二语习得的起始年龄及其相关成就研究
|
摘要
自从20世纪60年代以来，第二语言习得的研究成了一个热门话题。此前对第二语言学习的研究主要侧重于语言的教学过程，于是各种教学方法相继出现，似乎每一种方法都有其优点，但是没一种教学方法是万能的。当考虑到学习者的个体差异时，外语教学的一些理论问题还有待解决，所以许多学者的研究视角从教学的过程转移到学习的过程。30多年来，对二语习得的研究已经超出传统语言学的领域，延伸到各种相关学科，如神经心理学，心理语言学，教育学和统计学，至今它已发展成为一个跨学科的研究领域。
本文试图探讨在二语习得中，习得者的起始年龄与相关成就之间的关系。习得者成功程度不同使得研究者们更关注于对学习者的个体差异(Individual Differences)的研究。其中，年龄较小的学习者在二语习得的某些方面呈现出比年龄较大学习者更大的优势，引起学术界对语言习得的关键期假说(Critical Period Hypothesis)的争论。联系当前外语学习的低龄化趋势，我们觉得很有必要研究外语学习者不同的起始年龄及其相关的成绩，这样我们可以更好地了解不同的起始年龄与他们的学习成就之间的关系。本文借助调查问卷，分别对大学英语专业学生，非英语专业学生和2003届高中毕业生(共630人)进行调查，区分出他们不同的英语学习起始年龄，查阅其高考英语成绩，英语专业四级考试成绩以及大学英语四级考试成绩作为原始数据，利用
SPSS进行统计和分析。结果表明，英语学习者的起始年龄与高考成
绩，大学英语成绩存在显著相关性，起始年龄的不同导致英语成绩在
某些方面存在显著差异，尤其在口语和听力方面。这一结果对于确定
英语学习的起始时间和早期英语教学的内容有一定的参考价值。
Second language acquisition has been a hot research topic
since the 1960s. But in the early approaches, much was emphasized on
how second language was taught, as a result, various teaching methods
were proposed and put into practice .It seemed that all the methods were
good to some extent but no method was good in all circumstances. Many
theoretical problems had to be solved in teaching when learners'
individual differences were taken into consideration. So researchers'
attention was shifted from the teaching process to the learning process. In
the past three decades, the study in this field has surpassed the
traditional linguistics approach, it has extended into almost all the
relevant fields of language such as neuropsychology, psycholinguistics,
pedagogy and statistics, it has become a trans-research field.
This thesis sets out to explore the relationship between the age onset of second language acquisition and its relative achievements. Because of the differential success of the second language learners, more was attracted to the study of the learners' individual differences. The superiority of the younger learners to the older learners in the second language acquisition finds its explanation from Critical Period Hypothesis, but the arguments from proponent and opponent side never lead to any
agreeable conclusion. Personally, relating the current tendency to start English learning/teaching at lower age, we feel a great necessity to make comparison and analysis about the different age onset of the learners and their relative achievements so that we may have a better understanding of the relationship between learners of different age onset and their learning results.
438 students in Quanzhou Teachers College (including English majors and non-English majors), and 192 senior school students in Guoguang Middle School participated in our study. An investigation was made through a questionnaire to identify the subjects' age onset of English learning, and then an archival study was performed to compare the achievements of the learners with different age onset. The original scores of the subjects' College Entrance Examination, Test for English Majors (Band-4) and College English Test (Band -4) were taken as raw data for statistics and analysis. The results indicated that there was significant difference between the types with different age onset and the achievements of second language acquisition, particularly in the aspect of Listening and Speaking. The results are of some significance in deciding the age onset for a child to learn a foreign language.
