,1995, by the Alliance of Baptists.
106 "A Sacred Obligation:Rethinking Christian Faith in Relation to Judaism and the Jewish People", Sept.1,2002, by the Christian Scholars Group on Christian-Jewish Relations.
107"Christian-Jewish Dialogue", Resolution by General Convention of the Episcopal Church in U.S.A.,Dec,1979.
108 "Declaration to the Jewish Community", April 18,1994, by the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America.
"'Eugene J. Fisher and Leon Klenicki(edits). Spiritual Pilgrimage:Texts on Jews and Judaism, 1979-1995[M]. New York:The Crossroad Publishing Company,1995:7.
110 "We Remember:A Reflection on the Shoah", by Commission for Religious Relations with the Jews, March 16,1998.
111"Response to Vatican Document We Remember:A Reflection on the Shoah", by International Jewish Committee on Interreligious Consultations, March 20,1998.
112 Daniel Jonah Goldhagen. A Moral Reckoning:The Role of the Catholic Church in the Holocaust and its Unfulfilled Duty ofRepair[M].New York:First Vintage Books,2003:44.
113 Daniel Jonah Goldhagen. A Moral Reckoning:The Role of the Catholic Church in the Holocaust and its Unfulfilled Duty of Repair[M].New York:First Vintage Books,2003:143.
114 Daniel Jonah Goldhagen. A Moral Reckoning:The Role of the Catholic Church in the Holocaust and its Unfulfilled Dutv of Repair[M].New York:First Vintaee Books.2003:225. 228.
115 引自戴维·施梅特(David Cymet)2011年1月23日致上海犹太中心主任潘光研究员的信。
116 "Catholic Teaching on the Shoah:Implementing the Holy See's We Remember", by United States Catholic Conference, Washington, D.C.,2001:9-10.
117 See Lawrence Baron. The Holocaust and American Public Memory,1945-1960[J]. Holocaus and Genocide Studies, Vol.17, No.1 (Spring,2003):79.
118 Address by Susan Eisenhower, at the Capital Rotunda, May 5,2005.
119 Address by Laura Bush, First Lady, at the Capital Rotunda, May 5,2005.
120 沃尔特·拉克,徐方、阎瑞松译.犹太复国主义史[M].上海：上海三联书店,1992：670。
121 本雅明·内塔尼亚胡,田在玮、莎文译.持久的和平[M].北京：世界知识出版社,2009：258-259。
122 Arthur D. Morse. While Six Million Died:A Chronicle of American Apathy[M].New York: The Overlook Press.1998:383.
123 See David S. Wyman. The Abandonment of the Jews:America and the Holocaust,1941-1945[M]:preface.
124President's Commission on the Holocaust. Report to the President[R], Washington:Sept.2 1979:6-8. Peter Novick. The Holocaust in American Life[M].Boston and New York:A Mariner Book, 1999:56-57.
Address by Fred S. Zeidman, Chairman of United States Holocaust Memorial Council, at the Capital Rotunda, April 23,2009.
127 Peter Novick. The Holocaust in American Life[M].Boston and New York:A Mariner Book, 1999:p.48.
128 Address by Joshua B. Bolten, Chief of Staff to the President, at the Capital Rotunda, May 1, 2008.
129 See, Martin Gilbert. Auschwitz and the Allies:A Devastating Account of How the Allies Responded to the News of Hitler's Mass Murder[M].New York:An Owl Book, Henry Holt and Company,1981:339-341.
130 William D. Rubinstein. The Myth of Rescue:Why the Democracies Could not Have Saved More Jews from the Nazis[M]. New York:Routledge,1997.
1 定居点建设是否停止,一直是阻碍巴以和平进程中的一个直接障碍。
2 当然,二战以来德国对以和对犹政策表现出更加强烈的道义色彩,大屠杀在德国和奥地利等国都留下了根深蒂固的集体负罪感。除了国家层面的带有明显忏悔和补偿性的政策,每一年都会有数万德国人在以色列从事志愿工作。许多人都有一种为犹太人做点贡献以表达赎罪的渴望。奥地利法律还规定,年轻人可以以从事与大屠杀教育有关的志愿服务来替代服兵役的义务。从2006年开始,上海犹太研究中心每年都有数名由“奥地利大屠杀志愿服务”组织派遣的志愿人员。
3 参见：约翰·J.米尔斯海默、斯蒂芬·M.沃尔特,王传兴译.以色列游说集团与美国对外政策[M].上海：上海世纪出版集团,2009。2006年春,两位作者首先在哈佛大学和芝加哥大学的网站上发表的同名报告,并随后在《伦敦书评》杂志上发表了题为“以色列游说集团”的论文,次年,该报告的扩充版成书出版。
4 斯蒂芬·M.沃尔特,郭盛、王颖译.驯服美国权力：对美国首要地位的全球回应[M].上海：上海世纪出版集团,2008：182。
5 自二十世纪70年代以来,犹太人在美国已经被视为“白人”。犹太背景不仅不再成为受到社会排斥的因素,在很多情况下甚至已经成为个有利因素。可以说,犹太人此时已经成为美国主流社会的一部分。但是,犹太人仍然保存着独特的命运感和历史感,保留着其独特的宗教文化传统,保留着强烈的犹太民族认同,因此,在其自我意识中,犹太人又经常自视为少数族裔群体的一员。本章所指的主流社会就是以WASP为核心的美国白人基督教社会。
6 Address by Colin L. Powell, Secretary of State, at the Capital Rotunda,27 April,2003.
'Lawrence Baron. The Holocaust and American Public Memory, 1945-196O[J]. Holocaust and Genocide Studies, Vol.17, No.1(Spring,2003):65.
8 Walter Russell Mead. The New Israel and the Old:Why Gentile American Backs the Jewish State[J]. Foreign Affairs, July/August 2008:28-46. 9 Allis Radosh and Ronald Radosh. A Safe Haven:Harry S. Truman and the Founding of Israel[M]. New York:Harper Collins,2009:51-52.
10 哈里·杜鲁门,李石译.杜鲁门回忆录(下卷)[M].北京：东方出版社,2007：162-164。
11 Allis Radosh and Ronald Radosh. A Safe Haven:Harry S. Truman and the Founding of Israel[M]. New York:Harper Collins,2009:345.
12 Melvin I. Urofsky. We Are One! American Jewry and Israel [M].New York:Anchor Press 1978·
3 Egal Feldman. Reinhold Niebuhr and Jews[J]. Jewish Social Studies, Vol.ⅩLⅥ, No.3-4 157-158. (Summer/Fall 1984)
14Hertzel Fishman. American Protestantism and a Jewish State[M]. Detroit:Wayne State University Press,1973:79
15 Eyal Naveh. Unconventional'Christian Zionist':The Theologian Reinhold Niebuhr and His Attitude Toward the Jewish National Movement[J]. Studies in Zionism, Vol.11, No.2(1990).
