基于GIS的中尺度土壤重金属空间插值分析及污染评价
|
摘要
农田土壤重金属污染是与备受关注的食品安全问题、人类健康等密切相关的问题。本论文以空间插值方法为主要的研究手段,针对南通市随机布点的农田土壤样本进行空间插值方法和农田土壤重金属污染空间分布的研究。
本论文第二章详细介绍了本次采样的布点实施情况。第三章介绍了各种常用的空间插值技术。并深入论述了空间插值理论的基础——空间统计方法。在本论文中采用了两种空间插值技术:反距离插值方法和普通克吕格方法。其中,克吕格法中我们选用了球状和指数两种模型。并在第五章详细对比了这三种方法对南通市随机布点的数据的拟合效果。
第四章对实际数据进行数据探索发现5种重金属因子在南通市农田土壤中的含量差异突出,As、Cr、Pb三种重金属含量的数值范围广,数据离散程度大;Cd和Hg含量的数值范围小,数据离散程度较小。并且五种重金属在土壤中的含量分布都不符合正态分布。第五章为了验证这5种重金属的数据特性是否会影响空间插值的精度,并且为了最大程度的减小由随机布点和土壤性质等原因造成的系统误差,本论文采用3中权威模型,对各模型参数进行梯度调整,分别对数据源的各种重金属因子进行空间插值运算,所得的结果进行交叉检验。对原始样点和估测样点求其标准差、显著性概率并计算所用模型的拟合系数,结合Arcgis系统输出拟合后得到的块金值,对不同的重金属确定最优的拟合模型。
第六章运用测试所确定的数据拟合模型,分别对南通市的As、Cd、Cr、Hg、Pb五种重金属进行插值运算。输出图像可以直观的反映南通市各种农田重金属的空间分布情况,并运用插值得到南通市的农田土壤重金属含量的各级等值线。由等值线的分布情况,总结出各重金属在南通市的分布趋势。结合空间插值运算,本论文对南通市农田土壤重金属进行单因子评价和多因子综合评价。单因子评价使用的是标准污染指数法,多因子评价使用的是半集均方差方法。半集均方差方法,能够给予所有评价点上的大值以大的权重,选用的原因主要是考虑到土壤重金属污染是比较值得关注的农
Heavy metal pulltion of farmland is in relation to the attended problems such as food safety and human health. In this thesis, the spatial interpolation method was mainly used to analyse the heavy metal content in the farmland soil samples came from Nantong set with the random sampling method.In the second chapter of the thesis, the sampling method was described in detail. And the interpolation techniques in common use was introduced in the third chapter, as well as the basic theory of spatial interpolation, the geostatistics. Two kinds of spatial interpolation technique were used in this thesis: the IDW( Inverse distance weighted) and Ordinary Kriging. And we choose two models of Ordinary Kriging, one is the Spherical and the other is Exponential model. Thses three model were particularly tested in the fifth chapter to compare with each other the effect of the agreement of Nantong sample datum.In the forth chapter 5 heavy metal factors'original datum was explored thoroughly. And we found the 5 heavy metal's content in the soil was different from each other. As, Cr, and Pb has a wider scale of datum with a considerable discrete degree. Just the opposite the Cd and Hg's content in soil is much lower than the others. The scale of data is small with little discrete degree. And the distributing of each heavy metal's data disagree with normal distribution 。 It was proved in the fifth chapter, whether the datum's structure will be a infulence to the model agreement's precision. In order to make the system error be the least which bringed by the random sampling and something in clued in the soil structure, the thesis tested the IDW, Ordinary Kriging Spherical model and Ordinary Kriging Exponential model, in the parameters grads. And the agreement results were cross-validated. The Std.error, significance probability and the agree index were calculated after the cross validation. The Nugget was also considered with those index when we decide which is the best model with the proper parameter to each of the 5 heavy metal factors.Apply the test-decided model, interpolate to As, Cd, Cr, Hg, Pb in the Arcgis software. The results were output by the images, so the spatial distribution of each heavy metal's content can be displayed directly. Also the content's isoline can show the distribution tendence of each heavy metal in Nantong. Combined with the spatial interpolate techniques the thesis appraised the heavy metal pollution of Nantong farmland soil, both in the single factor and the multi-factors way. The single factor
appraisal choose the standard pollution index method. In consideration of the importance of farmland soil polltion the thesis select the semi-variance as the multi-factors appraisal method. In this appraisal method the weighted heavy metal factor's content will be given the bigger power in any one sampling point.