本文试图探讨在二语习得中，习得者的起始年龄与相关成就之间的关系。习得者成功程度不同使得研究者们更关注于对学习者的个体差异(Individual Differences)的研究。其中，年龄较小的学习者在二语习得的某些方面呈现出比年龄较大学习者更大的优势，引起学术界对语言习得的关键期假说(Critical Period Hypothesis)的争论。联系当前外语学习的低龄化趋势，我们觉得很有必要研究外语学习者不同的起始年龄及其相关的成绩，这样我们可以更好地了解不同的起始年龄与他们的学习成就之间的关系。本文借助调查问卷，分别对大学英语专业学生，非英语专业学生和2003届高中毕业生(共630人)进行调查，区分出他们不同的英语学习起始年龄，查阅其高考英语成绩，英语专业四级考试成绩以及大学英语四级考试成绩作为原始数据，利用
SPSS进行统计和分析。结果表明，英语学习者的起始年龄与高考成
绩，大学英语成绩存在显著相关性，起始年龄的不同导致英语成绩在
某些方面存在显著差异，尤其在口语和听力方面。这一结果对于确定
英语学习的起始时间和早期英语教学的内容有一定的参考价值。
Second language acquisition has been a hot research topic
since the 1960s. But in the early approaches, much was emphasized on
how second language was taught, as a result, various teaching methods
were proposed and put into practice .It seemed that all the methods were
good to some extent but no method was good in all circumstances. Many
theoretical problems had to be solved in teaching when learners'
individual differences were taken into consideration. So researchers'
attention was shifted from the teaching process to the learning process. In
the past three decades, the study in this field has surpassed the
traditional linguistics approach, it has extended into almost all the
relevant fields of language such as neuropsychology, psycholinguistics,
pedagogy and statistics, it has become a trans-research field.
This thesis sets out to explore the relationship between the age onset of second language acquisition and its relative achievements. Because of the differential success of the second language learners, more was attracted to the study of the learners' individual differences. The superiority of the younger learners to the older learners in the second language acquisition finds its explanation from Critical Period Hypothesis, but the arguments from proponent and opponent side never lead to any
agreeable conclusion. Personally, relating the current tendency to start English learning/teaching at lower age, we feel a great necessity to make comparison and analysis about the different age onset of the learners and their relative achievements so that we may have a better understanding of the relationship between learners of different age onset and their learning results.
438 students in Quanzhou Teachers College (including English majors and non-English majors), and 192 senior school students in Guoguang Middle School participated in our study. An investigation was made through a questionnaire to identify the subjects' age onset of English learning, and then an archival study was performed to compare the achievements of the learners with different age onset. The original scores of the subjects' College Entrance Examination, Test for English Majors (Band-4) and College English Test (Band -4) were taken as raw data for statistics and analysis. The results indicated that there was significant difference between the types with different age onset and the achievements of second language acquisition, particularly in the aspect of Listening and Speaking. The results are of some significance in deciding the age onset for a child to learn a foreign language.
引文
1. Asher, J and Garcia, R 1969 The optimal age to learn a foreign language. Modern Language Formal 53(5): 334-41
2. Asher, J and Price,B 1967 The learning strategy .of total physical response:some age differences. Child Development 38,1219-27
3. Arnold, J 1999 Affect in Language Learning. Foreign language Teaching and Research Press, Cambridge University Press.
4. Atkinson, M 1982 Explanations in the study of Child language development. Cambridge University Press
5. Bailey, K M, Long, M and Peck, S(eds.) 1983 Second language acquisition studies. Newbury House, Rowley, Mass.
6. Berman, R 1987 Cognitive principles and language acquisition. In Pfaff, C(ed.) First and second language acquisition processes. Newbury House, Cambridge, Mass.
7. Bialystok, E and Frohlich, M 1978 Variables of classroom achievement in second language learning. Modern Language Fournal 62:327-35
8. Bialystock,E. 1997 The structure of age: In search of barriers to second language acquisition Second Language Research, 13, 116-137.
9. Bialystock.E and Hakuta 1999 Confounded age: linguistics and cognitive factors in age difference for second language acquisition. In Birdsong, D second language acquisition and the critical period hypothesis. Lawence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah NJ p163
10. Birdsong, D 1992 Ultimate attainment in second language acquisition. Language, 68, 706-755
11. Birdsong, D 1999 Second Language Acquisition and the Critical Period Hypothesis. Lawrence Erllaum Associates, ahwah NJ
12. Bongaerts, T., Van summeren, C.,Planken, B.,& Schils, E. 1997 Age and ultimate attainment in the pronunciation of a foreign language. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 19,447-465.