16 Eyal Naveh. Unconventional'Christian Zionist':The Theologian Reinhold Niebuhr and His Attitude Toward the Jewish National Movement[J]. Studies in Zionism, Vol.11, No.2(1990):61.
17 T.F. Torrance. The Israel of God:Israel and the Incarnation[J]. Interpretation, Vol.Ⅹ,No.3(July 1956)
18 Peter Gardella. Gentile Zionism[J]. Midstream, May 1991.
19 Carl Hermann Voss and David A. Rausch. American Christians and Israel,1948-1988[J]. American Jewish Archives, Vol. Ⅺ, No.1 (April 1988).
20 Yaacov Ariel. Philosemites or Antisemites? Evangelical Christian Attitudes toward Jews, Judaism, and the State of Israel[J]. Jerusalem:The Vidal Sassoon International Center for the Study of Antisemitism,2002:16.
21Gabnel Shelter. Dynamics of Dependence:U.S.-Israeli Relations[M]. Colorado:Westview Press.1987:41.
22 Gabriel Sheffer. Dynamics of Dependence:U.S.-Israeli Relations[M]. Colorado:Westview Press.1987:48-49
23 Gabriel Sheffer. Dynamics of Dependence:U.S.-Israeli Relations[M]. Colorado:Westview Press,1987:66-67
24 2010年夏,笔者在夏威夷参加“亚太安全研究中心”(APCSS)举办的关于国际恐怖主义的研修班的过程中,曾就大屠杀历史问题询问过多位美国军官。笔者发现,他们中的绝大多数人都了解这一悲剧历史,而且他们也从不批判以色列的政策。研讨会中来自埃及的学员多次问及美方组织者对以色列相关政策看法,但后者一直在为以色列辩护。在我的访谈过程中,一名年轻军官称自己并未去参观过华盛顿的大屠杀纪念馆,原因就是看了一些关于大屠杀的书籍和影视,觉得犹太人实在悲惨,再去纪念馆就一定会难以忍受那种悲痛之情。
25 "Biden at GA:U.S.-Israel Ties'Unbreakable'", November 7,2010, JTA News.
26 Oscar and Mary F. Handlin. The Acquisition of Political and Social Rights by the Jews in the United States[J]. AJC. AJYB,1955[M]. New York:AJC,1955:87.
27 乔纳森·D.萨纳,胡浩译.美国犹太教史[Ml.郑州：大象出版社,2009：236。
28 See Elliot Cohen. Mr. Zanuck's'Gentleman's Agreement':Reflections of Hollywood's Second Film About Anti-Semitism[J]. Commentary,1948(5):51-56.
29 罗森堡为一名亲苏联的美国犹太人,1950年,他被控充当苏联的间谍,为苏联获取有关美国原子弹技术的相关情报,1953年,他被判死刑。
30 Peter Novick. The Holocaust in American Life[M].Boston and New York:A Mariner Book, 1999:166,237.
31 Melvin I. Urofsky. We Are One:American Jewry and Israel[M].New York:Anchor Press, 1978:328.
32 See http://www.wymaninstitute.org/press/2004-09-13.php,上网日期2011年3月1日。前面已经论及,怀伊曼是一名研究大屠杀历史的基督徒背景的学者。他后来还创办了以他的名字命名的大屠杀研究所。
33 Oscar and Mary F. Handlin. The Acquisition of Political and Social Rights by the Jews in the United States[J]. AJC. AJYB,1955[M]. New York:AJC,1955:91.
34 AJC, AJ Y B,1946[M]. New York:AJC,1946:.280.
35 Marianne R, Sanua. Let Us Prove Strong:The American Jewish Committee,1945-2006[M]. Waltham, Mass.:Brandeis University Press,2007:14-15,48,151.
36 "An Address to the Churches", by International Council of Christians and Jews, Seelisberg, Switzerland,1947.
37"The Christian Approach to the Jews", in Concerns of the Churches, Report of Committee Ⅳ of the First Assembly of the World Council of Churches, Sept.4,1948.
38 "Nostra Aetate:Declaration on the Relation of the Church to Non-Christian Religions", proclaimed by His Holiness, Pope Paul VI, Oct.28,1965.
39 L.斯维德勒,刘利华.全球对话的时代[M].北京：中国社会科学出版社,2006：166。
40 See Deborah Dash Moore. Jewish GIs and the Creation of the Judeo-Christian Tradition[J]. Religion and American Culture, Vo.8, No.1(Winter,1998).
41 Mark Silk. Notes on the Judeo-Christian Tradition in America[J]. American Quarterly, Vol.36, No.1 (Spring 1984):65-85.
42 Daniel Jonah Goldhagen. A Moral Reckoning:The Role of the Catholic Church in the Holocaust and its Unfulfilled Duty of Repair[M].New York:First Vintage Books,2003: 210-211.
43 Daniel Jonah Goldhagen. A Moral Reckoning:The Role of the Catholic Church in the Holocaust and its Unfulfilled Duty of Repair[M].New York:First Vintage Books,2003:268. 44 See "Nostra Aetate:Declaration on the Relation of the Church to Non-Christian Religions", by Pope Paul VI, Oct.28,1965.
45 Eugene J. Fisher and Leon Klenicki(edits). Spiritual Pilgrimage:Texts on Jews and Judaism 1979-1995[M]. New York:The Crossroad Publishing Company,1995:63. 46 "A Sacred Obligation:Rethinking Christian Faith in Relation to Judaism and the Jewish People", Sept.1,2002, by the Christian Scholars Group on Christian-Jewish Relations. 47 AJC.AJYB,1980[M]. New York:AJC,1980:85.
48 Stephen R. Haynes. Christian Holocaust Theology:A Critical Reassessmen[J]. Journal of the American Academy of Religion, Vol.62, No.2(Summer,1994).
49 A. Roy Eckardt. Is There a Way Out of the Christian Crime? The Philosophic Question of the HoIocaust[J]. Holocaust and Genocide Studies, Vol.1, No.l(1986):121-126.
50 Alice L. Eckardt. Post-Holocaust Theology:A Journey Out of the Kingdom of Night[J]. Holocaust and Genocide Studies, Vol.1, No.2(1986):229-240.
51 Stephen R. Haynes. Christian Holocaust Theology:A Critical Reassessment[J]. Journal of the American Academy of Religion, Vol.62, No.2(Summer,1994). 52 Matthew R. Kerhel. A Part and Apart:Jewish American, the Media and American Politics[A]. in L. Sandy Maisel, eds. Jews in American Politics [M]. Lanham:Rowman and Littlefield Publishers,2001:126.
53 David Vital. Power, Powerlessness & the Jews[J]. Commentary. January 1990:24. Were Jews':Violence and the Construction of Modern Jewish Identity[A], in Peter Y.
54 Elliott Horowitz.'They Fought Because They Were Fighters and They Fought Because They Medding(edit.). Jews and Violence:Images, Ideologies, Realities[M].New York:Oxford University Press,2002:22-23.