本论文第二章详细介绍了本次采样的布点实施情况。第三章介绍了各种常用的空间插值技术。并深入论述了空间插值理论的基础——空间统计方法。在本论文中采用了两种空间插值技术:反距离插值方法和普通克吕格方法。其中,克吕格法中我们选用了球状和指数两种模型。并在第五章详细对比了这三种方法对南通市随机布点的数据的拟合效果。
第四章对实际数据进行数据探索发现5种重金属因子在南通市农田土壤中的含量差异突出,As、Cr、Pb三种重金属含量的数值范围广,数据离散程度大;Cd和Hg含量的数值范围小,数据离散程度较小。并且五种重金属在土壤中的含量分布都不符合正态分布。第五章为了验证这5种重金属的数据特性是否会影响空间插值的精度,并且为了最大程度的减小由随机布点和土壤性质等原因造成的系统误差,本论文采用3中权威模型,对各模型参数进行梯度调整,分别对数据源的各种重金属因子进行空间插值运算,所得的结果进行交叉检验。对原始样点和估测样点求其标准差、显著性概率并计算所用模型的拟合系数,结合Arcgis系统输出拟合后得到的块金值,对不同的重金属确定最优的拟合模型。
第六章运用测试所确定的数据拟合模型,分别对南通市的As、Cd、Cr、Hg、Pb五种重金属进行插值运算。输出图像可以直观的反映南通市各种农田重金属的空间分布情况,并运用插值得到南通市的农田土壤重金属含量的各级等值线。由等值线的分布情况,总结出各重金属在南通市的分布趋势。结合空间插值运算,本论文对南通市农田土壤重金属进行单因子评价和多因子综合评价。单因子评价使用的是标准污染指数法,多因子评价使用的是半集均方差方法。半集均方差方法,能够给予所有评价点上的大值以大的权重,选用的原因主要是考虑到土壤重金属污染是比较值得关注的农
Heavy metal pulltion of farmland is in relation to the attended problems such as food safety and human health. In this thesis, the spatial interpolation method was mainly used to analyse the heavy metal content in the farmland soil samples came from Nantong set with the random sampling method.In the second chapter of the thesis, the sampling method was described in detail. And the interpolation techniques in common use was introduced in the third chapter, as well as the basic theory of spatial interpolation, the geostatistics. Two kinds of spatial interpolation technique were used in this thesis: the IDW( Inverse distance weighted) and Ordinary Kriging. And we choose two models of Ordinary Kriging, one is the Spherical and the other is Exponential model. Thses three model were particularly tested in the fifth chapter to compare with each other the effect of the agreement of Nantong sample datum.In the forth chapter 5 heavy metal factors'original datum was explored thoroughly. And we found the 5 heavy metal's content in the soil was different from each other. As, Cr, and Pb has a wider scale of datum with a considerable discrete degree. Just the opposite the Cd and Hg's content in soil is much lower than the others. The scale of data is small with little discrete degree. And the distributing of each heavy metal's data disagree with normal distribution 。 It was proved in the fifth chapter, whether the datum's structure will be a infulence to the model agreement's precision. In order to make the system error be the least which bringed by the random sampling and something in clued in the soil structure, the thesis tested the IDW, Ordinary Kriging Spherical model and Ordinary Kriging Exponential model, in the parameters grads. And the agreement results were cross-validated. The Std.error, significance probability and the agree index were calculated after the cross validation. The Nugget was also considered with those index when we decide which is the best model with the proper parameter to each of the 5 heavy metal factors.Apply the test-decided model, interpolate to As, Cd, Cr, Hg, Pb in the Arcgis software. The results were output by the images, so the spatial distribution of each heavy metal's content can be displayed directly. Also the content's isoline can show the distribution tendence of each heavy metal in Nantong. Combined with the spatial interpolate techniques the thesis appraised the heavy metal pollution of Nantong farmland soil, both in the single factor and the multi-factors way. The single factor
appraisal choose the standard pollution index method. In consideration of the importance of farmland soil polltion the thesis select the semi-variance as the multi-factors appraisal method. In this appraisal method the weighted heavy metal factor's content will be given the bigger power in any one sampling point.