13. Brown, H D 1973 Affective variables in second language acquisition. Language Learning 23: 231-44
14. Burstall, C 1975 Factors affecting foreign-language learning: a consideration of some recent research findings. Language Teaching and Linguistics: Abstracts 8:5-25
15. Carroll D. W. 2000 Psychology of language. Foreign language Teaching and Research Press Beijing.
16. Clark, H and Clark, E 1977 Psychology and language: an introduction to psycholinguistics. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, New York
17. Collier, V 1987 Age and rate of acquisition of second language for academic purposes. TESOL Quarterly 21: 617-41
18. Cook, V. 1996 Second Language Learning and Language Teaching. Beijing. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press&Edward Arnold Limited.
19. Cook V, 2000 linguistics and second language. Acquisition Macmillan Publishers Ltd.
20. Cummins, R 1983 Psychological explanation. MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass.
21. Curtiss, S 1980 The critical period and feral children. UCLA Working Papers in Cognitive Linguistics 2:21-36
22. Dulay, H and Burt, M 1973 Should we teach children syntax? Language acquisition. Language Learning 24:37-53
23. Eisenstein, M 1982 A study of social variation in adult second language acquisition. Language Learning 32:367-91
24. Ellis, R 1985 Understanding second language acquisition. Oxford University Press
25. Ellis, R The Study of Second Language Acquisition 1994. Oxford University Press.
26. Eubank, L., & Gregg, K. R. 1999 Critical periods and second language acquisition: Divide et impera. In: D. Birdsong (ed.), Second language Acquisition and Critical Period Hypothesis. Mahway, N. J. Lawrence Erlbaum.
27. Fathrnan, A 1975b The relationship between age and second language productive ability. Language Learning25:245-66
28. Fathman, A 1976 Variables affecting the successful learning of English as a second language. TESOL Quarterly 10(4): 433-41
29. Flege, J 1987 A critical period for learning to pronounce foreign languages? Applied Linguistics 8(2): 162-77
30. Fledge,J 1999 Age of learning and second language speech. In: D. Birdsong (ed.), Second language Acquisition and Critical Period Hypothesis. Mahway, N. J. Lawrence Erlbaum.
31. Foster-Cohen S. H. 2002 An Introduction to Child Language Development. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press Beijing.
32. Gardner, R 1979 Social psychological aspects of second language acquisition. In Giles, H and St Clair, R(eds.) Language and Social Psychology, pp 193-220. Basil .Blackwell
33. Genesee, F and Hamayán, E 1980 Individual differences: in second language learning. Applied Psycholinguistics 1:95-110
34. Harley, B 1986 Age in second language acquisition. Multilingual Matters
35. Harley, B &Wang, W.1997 The critical period hypothesis: Where are we now? In: A. M. B. de Groot & J. F. Kroll(eds), Tutorial in Bilingualism: Psycholinguistic Perspective. London: Lawrence Erlbaum.
36. Hatch, E 1976 Optimal age or optimal learners? Workpapers in TESL 11:45-56
37. Hurford, J. R. 1991 the evolution of the critical period for language acquisition. Cognition, 40, 159-201
38. Hurford, J and Kirby, S 1999 Co-Evolution of language Size and the Critical Period In: D. Birdsong (ed.), Second language Acquisition and Critical Period Hypothesis. Mahway, N. J. Lawrence Erlbaum.
39. Hyltenstam. K. and Abrahamsson. N 1999 Age of onset and Ultimate Attainment in Second language Acquisition. Research program. Center for Research on Bilingualism, Stockholm University
40. Hyltenstam. K. and Abrahamsson. N 2001 Age and L2 learning; The hazards of Matching Practical "Implications" with "Theoretical Facts" TESOL Quarterly 35:151-170
41. Ioup, G., Boustagui, E., EL M. tigi, & Moselle, M. 1994 Reexamining the critical period hypothesis: A case study of successful adult SLA in a naturalistic environment. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 16, 73-98
42. Johnson, J and Newport E 1989 Critical period effects in second language learning: the influence of maturational state on the acquisition of ESL. Cognitive Psychology 21:60-99 p77
43. Krashen, S 1973 Lateralization, language leaming and the critical period: some new evidence. Language Learning 23:63-74
44. Krashen, S 1982a Principles and practice in second language acquisition. Pergamon
45. Krashen, S, Scarcella, R and Long, M(eds.) 1982 Child-adult differences in second language acquisition. Newbury House, Rowley, Mass.