55 Alice L. Eckardt. Power and Powerlessness:The Jewish Experience[A]. Israel W. Charny(edit.). Toward the Understanding and Prevention of Genocide[C]. Boulder:Westview Press,
56 二战前,流散地犹太人中主要有两种犹太民族主义：一种为流散地民族主义,倾向于保1984:188.持和发展流散地的犹太自治生活,并不主张回归巴勒斯坦；另一种为锡安主义,主张回归巴勒斯坦,重建犹太民族家园,实现犹太人社会生活的“正常化”。两者的共性在于,他们都强调犹太人是一个民族：尽管他们都愿意忠于所居住国,但他们都不愿夸耀自己的爱国主义或宣称自己归属于所居国。此外,他们都推崇犹太民族在巴勒斯坦的独立时代,推崇古代反抗罗马帝国统治的民族英雄马卡比(Macabees)。See Ezra Mendelsohn. On
57 汉斯·约纳斯,张荣译.奥斯维新之后的上帝观念[M].北京：华夏出版社,2003.Modern Jewish Politics[M]. New York:Oxford University Press,1993:19-20.第7页。
58 现实主义和保守主义都认为人性本恶,而且都推崇权力政治。参见工公龙.现实主义和保守主义[J].世界经济与政治,2004(2)：41-42。
59 See M. Ben Mollov. The Jewish Experience as An Influence on Hans J. Morgenthau's Realism[Jl. Jewish Political Studies Review(Spring,2000).
60 汉斯·摩根索,肯尼思·汤普森(修订).国家间政治：寻求权力与和平的斗争(影印版)[M].北京：北京大学出版社,2004：36。
61 See M. Ben Mollov. Power and Spirituality in the Thought of Hans J. Mogenthau[J]. Jewish Political Studies Review(Spring 1998):103.
Irving Greenberg. Religious Values After the Holocaust:A Jewish View[A]. Abraham J. Peck(edit). Jews and Christian After the Holocaust[M]. Philadelphia:Fortress Press,1982:7
63 Milton Himmelfarb. In the Light of Israel's Victory [J]. Commentary(Oct.1967):57.
64 潘光、陈超南、余建华.犹太文明[M].北京：中国社会科学出版社,1999：287-289。
Hannah Arendt. The Jew as Pariah:a Hidden Tradition[J]. Jewish Social Studies(April 1944):121-122.
(?)犹太教法有613条律令。
67 Jewish Values in the Post-Holocaust Future:A Symposiu[J]. Judaism(Summer 1967):272-273.两年后,他又进一步阐发了这一思想,参见Emil L. Fackenheim. Jewish Faith and the Holocaust:A Fragment[J]. Commentary(August 1969).
Michael E. Staub. Tom at the Roots:the Crisis of Jewish Liberalism in Postwar America[M]. New York:Columbia University Press,2002:133. Michael E. Staub. Torn at the Roots:the Crisis of Jewish Liberalism in Postwar America[M]. New York:Columbia University Press,2002:135.
70 潘光、余建华、王健.犹太民族复兴之路[M].上海：上海社会科学院出版社,1998：157-158。
71 经典的锡安主义要求犹太人离开客居地,移民并定居巴勒斯坦,重建犹太民族家园,以实现自由、安全、尊严和犹太社会生活的“正常化”。而美国犹太人大多期望融入美国主流社会,享有美国的繁荣和安全。他们将美国视为新耶路撒冷,而很少有人愿意移民以色列。但是,他们高度关切和支持以色列的生存和繁荣,他们的锡安主义主要从这种意义上来界定。
72 Daniel J. Elazar. American Political Theory and the Political Notions of American Jews: Convergences and Contradictions[J]. The Jewish Journal of Sociology(December 1966):18.
73 David H. Shpiro. From Philanthropy to Activism:the Political Transformation of American Zionism in the Holocaust Years,1933-1945[M].New York:Pergamon Press,1994, Introduction, XXV.
74 重要领导人有布兰戴斯(Louis D. Brandeis)、富兰克夫特(Felix Frankfurter)、晋劳斯库(Joseph M. Proskauer)、怀斯拉比(Steven S. Wise)等
75 Jerold S. Auerbach. Rabbis & Lawyers:the Journey from Torah to Constitution[M], Bloomington:Indiana University Press,1993:172-173.
76 Jerold S. Auerbach. Are We One? Jewish Identity in the United States and Israel[M].New Jersey:Rutgers University Press,2001:66-68.
77 沃尔特·拉克.犹太复国主义史[M].上海：上海三联书店,1992：668.
78 沃尔特·拉克.犹太复国主义史[M].上海：上海三联书店,1992：667.
79 大卫·鲁达夫斯基,傅有德等译.近现代犹太宗教运动：解放与调整的历史[M].济南：山东大学出版社,2000：342。
80 沃尔特·拉克.犹太复国主义史[M].上海：上海三联书店,1992：663-664。
81 美国犹太人联合会(AJConference)成立于1943年,旨在表达美国犹太人共同立场以解决欧洲犹太人的政治问题,当时共有几十个全国性和地方性的犹太组织为其成员组织。
82 David H. Shpiro. From Philanthropy to Activism:the Political Transformation of American
83 David H. Shpiro. From Philanthropy to Activism:the Political Transformation of American Zionism in the Holocaust Years,1933-1945[M].New York:Pergamon Press,1994:14U-141.
84 David H. Shpiro. From Philanthropy to Activism:the Political Transformation of American Zionism in the Holocaust Years,1933-1945[M].New York:Pergamon Press,
85 激进锡安主义领导人在联合国讨论分治决议前夕向白宫发起强大的政治和宣传攻势,对Zionism in the Holocaust Years,1933-1945[M].New York:Pergamon Press,杜鲁门“纠缠不休”,甚至“政治威胁”,让杜鲁门感到不安和恼火。杜鲁门回忆道：“我觉得我从来没有受到像这次这么厉害的针对白宫的压力和宣传”。分治决议通过后,他们又纷纷向杜鲁门提出要求,而且往往用一种“言词激动”的“吵嘴”方式,使得杜鲁门相当反感,甚至拒绝接见德高望重的温和派锡安主义领导人魏兹曼。参见：[美]《杜鲁门回忆录-下卷》,北京：东方出版社,2007：196,198。
86 Melvin I. Urofsky. We Are One:American Jewry and Israel[M].New York:Anchor Press,1978: 226-227.
87Michael E. Staub. Torn at the Roots:the Crisis of Jewish Liberalism in Postwar Amenca[M]. New York:Columbia University Press,2002:25.
88 Marc Dollinger. Quest for Inclusion:Jews and Liberalism in Modern America[M], New Jersey: Princeton University Press,2000:114.
89 Lawrence H. Fuchs. The Political Behavior of American Jews[M]. Illinois:The Free Press 1956:101.
90 Seymour Martin Lipset and Earl Raab. Jews and the New American Scene[M].Massachusetts: Harvard University Press,1995:117-118.