引文
1、华孟,王坚.土壤物理学.北京:北京农业大学出版社.1993.41～42
2、汉克斯RJ等.应用土壤物理学.杨诗秀等译.北京:水利电力出版社,1981.149～151
3、Hillel D. Fundamental of Soil Physics. New York: Academic Pr, 1980. 6～17, 55～117, 93～117
4、雷志栋,杨诗秀,谢森传.土壤水动力学.北京:清华大学出版社,1998.44～49
5、Haining R. Spatial Data Analysis in the Social and Environment al Sciences [M]. Great Britain: Cambridge University Press, 1990. 291～312
6、Bunge W. Theoretial Geography [M]. Lund studies in Geography, 1966
7、[45]Kitagishi K. Heavy Metal Pollution in Soil of Japan. Tokyo: Japan Scientific Societies Press, 1981
8、[58]Burrough, Peter A. Principles of Geographic Information Systems for Land Resources Assessment[M]. Oxford University Press, 1986
9、陈述彭,鲁学军,周成虎.地理信息系统导论,北京:科学出版社,2000
10、房佩君.地理信息系统(ARC/INFO)及其应用,上海:同济大学出版社,2000
11、Paul A. Longley, Micheal F. Goodchild, David J. Maguire, David W. Rhind. Geographical Information System, Volumel, Principles and Technical Issues, Second Edition[M]. 电子工业出版社 2004. 454
12、黄勇,郭庆容,任海,万洪富.地统计学在土壤重金属研究中的应用及展望[J].生态环境,2004,13(3):681-684
13、Matheron G. Principles of geostatistics [J]. Economic Geology, 1963, 58: 1246～1266
14、Ripley B D. Spatial Statistics[M]. New York: Wiley, 1981: 78-79
15、Journel A G, Huijbregis Ch.矿业地质统计学[M].侯景儒,黄竟先译.北京:冶金工业出版社,1982:70-78
16、王栋枝.综合生物毒性指标在水体污染监测中的应用[J].环境保护科学,1992,18(1)
17、张云,刘长礼等.生活垃圾对环境的污染评价方法探讨[J].地球学报.2003(8):379-384
18、李学杰.广东大亚湾底质重金属分布特征与环境质量评价[J].中国地质.2003(30)4.
19、陈怀满.我国土壤污染现状发展趋势及其对策建议[J].土壤学进展,1998,21(1)
20、南通市农业环境质量调查实施方案.2003
21、张超等.地理信息系统[M],高等教育出版社.1996
22、秦耀东.土壤物理学[M].高等教育出版社.2002:209—216
23、黄胜海,夏圣益.南通市农业生态环境保护与农村经济发展的思考[J]
24、江苏省南通市土壤志
25、朱求安,张万昌等.基于GIS的空间插值方法研究[J].江西师范大学学报.2003(2)
26、王政权.地质统计学及在生态学中的应用[M].北京:科学出版社,1999:35-74
27、Goovaerts P. Geostatistics for Natural Resource Evaluation [M]. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997
28、汪景宽,赵永存等.海伦县土壤重金属含量的空间变异性研究[J].土壤通报.2003(5)
29、Collins F C. A comparison of spatial interpolation techniques in temperature estimation[J], 1999.
30、Oliver M A. Geostatistics, rare disease and the environment [A]. In: Fischer M, Scholten H J, Unwin D. Spatial Analytical Perspectives on GIS [C]. London: Taylor and Francis Lid, 1996. 67～85
31、高亮之.农业模型学基础.天马图书有限公司.2004:43-47
32、Mark D M. Some problems with the use of regression analysis in geography [A]. In: Gaile G L. Spatial Statistics and Models [C]. Netherlands: D Reide 1 Publishing Company, 1984. 191～199
33、农业环境背景值协作组.我国十三省(市)主要农业土壤及粮食作物中有害元素环境背景值研究.农业环境保护:1986(3)
34、杨若明,巴哈提古丽,郑小梅.环境监测[M].中央民族大学生物化学系,1996
35、Agterberg F P. Trend surface analysis [A]. In: Gaile G L. Spatial Statistics and Models [C]. Netherlands: D Reidel Publishing Company, 1984. 147～171
36、Fotheringham A S, Charlton M, Brunsdon C. The geography of parameter space: an investigation of spatial nonstationarity [J]. INT J Geographical Information Systems, 1996, 10(5): 605～627
37、Journel A G. Modeling uncertainty and spatial dependence: Stochastic imaging [J]. INT J Geographical Information Systems, 1996, 10(5): 517～522
38、CHANG Y H, SCRIMSHAW M D, EMMERSON R H C, et al. Geostatistical analysis of sampling uncertainty at the Tollesbury Managed Retreat site in Blackwater Estrary, Essex, UK: Kriging and cokriging approach to minimise sampling density[J]. Sci Total Environ, 1998, 221: 43-57.