46. Larsen-Freeman, D and Long M. H 2000 Introduction to SLA Research London Longman p157
47. Lenneberg, E 1967 Biological foundations of language. John Wiley, New York p 176
48. Long, M 1990 Maturational constraints on language development. Studies in Second Language Acquisition. 12,251-85
49. Marinova-Told, Marshall, D and Snow, C 1995 Three Misconceptions about Age and L2 Learning TESOL Quarterly 34: 8-29
50. McDonald,J. L. 2000 Grammaticality judgments in a second language: Influence of age of acquisition and native language. Applied Psycholinguistics, 21,395-423.
51. McLaughlin, B 1984 Second-language acquisition in childhood, 2nd edition, Vol. 1: Preschool children. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Hillsdale, N.J.
52. Moyer, A. 1999 Ultimate attainment in L2 phonology. The critical factors of age, motivation, and instruction. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 21,81-108.
53. Oyama, S 1976 A sensitive period in the acquisition of non-native phonological system. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research 5:261-85
54. Patkowski, M 1980 The sensitive period for the acquisition of syntax in a second language. Language Learning 30:449-72
55. Patkowski, M, S 1990 Age and accent in a second language: A reply to james Emil Flege. Applied Linguistics, 11, 73-89
56. Penfield, W and Roberts, L 1959 Speech and brain mechanisms. Atheneum Press, New York
57. Richards, J. C. & Lockhart, C 1996 Reflective Teaching in Second Language Classrooms. People Education Press, Cambridge University Press.
58. Rosansky, E 1975 The critical period for the acquisition of language: some cognitive developmental considerations. Working Papers on Bilingualism 6:10-23
59. Schumann, J 1975 Affective factors and the problem of age in second language acquisition. Language Learning 25:209-35
60. Scovel T. Psycholinguistics 1998 Oxford University Press
61. Scovel T. 2000 A Critical Review of the Critical Period Research Annual Review of Applied Linguistics 20:213-223
62. Schmid, B 1985 A Comparative Study of Children's andAdults' Acquisition of Tone Accents in Swedish. Language learning 76: 185-210
63. Seliger, H and Long, M(eds.) 1983 Classroom-oriented research in second language acquisition. Newbury House, Rowley, Mass.
64. Selinker, L 1994 Second Language Acquisition. An introductory Course. Lawrence Erlbaum Assoicates. Hillsdale NJ
65. Singleton, D 1997 Second language in primary school: the age dimension. The Irish Yearbook of Applied Linguistics, 15,155-166
66. Singleton, D 2001 Age and Second Language Acquisition Annual Review of Applied Linguistics 21:77-89
67. Skehan, P 1989 Individual differences in second-language learning. Edward Arnold
68. Snow, C and Hoefnagel-Hohle, M 1978 The critical age for language acquisition: evidence from second language learning. Child Developmeht 49:1114-28
69. Spolsky, B 1989 Conditions for second language learning. Oxford University Press
70. Weber-Fox, C.M.,& Neville, H.J. 1999 Functional neural subsystem are differentially affected by delay in second language immersion: ERP and behavioral evidence in bilinguals. In: D. Birdsong (ed.), Second language Acquisition and Critical Period Hypothesis. Mahway, N.J. Lawrence Erlbaum.