91 Jonathan D. Sarna. American Judaism:A History[M]. New Haven:Yale University Press,2004: 316.
92 Melvin I. Urofsky. We Are One:American Jewry and lsrael[M].New York:Anchor Press, 1978:356.
93 Jonathan D. Sarna. American Judaism:A History[M]. New Haven:Yale University Press,2004: 307.
94 Peter Novick. The Holocaust in American Life[M].Boston and New York:A Mariner Book, 1999:189.
95 Jonathan D. Sarna. American Judaism:A History[M]. New Haven:Yale University Press,2004: 333.
(?)雅各·瑞德·马库斯，杨波、宋立宏、徐娅囡译.美国犹太人：1585-1990年,一部历史[M].上海：上海人民出版社,2004：244。
97 Melvin I. Urofsky. We Are One:American Jewry and Israel[M].New York:Anchor Press, 1978:357.
98 Melvin I. Urofsky. We Are One:American Jewry and Israel[M].New York:Anchor Press,1978: 444.
99Daniel I. Elazar. The New Jewish Politics[M]. Jerusalem:The Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs/Center for Jewish Community Studies,1988:5-6.
100 Jack Wertheimer. Jewish Organizational Life in the United States Since 1945[A], David Singer(Edit). American Jewish Year Book 1995[Ml,New York:AJC,1995:.73.
101 Jack Wertheimer. Jewish Organizational Life in the United States Since 1945[A]:55.
102 Jack Wertheimer. Jewish Organizational Life in the United States Since 1945[A]:48-49.
103 Yosef Gorny. The State of Israel in Jewish Public Thought:the Quest for Collective Identity[M].New York:New York University Press,1994:149.
104 See Ilan Peleg and Paul Scham. Israeli Neo-Revisionism and American Neoconservatism:The Unexplored Parallels[J].Middle East Journal, Vol.61, No.1 (Winter 2007).
105 Norman Podhoretz. Is It Good for the Jews?[J]. Commentary(February 1972).
106 American Jews and Israel-A Symposium[J]. Commentary(February 1988):21-75
107 阿伦·哈斯,梁骏等译.大屠杀后遗症[M].北京：北京出版社,2000：118。
108 阿伦·哈斯,梁骏等译.大屠杀后遗症[M].北京：北京出版社,2000：201。
107 Nancy Isserman. Political Tolerance and Intolerance:Using Qualitative Interviews to Understand the Attitudes of Holocaust Survivors[J]. Contemporary Jewry, Vol.29,
110 哈拉尔德·韦尔策,季斌等译.社会记忆：历史、回忆、传承[M].北京：北京大学出版No.l(2009):21-47.社,2007：256-257。
111 Michael J. A. Wohl, Nyla R. Branscombe. Remembering Historical Victimization:Collective Guilt for Current Ingroup Transgressions[J]. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology.
112 乔纳森·D.萨纳.美国犹太教史[M].：288。从70年代开始,这两个节日也为美国犹太Vol.94, No.6(2008):988-1006.人广泛遵守。
113 Tom Segev. The Seventh Million:the lsraeli and the Holocaust[Ml.New York:An Owl Books. 1991:433..
114 Idith Zertal. Israel's Holocaust and the Politics of Nationhood[M].New York:Cambridge University Press,2005:95-96.
115 Idith Zertal. Israel's Holocaust and the Politics of Nationhood[M].New York:Cambridge University Press,2005:99.
116 Tom Segev. The Seventh Million:the Israeli and the Holocaust[M].New York:An Owl Books, 1991:396.
117Tom Segev. The Seventh Million:the Israeli and the Holocaust[M].New York:An Owl Books, 1991:398.
118 Address by PM Netanyahu to the UN General Assembly,24 Sep.2009以色列外交部网 http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/Foreign+Relations/Israel+and+the+UN/Speeches+-+statements/A ddress_PM_Netanyahu_UN_General_Assembly_24-Sep-2009.htm,上网时间2011年3月3日。
119 该组织成立于1968年,用以暴抗暴的方式对付指向犹太人的暴力行为,煽动种族主义,被美国定为恐怖组织,在以色列被立法禁止。
120 Michael E. Staub. Torn at the Roots:the Crisis of Jewish Liberalism in Postwar America[M]. New York:Columbia University Press,2002:226
IZ1 Rochelle G. Saidel. Never Too Late to Remember:the Politics Behind New York City's Holocaust Museum[M]. New York:Holmes & Meier,1996:29-30.
122Jeffrey Shandler. While America Watches:Televising the Holocaust[M].New York:Oxford University Press,1999:164..
123 Peter Novick. The Holocaust in American Life[M].Boston and New York:A Mariner Book, 1999:158.
124 Avraham Burg. The Holocaust is Over; We must Rise from its Ashes[M]. New York:Palgrave Macmillan.2008:43. 125 AJC.AJYB,1985[M]. New York:AJC,1985:111.
126 Gary Rosenblatt. Wiesel to Obama:Pressure on Israel is not the Way[A]. The Jewish Week, May 6,2010.
127 Address by Sallai Meridor, Israeli Ambassador to the U.S, May 1,2008, at U.S. Capital Rotunda, Washington, D.C..
128 Daniel Jonah Goldhagen. A Moral Reckoning:The Role of the Catholic Church in the Holocaust and its Unfulfilled Duty of Repair[M].New York:First Vintage Books,2003: 218-219.
129 肯定性行动为1970年代美国对非裔等历史上的受害群体提供的补偿性政策。根据该政策,这些群体在入学、就业等许多方面都获得了某一固定额度的优待,如政府公共部门、学校和企业等特意为非裔确定并保留一个最低名额。
130 See Alan Dershowitz. The Case for Israel[M].John Wiley and Sons. Inc,2003:62.
131 穆夫提为伊斯兰教的宗教领袖称号。
132 Idith Zertal. Israel' s Holocaust and the Politics of Nationhood[M].New York:Cambridge University Press,2005:101-103.
133 本雅明·内塔尼亚胡,田在玮、莎文译.持久的和平[M].北京：世界知识出版社,2009：156-159。
134 Idith Zertal. Israel's Holocaust and the Politics of Nationhood[M].New York:Cambridge University Press,2005:118-120.
135 本雅明·内塔尼亚胡.持久的和平[M].北京：世界知识出版社,2009：159-160。
136 Abraham H. Foxman. Never Again:The Threat of the New Anti-Semitism[M].New York:
Harper San Francisco,2003:198.
137 Daniel Pipes. Hitler's Mideast Legacy[J]. Australia/Israel Review, Vol.35, No.5(2010):28-2
138 Jeffrey Herf. Naming Names in Foreign Policy[J]. Australia/Israel Review, Vol.35, No.5(2010):32.
139 Matthias Kuentzel.'Global Vision':Iran's Holocaust Denial[A]. Alan S. Rosenbaum. Is the Holocaust Unique?[M]. Boulder:Westview Press,2009:239.