39、王桥,吴纪桃.GIS中的应用模型及其管理研究,测绘学报,1997,(8):280-283
40、王焕校.污染生态学基础[M].昆明:云南大学出版社,1990
41、许嘉琳,杨居容.陆地生态系统中的重金属[M].北京:中国环境科学出版社,1996
42、严健汉,詹重慈.环境土壤学[M].武汉:华中师范大学出版社,1985
43、张志杰.环境污染生态学[M].北京:中国环境科学出版社,1989
44、湖南农学院等.农业环境保护[M].长沙:湖南大学出版社,1998
45、薛澄泽,栗德永,胡淑兰等.农业环境污染及其防治[M].西安:陕西科学技术出版社,1998
46、山根靖弘等.环境污染物质与毒性(无机篇)[M].贺振东等译.成都,四川科学技术出,1981
47、李天杰.土壤环境学[M].北京:高等教育出版社,1995
48、买永彬,顾方乔,陶战.农业环境学[M].北京:中国农业出版社,1994
49、马世骏等.现代生态学透视(Ⅰ)[M].北京:科学出版社,1989
50、司有元.地理信息系统及其研究[J].地理系及其国土研究,1995,11
51、马建文.GIS及资源信息综合[M].地质出版社,1994
52、陈述彭.地理系统与地理信息系统[J].地理学报,1991
53、周成虎.GIS概要[M].中国科学技术出版社,1993
54、黄杏元,汤勤.地理信息系统概论[M].北京:高等教育出版社,1990
55、郭达志等.地理信息系统基础与应用,煤炭工业出版社,1996
56、马智民.应用地理信息系统设计与实现,西安地图出版社,1996
57、程承旗.地理信息系统设计原理,中国区域科协地理信息系统专业委员会,1992
58、边馥苓.地理信息系统原理和方法,测绘出版社,1996
59、[128]周成虎.GIS概要,中国科学技术出版社,1993
60、陈述彭.遥感地学分析.测绘出版社,1990
61、陈述彭.区域地理信息分析方法和应用,科学出版社,1990
62、孙以义.计算机地图制图,北京:科学出版社,2000
63 陈述彭,赵英时.遥感地学分析,北京:测绘出版社,1990
64 陆守一,唐小明,王国盛.地理信息系统实用教程,北京:中国林业出版社,1998
65 陆淑芬.地图学基础,北京:高等教育出版社,1987
66 马蔼乃.遥感信息模型,北京:北京大学出版社,1997
67 章毓晋.图象处理和分析.北京:清华大学出版社,1998
68、Parker, H. D. "The Unique Qualities of a Geographic Information System: A Commentary." Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Srnsing, 1988, 54(11): 1547-1549
69、Burrough P A. Principles of Geographic Information System and Land Resources Assessment. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1986
70、Burrough P A. Method of spatial Analysis IN GIS J. Geographic Information System, 1990, 4(3): 31-35
71、Dennis P Dykstra. Mathematical Programming for Natural Resources Management. New York: McGraw Hill Book Company, 1984
72、Broome, F. R. , and D. B. Meixler. The TIGER Data Base Structure. Cartography and Geographic Information Systems, 1990, 17: 39-47
73、Tomlinson, R. F. Geographic Information Systems: The New Frontier. The Operational Geographer, 1984, 5: 31-35
74、Chang, K. , and Z. Li. Modeling Snow Accumulation with a Geographic Information System. International Journal of Geographical Information Science 2000, 14: 693-707
75、Chrisman, N. Exploring Geographic Information Systems. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1997
76、 Schlagel J. D. , and C. M. Newton. A GIS-Based Statistical Method to Analyze Spatial Change. Photogrammetric Survey and Remoto Sensing 1996, 62: 839-844
77、 Tomlin, CD. Geographic Information Systems and Cartographic Modeling. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1990
78、 Aronoff, S. . Geographic Information Systemes: A Management Perspective, Ottwa, Canada: WDL Publications, 1989
79、 Wellar, B. . "Progress in Building Linkages Between GIS and Methods and Techniques of Scientific Inquiry. "Computers, Environment and Urban SYSTEMS, 1994, 18(2): 67-80
80、 Guptill, S. C. (ed). A Process for Evaluating Geographic Information Systems, US Geologocal Survey Open-File Report, 1977, pp. 88-105
2、汉克斯RJ等.应用土壤物理学.杨诗秀等译.北京:水利电力出版社,1981.149～151
3、Hillel D. Fundamental of Soil Physics. New York: Academic Pr, 1980. 6～17, 55～117, 93～117
4、雷志栋,杨诗秀,谢森传.土壤水动力学.北京:清华大学出版社,1998.44～49