71. White, L., & Genesee, F. 1996 How native is near-native? The issue of ultimate attainment in adult second language acquisition. Second Language Research, 12, 238-265
72. Woods A, Fletcher P, Hughes A, 2000 Statistics in Language Studies Cambridge University Press
73. Yamada, J, Takastuka, S, Kotabe, N and Kurusu, J 1980 On the optimum age for teaching foreign, vocabulary to children. International Review of Applied Linguistics 28(3): 245-7
1、程工，1999，《语言共性论》，[M]上海外语教育出版社，上海
2、桂诗春，2002，《新编心理语言学》，[M]上海外语教育出版社，上海
3、韩宝成，2000，《外语教学科研中的统计方法》，[M]外语教学与研究出版社，北京
4、李荣宝，2002，《双语语义表征及其通达机制》，[M]福建人民出版社，福州
5、刘润清，1999，《外语教学中的科研方法》，[M]外语教学与研究出版社，北京
6、米子川，2002，《统计软件方法》，[M]中国统计出版社，北京
7、邵永良等，1999，《现代教育科研方法与应用》，[M]宁波出版社，宁波
8、束定芳，庄智象1998《现代外语教学》[M]上海外语教育出版社，上海
9、叶奕乾等主编，1997，《普通心理学》(修订本)，[M]华东师范大学出版社，上海
10、张一中，1998，《心理学的研究方法与应用》，[M] 复旦大学出版社，上海
11、陈宝国，彭聃龄，语言习得的关键期及其对教育的启示[J] 心理发展与教育2001(1)
12、戴炜栋，外语教学的“费时低效”现象[J] 外语与外语教学2001(4)
13、桂诗春，“外语要从小学起”质疑[J] 外语教学与研究1992(4)
14、刘件福，外语语法学习中的年龄角色[J] 解放军外国语学院学报1999(9)
15、刘振前，第二语言习得关键期假说研究述评[J] 当代语言学2003(2)
16、王立非，李瑛，第二语言习得关键期假说研究的新进展[J] 外国语2002(2)
2. Asher, J and Price,B 1967 The learning strategy .of total physical response:some age differences. Child Development 38,1219-27
3. Arnold, J 1999 Affect in Language Learning. Foreign language Teaching and Research Press, Cambridge University Press.
4. Atkinson, M 1982 Explanations in the study of Child language development. Cambridge University Press
5. Bailey, K M, Long, M and Peck, S(eds.) 1983 Second language acquisition studies. Newbury House, Rowley, Mass.
6. Berman, R 1987 Cognitive principles and language acquisition. In Pfaff, C(ed.) First and second language acquisition processes. Newbury House, Cambridge, Mass.
7. Bialystok, E and Frohlich, M 1978 Variables of classroom achievement in second language learning. Modern Language Fournal 62:327-35
8. Bialystock,E. 1997 The structure of age: In search of barriers to second language acquisition Second Language Research, 13, 116-137.
9. Bialystock.E and Hakuta 1999 Confounded age: linguistics and cognitive factors in age difference for second language acquisition. In Birdsong, D second language acquisition and the critical period hypothesis. Lawence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah NJ p163
10. Birdsong, D 1992 Ultimate attainment in second language acquisition. Language, 68, 706-755
11. Birdsong, D 1999 Second Language Acquisition and the Critical Period Hypothesis. Lawrence Erllaum Associates, ahwah NJ
12. Bongaerts, T., Van summeren, C.,Planken, B.,& Schils, E. 1997 Age and ultimate attainment in the pronunciation of a foreign language. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 19,447-465.
13. Brown, H D 1973 Affective variables in second language acquisition. Language Learning 23: 231-44
14. Burstall, C 1975 Factors affecting foreign-language learning: a consideration of some recent research findings. Language Teaching and Linguistics: Abstracts 8:5-25
15. Carroll D. W. 2000 Psychology of language. Foreign language Teaching and Research Press Beijing.
16. Clark, H and Clark, E 1977 Psychology and language: an introduction to psycholinguistics. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, New York
17. Collier, V 1987 Age and rate of acquisition of second language for academic purposes. TESOL Quarterly 21: 617-41
18. Cook, V. 1996 Second Language Learning and Language Teaching. Beijing. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press&Edward Arnold Limited.
19. Cook V, 2000 linguistics and second language. Acquisition Macmillan Publishers Ltd.
20. Cummins, R 1983 Psychological explanation. MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass.
21. Curtiss, S 1980 The critical period and feral children. UCLA Working Papers in Cognitive Linguistics 2:21-36
22. Dulay, H and Burt, M 1973 Should we teach children syntax? Language acquisition. Language Learning 24:37-53
23. Eisenstein, M 1982 A study of social variation in adult second language acquisition. Language Learning 32:367-91
24. Ellis, R 1985 Understanding second language acquisition. Oxford University Press
25. Ellis, R The Study of Second Language Acquisition 1994. Oxford University Press.
26. Eubank, L., & Gregg, K. R. 1999 Critical periods and second language acquisition: Divide et impera. In: D. Birdsong (ed.), Second language Acquisition and Critical Period Hypothesis. Mahway, N. J. Lawrence Erlbaum.