140 德新社,2011年3月24日电,莫斯科。
141 Jeffrey Herf. Naming Names in Foreign Policy[J]. Australia/Israel Review, Vol.35, No.5(2010): 30.
142 Idith Zertal. Israel's Holocaust and the Politics of Nationhood[M].New York:Cambridge University Press,2005:173.
143 约翰·J.米尔斯海默、斯蒂芬·M.沃尔特,王传兴译.以色列游说集团与美国对外政策[M].上海：上海世纪出版集团,2009：272。关于反犹主义标签的政治威力,还可参见保罗·芬德利,武秉仁、戴克伟译.美国亲以色列势力内幕[M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司,1990：379-380。
144 See "A Sacred Obligation:Rethinking Christian Faith in Relation to Judaism and the Jewish People", Sept.1,2002, by the Christian Scholars Group on Christian-Jewish Relations.
145 约翰·J.米尔斯海默、斯蒂芬·M.沃尔特.以色列游说集团与美国对外政策[M].上海上海世纪出版集团,2009：271。
146 保罗·芬德利.美国亲以色列势力内幕[M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司,1990：300。
147 Daniel Jonah Goldhagen. A Moral Reckoning:The Role of the Catholic Church in the Holocaust and its Unfulfilled Duty of Repair[M].New York:First Vintage Books,2003: 218-219.
148 Abraham H. Foxman. Never Again:The Threat of the New Anti-Semitism[M].New York: Harper San Francisco,2003:17.
l49 Matthias Kuentzel.'Global Vision':Iran's Holocaust Denial[A]. Alan S. Rosenbaum. Is the Holocaust Unique?[M]. Boulder:Westview Press,2009:239.
150 转引自王震.浅论当代中东地区反犹情绪的形成和演变[A].参见潘光、汪舒明、罗爱玲主编.犹太人在美国：一个成功族群的发展和影响[C].北京：时事出版社,2010：362。
151 保罗·芬德利.美国亲以色列势力内幕[M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司,1990：142.
152 杰米·卡特,郭仲德译.牢墙内的巴勒斯坦[M].西安：西北大学出版社,2007：135。
153 Elliott Abrams. What Carter Missed in the Middle East[A]. The Washington Post, September 8, 2009.
154 参见杰米·卡特,郭仲德译.牢墙内的巴勒斯坦[M].译者序。
"Mearsheimer and Walt's Anti-Israel Screed:A Relentless Assault in Scholarly Guise", www.adl.org, March 24,2006.
156 Eliot A. Cohen. Yes, It's Anti-Semitic[A]. Washington Post, April 5,2006.
157 Ruth R. Wisse. Israel Lobby[A]. The Wall Street Journal, March 22,2006.
158 保罗·芬德利.美国亲以色列势力内幕[M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司,1990：379.
159 Arlene Stein. Whose Memories? Whose Victimhood? Contests for the Holocaust Frame in Recent Social Movement Discourse[J]. Sociological Perspectives, Vol.41, No.3,1998.
160 伊扎克·B.辛格,万紫等译.傻瓜吉姆佩尔,北京：人民文学出版社,2006：368。
161 Michael Berenbaum. After Tragedy and Triumph:Essays in Modern Jewish Thought and the American Experience[M].New York:Cambridge University Press,1990:80-81.
162 AJC.AJYB,2003[M]. New York:AJC,2003:150-151.
163 Peter Novick. The Holocaust in American Life[M].Boston and New York:A Mariner Book, 1999:281.
164 Deborah E. Lipstadt. Invoking the Holocaust[J]. Judaism, Vol.30, No.3(Summer 1981): 335-344.
Leonard Fein. Where Are We? The Inner Life of America's Jews[M]. New York:Harper and Row, Publishers,1988:69.
166 See Norman Finkelstein. The Holocaust Industry:Reflections on the Exploitation of Jewish Suffering[M].New York,2001; Also AJYB,2001:193.
1Allen D. Hertzke, Freeing Gods Children:The Unlikely Alliance for Global Human Rights[M].New York:Rowman & Littlefield Publisher, INC.,2004:128-129.
2 Fred A. Lazin. The Struggle for Soviet Jewry in American Politics:Israel Versus the American Jewish Establishment[M].Lanham:Lexington Books,2005:33.
3 乔纳森·D.萨纳,胡浩译.美国犹太教史[M].郑州：大象出版社,2009：264。
4 Fred A. Lazin, The Struggle for Soviet Jewry in American Politics:Israel Versus the American Jewish Establishment, p.298.
5 Address by President Jimmy Carter, at Capital Rotunda, April 24,1979. See President's Commission on the Holocaust. Report to the President[R]. Washington:Sept.27,1979:29
6 Allen D. Hertzke, Freeing Gods Children:The Unlikely Alliance for Global Human Rights[M].New York:Rowman & Littlefield Publisher, INC.,2004:172.
7 Gareth Evens. The Responsibility to Protect:Ending Mass Atrocity Crimes Once and for All[M].Washington, D.C.:Brookings Institution Press,2008:15.
8 大规模暴行(mass atrocity)主要包含了种族灭绝(Genocide)、战争罪(war crimes)、种族清洗(ethnic cleansing)和反人类罪(crimes against humanity)这四种罪行,种族灭绝罪是其中最为严重的一种。
9 Leo Mates. The Holocaust and International Relations[A]. Lyman H. Legters(edit.). Western Society After the Holocaust[M].Colorado:Westview Press,1983:135.
10 彼特·辛格,应奇、杨立峰译.一个世界：全球化伦理[M].北京：东方出版社.2005：115.
11Samantha Power. A Problem From Hell":American and the Age of Genocide[M].New York: Harper Perennial,2002:17. 12 Samantha Power. A Problem From Hell":American and the Age of Genocide[M].New York: Harper Perennial,2002:42. 13 Samantha Power. A Problem From Hell":American and the Age of Genocide[M].New York: Harper Perennial,2002:54.
14 该组织由法国的“世界以色列人联盟”(the Alliance Israelite Universelle)、英国的“英国犹太联合会”(Anglo-Jewish Association)和“美国犹太人委员会”组成,1947年获得联合国经济社会理事会的正式咨商地位。1997年,美国犹太人委员会单独获得谘商地位。
15 AJC.AJYB,1949[M].NewYork:AJC,1949:493.
16 该公约将“种族灭绝罪”界定为“任何有意实施的全部或部分毁灭某一民族、族裔、种族或宗教群体的行为。”包括对该群体成员进行屠杀或从肉体和精神上施以严重伤害：故意是群体的生活条件恶化以使其整体或部分地毁灭：在该群体内强行实施旨在阻碍其繁育的措施；将该群体的儿童强制转移至另一群体。不过,公约中关于“种族灭绝”的定义,却是一个在不同国家集团和不同社会群体之间引起广泛争议的话题。许多西方的国际人权活动家们或法学家主张将一国大规模屠杀和毁灭某一政治(60年代印尼屠杀其境内50万共产党员)和社会群体(如纳粹对同性恋者、残疾者的消灭)行为也纳入种族灭绝的范畴。实际上,在他们的讨论中,这样的行为和情境也往往被纳入种族灭绝的范畴。更加激进的定义,甚至纳入了所谓“文化种族灭绝”的概念,来指称一国对某一少数群体文化同化的政策。另外,公约定义中出现的“有意”、“部分”等定义也在不同群体问存在争议。因此,西方人权阵营认为这一公约存在许多缺陷。
7 Samantha Power. A Problem From Hell”:American and the Age of Genocide[M].New York: Harper Perennial,2002:59.
18 David B. MacDonald. Identity Politics in the Age of Genocide:the Holocaust and Historical Representation[M].London and New York:Routledge,2008:29.