5、Haining R. Spatial Data Analysis in the Social and Environment al Sciences [M]. Great Britain: Cambridge University Press, 1990. 291～312
6、Bunge W. Theoretial Geography [M]. Lund studies in Geography, 1966
7、[45]Kitagishi K. Heavy Metal Pollution in Soil of Japan. Tokyo: Japan Scientific Societies Press, 1981
8、[58]Burrough, Peter A. Principles of Geographic Information Systems for Land Resources Assessment[M]. Oxford University Press, 1986
9、陈述彭,鲁学军,周成虎.地理信息系统导论,北京:科学出版社,2000
10、房佩君.地理信息系统(ARC/INFO)及其应用,上海:同济大学出版社,2000
11、Paul A. Longley, Micheal F. Goodchild, David J. Maguire, David W. Rhind. Geographical Information System, Volumel, Principles and Technical Issues, Second Edition[M]. 电子工业出版社 2004. 454
12、黄勇,郭庆容,任海,万洪富.地统计学在土壤重金属研究中的应用及展望[J].生态环境,2004,13(3):681-684
13、Matheron G. Principles of geostatistics [J]. Economic Geology, 1963, 58: 1246～1266
14、Ripley B D. Spatial Statistics[M]. New York: Wiley, 1981: 78-79
15、Journel A G, Huijbregis Ch.矿业地质统计学[M].侯景儒,黄竟先译.北京:冶金工业出版社,1982:70-78
16、王栋枝.综合生物毒性指标在水体污染监测中的应用[J].环境保护科学,1992,18(1)
17、张云,刘长礼等.生活垃圾对环境的污染评价方法探讨[J].地球学报.2003(8):379-384
18、李学杰.广东大亚湾底质重金属分布特征与环境质量评价[J].中国地质.2003(30)4.
19、陈怀满.我国土壤污染现状发展趋势及其对策建议[J].土壤学进展,1998,21(1)
20、南通市农业环境质量调查实施方案.2003
21、张超等.地理信息系统[M],高等教育出版社.1996
22、秦耀东.土壤物理学[M].高等教育出版社.2002:209—216
23、黄胜海,夏圣益.南通市农业生态环境保护与农村经济发展的思考[J]
24、江苏省南通市土壤志
25、朱求安,张万昌等.基于GIS的空间插值方法研究[J].江西师范大学学报.2003(2)
26、王政权.地质统计学及在生态学中的应用[M].北京:科学出版社,1999:35-74
27、Goovaerts P. Geostatistics for Natural Resource Evaluation [M]. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997
28、汪景宽,赵永存等.海伦县土壤重金属含量的空间变异性研究[J].土壤通报.2003(5)
29、Collins F C. A comparison of spatial interpolation techniques in temperature estimation[J], 1999.
30、Oliver M A. Geostatistics, rare disease and the environment [A]. In: Fischer M, Scholten H J, Unwin D. Spatial Analytical Perspectives on GIS [C]. London: Taylor and Francis Lid, 1996. 67～85
31、高亮之.农业模型学基础.天马图书有限公司.2004:43-47
32、Mark D M. Some problems with the use of regression analysis in geography [A]. In: Gaile G L. Spatial Statistics and Models [C]. Netherlands: D Reide 1 Publishing Company, 1984. 191～199
33、农业环境背景值协作组.我国十三省(市)主要农业土壤及粮食作物中有害元素环境背景值研究.农业环境保护:1986(3)
34、杨若明,巴哈提古丽,郑小梅.环境监测[M].中央民族大学生物化学系,1996
35、Agterberg F P. Trend surface analysis [A]. In: Gaile G L. Spatial Statistics and Models [C]. Netherlands: D Reidel Publishing Company, 1984. 147～171
36、Fotheringham A S, Charlton M, Brunsdon C. The geography of parameter space: an investigation of spatial nonstationarity [J]. INT J Geographical Information Systems, 1996, 10(5): 605～627
37、Journel A G. Modeling uncertainty and spatial dependence: Stochastic imaging [J]. INT J Geographical Information Systems, 1996, 10(5): 517～522
38、CHANG Y H, SCRIMSHAW M D, EMMERSON R H C, et al. Geostatistical analysis of sampling uncertainty at the Tollesbury Managed Retreat site in Blackwater Estrary, Essex, UK: Kriging and cokriging approach to minimise sampling density[J]. Sci Total Environ, 1998, 221: 43-57.