27. Fathrnan, A 1975b The relationship between age and second language productive ability. Language Learning25:245-66
28. Fathman, A 1976 Variables affecting the successful learning of English as a second language. TESOL Quarterly 10(4): 433-41
29. Flege, J 1987 A critical period for learning to pronounce foreign languages? Applied Linguistics 8(2): 162-77
30. Fledge,J 1999 Age of learning and second language speech. In: D. Birdsong (ed.), Second language Acquisition and Critical Period Hypothesis. Mahway, N. J. Lawrence Erlbaum.
31. Foster-Cohen S. H. 2002 An Introduction to Child Language Development. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press Beijing.
32. Gardner, R 1979 Social psychological aspects of second language acquisition. In Giles, H and St Clair, R(eds.) Language and Social Psychology, pp 193-220. Basil .Blackwell
33. Genesee, F and Hamayán, E 1980 Individual differences: in second language learning. Applied Psycholinguistics 1:95-110
34. Harley, B 1986 Age in second language acquisition. Multilingual Matters
35. Harley, B &Wang, W.1997 The critical period hypothesis: Where are we now? In: A. M. B. de Groot & J. F. Kroll(eds), Tutorial in Bilingualism: Psycholinguistic Perspective. London: Lawrence Erlbaum.
36. Hatch, E 1976 Optimal age or optimal learners? Workpapers in TESL 11:45-56
37. Hurford, J. R. 1991 the evolution of the critical period for language acquisition. Cognition, 40, 159-201
38. Hurford, J and Kirby, S 1999 Co-Evolution of language Size and the Critical Period In: D. Birdsong (ed.), Second language Acquisition and Critical Period Hypothesis. Mahway, N. J. Lawrence Erlbaum.
39. Hyltenstam. K. and Abrahamsson. N 1999 Age of onset and Ultimate Attainment in Second language Acquisition. Research program. Center for Research on Bilingualism, Stockholm University
40. Hyltenstam. K. and Abrahamsson. N 2001 Age and L2 learning; The hazards of Matching Practical "Implications" with "Theoretical Facts" TESOL Quarterly 35:151-170
41. Ioup, G., Boustagui, E., EL M. tigi, & Moselle, M. 1994 Reexamining the critical period hypothesis: A case study of successful adult SLA in a naturalistic environment. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 16, 73-98
42. Johnson, J and Newport E 1989 Critical period effects in second language learning: the influence of maturational state on the acquisition of ESL. Cognitive Psychology 21:60-99 p77
43. Krashen, S 1973 Lateralization, language leaming and the critical period: some new evidence. Language Learning 23:63-74
44. Krashen, S 1982a Principles and practice in second language acquisition. Pergamon
45. Krashen, S, Scarcella, R and Long, M(eds.) 1982 Child-adult differences in second language acquisition. Newbury House, Rowley, Mass.
46. Larsen-Freeman, D and Long M. H 2000 Introduction to SLA Research London Longman p157
47. Lenneberg, E 1967 Biological foundations of language. John Wiley, New York p 176
48. Long, M 1990 Maturational constraints on language development. Studies in Second Language Acquisition. 12,251-85
49. Marinova-Told, Marshall, D and Snow, C 1995 Three Misconceptions about Age and L2 Learning TESOL Quarterly 34: 8-29
50. McDonald,J. L. 2000 Grammaticality judgments in a second language: Influence of age of acquisition and native language. Applied Psycholinguistics, 21,395-423.
51. McLaughlin, B 1984 Second-language acquisition in childhood, 2nd edition, Vol. 1: Preschool children. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Hillsdale, N.J.
52. Moyer, A. 1999 Ultimate attainment in L2 phonology. The critical factors of age, motivation, and instruction. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 21,81-108.