19 Samantha Power. A Problem From Hell":American and the Age of Genocide[M].New York: Harper Perennial,2002:483.
20 See Julie Flint and Alex de Waal. Case Closed:A Prosecutor Without Borders[J]. World Affairs(Spring 2009).
21 威廉·A.夏巴斯,黄芳译.国际刑事法院导论[M].北京：中国人民公安大学出版社,2006：31.
22 Gareth Evens. The Responsibility to Protect:Ending Mass Atrocity Crimes Once and for All[M].Washington, D.C.:Brookings Institution Press,2008:31.
23 Gareth Evens. The Responsibility to Protect:Ending Mass Atrocity Crimes Once and for All[M].Washington, D.C.:Brookings Institution Press,2008:41-42.
24 See Samantha Power. The United States and Genocide Law[A]. in Sarah B. Sewall & Carl Kaysen(edits). The United States and the International Criminal Court[M].New York:Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, INC.,2000:166.
25 参见周琪.美国人权外交政策[M].上海：上海人民出版社,2001：468.
26 参见周琪.美国人权外交政策[M].上海：上海人民出版社,2001：461.
Peter Ronayne. Never Again? The United States and the Prevention and Punishment of Genocide since the Holocaust[M].New York:Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, INC, 2001:20-22.
28 See Samantha Power. The United States and Genocide Law[A]., in Sarah B. Sewall & Carl Kaysen(edits). The United States and the International Criminal Court[M].New York:Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, INC.,2000:168.
Peter Ronayne. Never Again? The United States and the Prevention and Punishment of Genocide since the Holocaust[M].New York:Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, INC,2001:26-27.事实上,美国倒是经常因为未通过反种族灭绝公约而受到苏联的嘲讽和抨击,以至于这一问题常使美国政府感到尴尬。
30 Peter Ronayne. Never Again? The United States and the Prevention and Punishment of Genocide since the Holocaust[M].New York:Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, INC, 2001:30-31.
Michael Galchinsky. Jews and Human Rights:Dancing at Three Weddings[M].New York: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, INC.,2008:94.
阿瑟·古德伯格(Arthur Goldberg,1908-1990),著名的犹太裔律师和政治活动家,曾任美国劳工部长(1961-1961年)、最高法院法官(1962-1965年)、驻联合国大使(1965-1968年)。
33 Peter Ronayne. Never Again? The United States and the Prevention and Punishment of Genocide since the Holocaust[M].New York:Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, INC,2001: 25.
34 为纪念病逝的兰托斯,2008年,“人权连线”更名为“兰托斯人权理事会”(Tom Lantos Human Rights Commission),
35 杰罗米·J.西斯塔克(Jerome J. Shestack),美国著名民权律师,国际人权活动家,曾在1979年至1980年担任美国驻联合国人权理事会大使,1997年至1998年任美国律师协会主席,还曾担任美国大屠杀纪念馆执行委员会成员。
36 托马斯·勃根泰尔(Thomas Buergenthal,1934-),纳粹大屠杀幸存者,著名律师,国际人权活动家,曾长期担任海牙国际法院法官,还曾长期关注和推动国际(尤其拉丁美洲)人权事务。参见Jo M. Pasqualucci. Thomas Buergenthal:Holocaust Survivor to Human Rights Advocate[J]. Human Rights Quarterly, Vol.18(1996).
Peter Konayne. Never Again? The United States and the Prevention and Punishment or Genocide since the Holocaust[M].New York:Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, INC,2001: 34.
38 Samantha Power. A Problem From Hell":American and the Age of Genocide[M].New York: Harper Perennial,2002:159.
Peter Ronayne. Never Again? The United States and the Prevention and Punishment of Genocide since the Holocaust[M].New York:Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, INC,2001: 35.
40 Genocide Treaty Controversy [J]. in Congressional Digest, December 1984,p.296.
41 Genocide Treaty Controversy[J]. in Congressional Digest, December 1984, p.300.
42 Genocide Treaty Controversy[J]. in Congressional Digest, December 1984, p.313.
43 Samantha Power. A Problem From Hell":American and the Age of Genocide[M].New York: Harper Perennial,2002:165.
44 Peter Novick. The Holocaust in American Life[M].Boston and New York:A Mariner Book, 1999:241.
45 Samantha Power. A Problem From Hell":American and the Age of Genocide[M].New York: Harper Perennial,2002:124.
46 Samantha Power. A Problem From Hell":American and the Age of Genocide[M].New York: Harper Perennial,2002:130.
47 Jack Anderson. Cambodia:A Modern-Day Holocaust[N]. Washington Post, May 3,1978:E10.
48 Samantha Power. A Problem From Hell":American and the Age of Genocide[M].New York: Harper Perennial,2002:129.
49 Donald W. Beachler. Arguing about Cambodia:Genocide and Political Interest[J]. Holocaust and Genocide Studies, Vol.23, No.2(Fall 2009):214-238.
50 Donald W. Beachler. Arguing about Cambodia:Genocide and Political Interest[J]:222.
51 Samantha Power. A Problem From Hell":American and the Age of Genocide[M].New York: Harper Perennial,2002:216.
52 Samantha Power. A Problem From Hell":American and the Age of Genocide[M].New York: Harper Perennial,2002:173.
" Samantha Power. A Problem From Hell":American and the Age of Genocide[M].New York: Harper Perennial,2002:234.
54 Vigen Guroian. Post-Holocaust Political Morality:the Litmus of Bitburg and the Armenian Genocide Resolution[J]. Holocaust and Genocide Studies, Vol.3, No.3,1988:305-322.
55 Nathan Guttman. Jewish Lobby Sits out Vote on Armenian Genocide[N]. Forward, March 19,2010.在该次投票中,众议院外委会以23对22票通过了决议案,而所有7名犹太裔议员都投下了赞成票。此前,土耳其向来重视美国犹太组织在土耳其与美国和以色列关系中的影响,其领导人访问华盛顿都会与犹太领导人会谈。而2009年上台的总理埃尔多安显然忽视了犹太组织对美国中东政策的影响。在2009年12月访问华盛顿时并未与犹太社团领导人见面,导致美国犹太组织与土耳其关系疏远。
56 Jeffrey Shandler. While America Watches:Televising the Holocaust[M].New York:Oxford University Press,1999:244.
57 See Peter Novick. The Holocaust in American Life[M].Boston and New York:A Mariner Book, 1999:251.
58 AJC.AJYB,1994[M].New York" AJC,1994:121.
59 Peter Ronayne. Never Again? The United States and the Prevention and Punishment of Genocide since the Holocaust[M].New York:Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, INC,2001: 119.