39、王桥,吴纪桃.GIS中的应用模型及其管理研究,测绘学报,1997,(8):280-283
40、王焕校.污染生态学基础[M].昆明:云南大学出版社,1990
41、许嘉琳,杨居容.陆地生态系统中的重金属[M].北京:中国环境科学出版社,1996
42、严健汉,詹重慈.环境土壤学[M].武汉:华中师范大学出版社,1985
43、张志杰.环境污染生态学[M].北京:中国环境科学出版社,1989
44、湖南农学院等.农业环境保护[M].长沙:湖南大学出版社,1998
45、薛澄泽,栗德永,胡淑兰等.农业环境污染及其防治[M].西安:陕西科学技术出版社,1998
46、山根靖弘等.环境污染物质与毒性(无机篇)[M].贺振东等译.成都,四川科学技术出,1981
47、李天杰.土壤环境学[M].北京:高等教育出版社,1995
48、买永彬,顾方乔,陶战.农业环境学[M].北京:中国农业出版社,1994
49、马世骏等.现代生态学透视(Ⅰ)[M].北京:科学出版社,1989
50、司有元.地理信息系统及其研究[J].地理系及其国土研究,1995,11
51、马建文.GIS及资源信息综合[M].地质出版社,1994
52、陈述彭.地理系统与地理信息系统[J].地理学报,1991
53、周成虎.GIS概要[M].中国科学技术出版社,1993
54、黄杏元,汤勤.地理信息系统概论[M].北京:高等教育出版社,1990
55、郭达志等.地理信息系统基础与应用,煤炭工业出版社,1996
56、马智民.应用地理信息系统设计与实现,西安地图出版社,1996
57、程承旗.地理信息系统设计原理,中国区域科协地理信息系统专业委员会,1992
58、边馥苓.地理信息系统原理和方法,测绘出版社,1996
59、[128]周成虎.GIS概要,中国科学技术出版社,1993
60、陈述彭.遥感地学分析.测绘出版社,1990
61、陈述彭.区域地理信息分析方法和应用,科学出版社,1990
62、孙以义.计算机地图制图,北京:科学出版社,2000
63 陈述彭,赵英时.遥感地学分析,北京:测绘出版社,1990
64 陆守一,唐小明,王国盛.地理信息系统实用教程,北京:中国林业出版社,1998
65 陆淑芬.地图学基础,北京:高等教育出版社,1987
66 马蔼乃.遥感信息模型,北京:北京大学出版社,1997
67 章毓晋.图象处理和分析.北京:清华大学出版社,1998
68、Parker, H. D. "The Unique Qualities of a Geographic Information System: A Commentary." Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Srnsing, 1988, 54(11): 1547-1549
69、Burrough P A. Principles of Geographic Information System and Land Resources Assessment. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1986
70、Burrough P A. Method of spatial Analysis IN GIS J. Geographic Information System, 1990, 4(3): 31-35
71、Dennis P Dykstra. Mathematical Programming for Natural Resources Management. New York: McGraw Hill Book Company, 1984
72、Broome, F. R. , and D. B. Meixler. The TIGER Data Base Structure. Cartography and Geographic Information Systems, 1990, 17: 39-47
73、Tomlinson, R. F. Geographic Information Systems: The New Frontier. The Operational Geographer, 1984, 5: 31-35
74、Chang, K. , and Z. Li. Modeling Snow Accumulation with a Geographic Information System. International Journal of Geographical Information Science 2000, 14: 693-707
75、Chrisman, N. Exploring Geographic Information Systems. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1997
76、 Schlagel J. D. , and C. M. Newton. A GIS-Based Statistical Method to Analyze Spatial Change. Photogrammetric Survey and Remoto Sensing 1996, 62: 839-844
77、 Tomlin, CD. Geographic Information Systems and Cartographic Modeling. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1990
78、 Aronoff, S. . Geographic Information Systemes: A Management Perspective, Ottwa, Canada: WDL Publications, 1989
79、 Wellar, B. . "Progress in Building Linkages Between GIS and Methods and Techniques of Scientific Inquiry. "Computers, Environment and Urban SYSTEMS, 1994, 18(2): 67-80
80、 Guptill, S. C. (ed). A Process for Evaluating Geographic Information Systems, US Geologocal Survey Open-File Report, 1977, pp. 88-105