53. Oyama, S 1976 A sensitive period in the acquisition of non-native phonological system. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research 5:261-85
54. Patkowski, M 1980 The sensitive period for the acquisition of syntax in a second language. Language Learning 30:449-72
55. Patkowski, M, S 1990 Age and accent in a second language: A reply to james Emil Flege. Applied Linguistics, 11, 73-89
56. Penfield, W and Roberts, L 1959 Speech and brain mechanisms. Atheneum Press, New York
57. Richards, J. C. & Lockhart, C 1996 Reflective Teaching in Second Language Classrooms. People Education Press, Cambridge University Press.
58. Rosansky, E 1975 The critical period for the acquisition of language: some cognitive developmental considerations. Working Papers on Bilingualism 6:10-23
59. Schumann, J 1975 Affective factors and the problem of age in second language acquisition. Language Learning 25:209-35
60. Scovel T. Psycholinguistics 1998 Oxford University Press
61. Scovel T. 2000 A Critical Review of the Critical Period Research Annual Review of Applied Linguistics 20:213-223
62. Schmid, B 1985 A Comparative Study of Children's andAdults' Acquisition of Tone Accents in Swedish. Language learning 76: 185-210
63. Seliger, H and Long, M(eds.) 1983 Classroom-oriented research in second language acquisition. Newbury House, Rowley, Mass.
64. Selinker, L 1994 Second Language Acquisition. An introductory Course. Lawrence Erlbaum Assoicates. Hillsdale NJ
65. Singleton, D 1997 Second language in primary school: the age dimension. The Irish Yearbook of Applied Linguistics, 15,155-166
66. Singleton, D 2001 Age and Second Language Acquisition Annual Review of Applied Linguistics 21:77-89
67. Skehan, P 1989 Individual differences in second-language learning. Edward Arnold
68. Snow, C and Hoefnagel-Hohle, M 1978 The critical age for language acquisition: evidence from second language learning. Child Developmeht 49:1114-28
69. Spolsky, B 1989 Conditions for second language learning. Oxford University Press
70. Weber-Fox, C.M.,& Neville, H.J. 1999 Functional neural subsystem are differentially affected by delay in second language immersion: ERP and behavioral evidence in bilinguals. In: D. Birdsong (ed.), Second language Acquisition and Critical Period Hypothesis. Mahway, N.J. Lawrence Erlbaum.
71. White, L., & Genesee, F. 1996 How native is near-native? The issue of ultimate attainment in adult second language acquisition. Second Language Research, 12, 238-265
72. Woods A, Fletcher P, Hughes A, 2000 Statistics in Language Studies Cambridge University Press
73. Yamada, J, Takastuka, S, Kotabe, N and Kurusu, J 1980 On the optimum age for teaching foreign, vocabulary to children. International Review of Applied Linguistics 28(3): 245-7
1、程工，1999，《语言共性论》，[M]上海外语教育出版社，上海
2、桂诗春，2002，《新编心理语言学》，[M]上海外语教育出版社，上海
3、韩宝成，2000，《外语教学科研中的统计方法》，[M]外语教学与研究出版社，北京
4、李荣宝，2002，《双语语义表征及其通达机制》，[M]福建人民出版社，福州
5、刘润清，1999，《外语教学中的科研方法》，[M]外语教学与研究出版社，北京
6、米子川，2002，《统计软件方法》，[M]中国统计出版社，北京
7、邵永良等，1999，《现代教育科研方法与应用》，[M]宁波出版社，宁波
8、束定芳，庄智象1998《现代外语教学》[M]上海外语教育出版社，上海
9、叶奕乾等主编，1997，《普通心理学》(修订本)，[M]华东师范大学出版社，上海
10、张一中，1998，《心理学的研究方法与应用》，[M] 复旦大学出版社，上海
11、陈宝国，彭聃龄，语言习得的关键期及其对教育的启示[J] 心理发展与教育2001(1)
12、戴炜栋，外语教学的“费时低效”现象[J] 外语与外语教学2001(4)
13、桂诗春，“外语要从小学起”质疑[J] 外语教学与研究1992(4)
14、刘件福，外语语法学习中的年龄角色[J] 解放军外国语学院学报1999(9)
15、刘振前，第二语言习得关键期假说研究述评[J] 当代语言学2003(2)
16、王立非，李瑛，第二语言习得关键期假说研究的新进展[J] 外国语2002(2)