60 Samantha Power. A Problem From Hell":American and the Age of Genocide[M].New York: Harper Perennial,2002:283.
61 Peter Ronayne. Never Again? The United States and the Prevention and Punishment of Genocide since the Holocaust[M].New York:Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, INC,2001: 115.
62 Samantha Power. A Problem From Hell":American and the Age of Genocide[M].New York: Harper Perennial,2002:297.
63 Samantha Power. A Problem From Hell":American and the Age of Genocide[M].New York: Harper Perennial,2002:308.
64 AJC.AJYB,1997[M].New York:AJC,1997:151.
Samantha Power. A Problem From Hell":American and the Age of Genocide[M].New York: Harper Perennial,2002:431.
Alan E. Steinweis. The Auschwitz Analogy:Holocaust Memory and American Debates over Intervention in Bosnia and Kosovo in the 1990[J]. Holocaust and Genocide Studies, Vol.19,
67 1993年,18名美国的维和人员所乘的直升机在索马里首都摩加迪沙被当地军阀击落,他No.2(Fall 2005):276-289.们的尸体被索马里人拖着,在摩加迪沙街头示众庆祝。这些画面传回美国,使美国颜而扫地,克林顿政府也饱受质疑。此后数年中,美国对域外军事干预可能导致的失败心有余悸。
68 Stephen Wertheim. A Solution From Hell:the United States and the Rise of Humanitarian Intervention.1991-2003[J]. Journal of Genocide Research. Vol.12. No.3-4(Sept.-Dec.
69 Michael Galchinsky. Jews and Human Rights:Dancing at Three Weddings[M].New York: 2010):149-172. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, INC.,2008:99.
70 Samantha Power. A Problem From Hell":American and the Age of Genocide[M].New York: Haiper Perennial,2002:386.
71 Leon Weiseltier. Force Without Force[J]. The New Republic(Apr.26,1999):29.
Stephen Wertheim. A Solution From Hell:the United States and the Rise of Humanitarian Intervention.1991-2003I[J]. Journal of Genocide Research Vol 12 No 3-4(Sent-Dec2010) 24.
73 科索沃本为南斯拉夫塞尔维亚共和国的自治省,其境内的塞尔维亚族和阿尔巴尼亚族之间一直存在围绕土地和权力等方面争夺,时有冲突。1989年,米洛舍维奇政府收回了其自治地位。
Roland Paris. Kosovo and Metaphor War[J]. Political Science Quarterly, Vol.117, No.3(2002):423-450.
75 AJC. AJYB,2000[M].New York:AJC,2000:216.
76 Roland Paris. Kosovo and Metaphor War[J]. Political Science Quarterly, Vol.117, No.3(2002
77 Samantha Power. A Problem From Hell":American and the Age of Genocide[M].New York: Harper Perennial,2002:448-449.
78 Samantha Power. A Problem From Hell":American and the Age of Genocide[M].New York: Harper Perennial,2002:449.
79 Mark Mazower. Saviors & Sovereigns:The Rise and Fall of Humanitarianism[J]. World Affairs, March/April,2010.
80 Katherine Bischoping & Andrea Kalmin. Public Opinion About Comparisons to the Holocaust[J]. The Public Opinion Quarterly, Vol.63, No.4(Winter,1999):485-507.
81 参见Genocide Prevention Task Force. Preventing Genocide:A Blueprint for U.S. Policymakers[R], Washington:2008:xxii该小组由美国大屠杀纪念馆、美国外交学院和美国和平研究所三大机构共同招集一批专家组成,由两位克林顿时期的高官领衔。报告提交国会后,受到两党绝大多数议员的支持。
82 Mark Mazower. Saviors & Sovereigns:The Rise and Fall of Humanitarianism[J]. World Affairs, March/April,2010.
83 See Israel W. Chamy(edit.). Toward the Understanding and Prevention of Genocide Proceeding of the International Conference on the Holocaust and Genocide[M]. Boulder and
84 Herbert Hirsch. Anti-Genocide:Building an American Movement to Prevent London:Westview Press.1984. Genocide[M].Westport:Praeger Publishers,2002:35-36.
85 2002年,美国出于国家利益通过了《苏丹和平法》,对苏丹政府施加了强大压力,迫使苏丹政府与南部叛乱武装达成和平协定,给予南部地区更大自治权,吸纳南部叛乱组织领导人担任重要职务。在美国著名学者艾伦·赫茨克看来,这正是达尔富尔的反政府叛乱大爆发的外部激励因素。(参见Allen D. Hertzke. The Shame of Darfur[J]. First Things, Oct.2005：16-22)。南北议和刺激了南方叛乱组织的观点也获得了斯科特·斯特劳斯(Scott Straus)的赞同。参见Scott Straus. Darfurand the Genocide Debate[J]. Foreign Affairs,Vol.84, No.l(Jan./Feb.2005):123-133.
Mahmood Mamdani. Saviors and Survivors:Darfur, Politics, and the War on TerrorfM]. Cape Town. South Africa:HSRC Press.2009:24.
87 Scott Straus. Darfur and the Genocide Debate[J]. Foreign Affairs,Vol.84, No.1 (Jan./Feb. 20051:123-133.
88 Mahmood Mamdani. Saviors and Survivors:Darfur, Politics, and the War on Terror[M]. Cape Town. South Africa:HSRC Press.2009:34-37.
89 Peter K. Bechtold. Darfur, The ICC and the American Politics[J]. Middle East Policy, Vol.XVI, No.2(Summer 2009). 90 Mahmood Mamdani. Saviors and Survivors:Darfur, Politics, and the War on Terror[M]. Cape Town, South Africa:HSRC Press,2009:51.
91 David C. Gompert. China's Responsibility to Protect[N]. in Washington Post, June 17,2008.(网络版),浏览时间为2008年7月18日。
92 参见：Annual Report 2008, by Genocide Intervention Network,2009.
93 Peter K. Bechtold. Darfur, The ICC and the American Politics[J]. Middle East Policy, Vol.XVI, No.2(Summer2009).
94 大部分大屠杀教研组织以及学者对于美国对外政策制定及其辩论的参与并不那么积极,而且不同的组织关注重点大不相同。西蒙·维森塔尔中心等主要关切世界各地的反犹和 反以状况,致力于捍卫犹太人的安全和利益,体现出较明显的犹太特色。但也有不少组织高度关注包括种族灭绝在内的国际人权事务,其中尤以美国大屠杀纪念馆和怀伊曼大屠杀研究所为典型。从巴尔干危机和达尔富尔危机来看,大屠杀教研组织的参与美国对外政策的辩论正变得越来越明显。美国大屠杀纪念馆的“良知委员会”及其重要成员在后冷战时期推动美国实施的“人道主义干预”中发挥了非常重要的舆论宣传和道义支持作用。而怀伊曼研究所在达尔富尔危机问题上也非常积极,曾多次组织社会名流或大屠杀研究学者呼吁干预达尔富尔危机。2008年9月15日,该研究所纠合了130名重要的大屠杀研究学者联合致信国际刑事法院,要求以种族灭绝罪起诉苏丹总统。关于该信可参见"130 Holocaust Scholars Urge:Prosecute Sudan's President for Genocide", http://www.wymaninstitute.org/press/2008-9-15.php,浏览日期2011年3月1日。
95 Annual Report 2008, by Genocide Intervention Network,2009, p.24.
96 玛格丽特·E.凯克、凯瑟琳·辛金克,韩召颖、孙丽英译.超越国界的活动家：国际政治中的倡议网络[M].北京：北京大学出版社,2005：13-18。
97 玛格丽特·E.凯克、凯瑟琳·辛金克.超越国界的活动家：国际政治中的倡议网络[M],2005：18-28。
98 关于马克·哈尼斯受到《来自地狱的麻烦》的影响,可参见Katie Becker. In the Face of Genocide[N]. Swarthmore College Bulletin, Oct.2009,网络版,2011年2月24日浏览。关于“学生反种族灭绝联盟”组织创始人受该书的影响,其网站也做了简要描述,可参见http://www.standnow.org/about/who,2011年2月24日浏览。
99 Mahmood Mamdani. Saviors and Survivors:Darfur, Politics, and the War on Terror[M]. Cape Town, South Africa:HSRC Press,2009:65. 100 See President Bush Visits the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum[N]. April 18,2007, http://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2007/04/20070418.html浏览时间为2010年3月16日。
101 Darren Brunk. Dissecting Darfur:Anatomy of a Genocide Debate[J]. International Relations, Vol.22, No.1(2008):25-44.
101 参见Mahmood Mamdani. Saviors and Survivors:Darfur, Politics, and the War on Terror[M]. Cape Town, South Africa:HSRC Press,2009:62.
102 Rachel Silverman and David Silverman. Never Again, Again:Jewish Groups And Individuals Fuel Darfur Rallies[N]. www.jta.org, August 10,2007.浏览时间2008年5月21日。
Mahmood Mamdani. Saviors and Survivors:Darfur, Politics, and the War on Terror[M]. Cape Town, South Africa:HSRC Press,2009:70.
105 David Lanz. Save Darfur:A Movement and Its Discontents[J]. African Affairs, Vol.108, No.433(August 18,2009).
(?)David Lanz. Save Darfur:A Movement and Its Discontents[J]. African Affairs, Vol.108, No.433(August 18,2009).
107 AJC, AJYB,2007[M].New York:AJC,2007:73.
I08 See Allen D. Hrertzke. Freeing God's Children:the Unlikelv Alliance of Global Human Rights[M].New York:Rowman & Littlefield Publisher, INC.,2004:145.
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110 查姆·伯曼特,冯炜译.犹太人[M].上海：上海三联书店,1992：2。
111 Abraham H. Foxman. Never Again? The Threat of the New Anti-semitism[M]. New York: 112 HarperCollins Publishers, Inc.,2003:3.
113 David A. Harris and Ruth Messinger. Bitter Jewish Experience Means Community Can't Be Silent On Darfur[N]. www.jta.org,July17,2005笔者浏览时间为2008年4月21日。
113 斯皮尔伯格非常关切关于大屠杀历史的教育,为此,他建立了“大屠杀基金会”'(TheShoah Foundation),以记录和保存全球各地的大屠杀幸存者的事迹。在一篇采访中,他承认拍摄《辛德勒的名单》的动因是为了使这个基金会能继续存在。(参见Abigail Pogrebin. Stars of David:Prominent Jews Talk About Jewish[M]. New York:Broadway Books,2005:34.)
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115 如2004年美国拉比中央大会的年会关于苏丹达尔富尔问题的决议就是如此表述的,参见"Crisis in Sudan", www.ccar.org,June2004美国犹太人委员会2005年5月6日关于达尔富尔问题的宣言也存在类似弊端,参见"AJC Statement on Darfur:Indifference must never be response to genocide", www.AJC.org, May 6,2005浏览时间为2008年6月28日。
116 “反诽谤联盟(ADL)”对此作了澄清,指出受苏丹政府支持的阿拉伯民兵武装(Janjaweed)及其达尔富尔的受害者都是穆斯林(参见http://www.adl.org/sudan/)。另外,著名学者艾伦·赫茨克(Allen D. Hertzke)也强调了冲突双方都是穆斯林,只不过信仰苏菲派(Sufi)伊斯兰教的黑人部族并不愿接受苏丹政府更激进的伊斯兰化政策,也不满于他们在苏丹政府(阿拉伯人主导)统治下受忽视和被边缘化的处境(参见Allen D. Hertzke. The Shame of Darfur[J])。
117 Jodi Eichler-Levine and Rosemary R. Hicks.'As Americans Against Genocide':The Crisis in Darfur and Interreligious Political Activism[J]. American Quarterly, Vol.59, No.3(Sept.2007):717,721.
118 Jodi Eichler-Levine and Rosemary R. Hicks.'As Americans Against Genocide':The Crisis in Darfur and Interreligious Political Activism[J]. American Quarterly, Vol.59, No.3(Sept.2007):720.
119 Jodi Eichler-Levine and Rosemary R. Hicks.'As Americans Against Genocide':The Crisis in Darfur and Interreligious Political Activism[J]. American Quarterly, Vol.59, No.3(Sept.2007):721.
120 Tod Lindberg. The Only Way to Prevent Genocide[J]. Commentary, April,2009.
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17 玛格丽特·E.凯克、凯瑟琳·辛金克,韩召颖,孙英丽译.超越国界的活动家：国际政治中的倡议网络[M].北京：北京大学出版社,2005：239。
18 Kathryn Sikkink. Transnational Politics, International Relations Theory, and Human Rights[J]. Political Science and Politics, Vol.31, No.3(Sep.,1998):516-523
19 亚历山大·温特：《国际政治的社会理论》,第144页。
20 克劳福德(Neta C.Crawford)将这种状况归于四个原因：理性主义泛滥、外交决策分析中更重视认知、恐惧被学者视为不言而喻,以及研究方法上的困难。参见Neta C. Crawford. The Passion of World Politics:Propositions on Emotion and Emotional Relationships[J]. International Security, Vol.24, No.4(Spring 2000):116-156.
Jonathan Mercer. Rationality and Psychology in International Politics[J]. International Organization, Vol.59(Winter 2005):77-106.
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23 Neta C. Crawford. The Passion of World Politics:Propositions on Emotion and Emotional Relationships[J]. International Security, Vol.24, No.4(Spring 2000):116-156.
24 Martha Finnemore and Kathryn Sikkink. International Norm Dynamics and Political Change[J]. International Organization, Vol.52, No.4(Autumn,1998):887-917.
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