冒犯称谓语研究
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摘要
人们在言语活动中用来指人的词语所构成的系统是称谓系统,它包括名称系统和代词系统两大类。称谓系统中的词语有两种用法:指称性用法和称呼性用法。称呼性用法的结果就是称呼语。称谓语是语言现象,它不仅仅是词汇现象,而且是语法现象。冒犯言语和礼貌言语并不是非此即彼的对立体;冒犯言语不是一种偏离,而是一种常态;冒犯言行在形式和功能上并非一一对应,冒犯的言行可能实施消极的功能,也可以实施积极的功能。一些表情色彩中性的词语在一定的语境中也能构成冒犯。因此,冒犯称谓语是指发话者有意或无意使用的那些不/礼貌、不/友好、甚至侮辱性的引起受话者情感变化的指称和称呼词语。本文所探讨的是语言体系中音义结合的称谓语以及这些称谓语在言语活动中的指称性和称呼性用法。
从方式的角度来看,冒犯称谓语可以分为直接和间接冒犯称谓语;从动机的角度,可以分为有意和无意冒犯称谓语;从对象的角度,冒犯称谓语可涉及受话者的性别、职业、人种、民族、身心等方面;从程度的角度,可以分为詈称、蔑称、贬称和倨称等。
贬称与蔑称既有区别又有联系,在二者之间存在中间地带,即某一称谓语可以既是贬称,又是与蔑称。二者的区别主要体现在着眼点不同、指称者和被指称者的社会地位不同、主客观因素介入的不同、词语的选择不同、感情色彩的强弱不同等几个方面。
詈称就是为了宣泄愤怒、怨恨等情绪而使用的含有以恶言等否定色彩侮辱人的称谓语。与贬称和蔑称一样,它也有常态和变异两种用法。前者指这些称谓语使用时所表示的否定色彩,后者指使用时可表否定色彩以外的感情色彩。在语境中赋予蔑称和贬称以骂意后即可转变为詈称。
绰号是本人姓名之外,他人依据名主相貌、姓名、生理或行为等特征所取的、表达取名者思想感情、主观评判的称谓词语。绰号具有以下特点:绰号获取的被动性、绰号的特征突显性、绰号的表情性、使用场合的非正式性、个体专属性、流动性、数量的非唯一性等。
蔑称有蔑称词语和蔑称词语的组合两种形式。倨称可分为真实反映了身份的倨称和虚构身份的倨称。构成冒犯的姓名形式主要有:大名、姓名绰号、使用转用名、姓名的指代含义、姓氏﹢排行、乳名,爱称等。通过仿拟形成的冒犯称谓语的方式有:语言单位类型、意义类型、结构类型。
冒犯称谓语的特点主要包括:使用的时效性、冒犯程度的差异性、使用的变异性、使用的局限性、语用效果的震撼性、对冒犯的敏感性等。使用的时效性主要体现为某些冒犯称谓语的消亡、语义的降格、感情色彩在不同的时期褒贬色彩不同。冒犯程度的差异性表现为在不同的语用环境中,词语的褒贬色彩不同;不同词语的侮辱意味不同;不同的人对某一词语感情色彩的态度不同;对词语感情色彩的误解等。使用的变异性包括功能的变异性、性别角色的变异性以及感情色彩的变异性等几个方面。使用的局限性表现在使用场合、交际形式、使用对象等方面。
语境因素对言语的生成和理解起着十分重要的作用。人们在语境中进行交际时,不仅仅涉及在理解话语时依据语言语境和情景语境从已有知识结构中激活的长期记忆内容,还应该包括发话人在言语生成时即对语言和言语选择时对语境的认知和倾向性;同时我们认为三者密不可分,共同促成正确的言语的生成和理解。
语境三要素——语言语境、情景语境和文化语境对冒犯称谓语之间的转换以及其他类型的称谓语转换成冒犯称谓语时有制约作用,同时人们能动地利用上述语境因素为其交际目的服务,二者共同运作促成话语的建构。
冒犯称谓语能实施表情功能、行事取效功能、社会文化功能等。冒犯称谓语能宣泄人的诸如忧伤、悲痛、愤怒、焦虑等情感;能昭示肯定、喜爱、赞扬以及等否定、贬斥、憎恶等情感;能表明交际者之间的群体意识,以及他之间的群体认同;能帮助确认发话者和受话者的身份。冒犯称谓语能实施责备、威胁、警告等言外行为,能获得取效结果。这种取效结果可能是预期的和非预期的,其有效性受语境因素的影响,同时有必要考虑取效结果的时效性和震撼力等。冒犯称谓语能从正反两个方面反映文化。能对人们的道德行为进行规范。
冒犯称谓语能体现性差心理、社会心理和认知心理。冒犯称谓语的社会心理包括:禁忌心理、偏见心理、模仿心理等;认知心理包括接近联想、相似联想、对立联想等。
The address system is one which consists of words referring to human beings in communication. The system can be divided into nominal and pronoun subsystems. The terms in the system have two characteristic functions: referential and vocative. The distinction between the referential and vocative function of the terms is systematized as a distinction between what are called terms of reference and terms of address. We think that addressing terms are a part of the linguistic system and belong to what Saussure called langue. We hold the view that offensive and polite discourses are not complementary opposites; Offensive discourse are not deviations, instead they are just the normal; there is no such one to one correspondence between the form of offensive discourse and its function, and the offensive discourse may have positive and negative functions. Therefore offensive addressing terms are those politely/impolitely, friendly/unfriendly or even insulting terms which the speakers have uttered intentionally or unintentionally to create emotional reactions of the hearers. What we have discussed are the addressing terms and their referential and vocative use.
The offensive addressing terms can be categorized from different perspectives. In terms of mode, we have direct and indirect ones; in terms of motive, we have intentional and unintentional ones; in terms of addressees, the offensive addressing terms can cover such aspects as the sex, the profession, the human race, the ethnic group, the physical and mental state of the addressees, etc. In terms of degree, we have cursing terms, pejorative terms,derogatory terms, haughty terms, etc.
We hold the view that derogatory terms and pejorative terms are related, and they form a continuum, i.e. some terms can both be derogatory and pejorative terms. And the major differences lie in the different point of departure, the different social status of the speaker and the addressee, the different involvement of the subjective and objective factors, the different choice of words, and the different strength of emotion, etc.
The cursing terms are addressing terms which give vent to the speaker’s pent-up feelings such as anger, resentment, etc. and with which the speaker intentionally insults the addressee maliciously. Just like the derogatory terms and pejorative terms, the cursing terms can be used in their own sense and can be used in variation. That is to say, the terms can express offence or other feelings. In certain context, when the derogatory terms and pejorative terms are invested with abusive intention, they are converted to cursing terms.
A nickname is a term other than one’s own name which is given by some other people characterizing the bearer’s features such as looks, name, physiological or behavior qualities, etc. and shows the giver’s subjective evaluation and emotion to the bearer. The important features of nicknames are the passiveness, the prominence, the expressiveness, the informality, individuality, the fluid nature and the non-uniqueness.
The constituent forms of offensive addressing terms are exemplified by the pejorative terms, the haughty forms, names, and the terms created by means of parody. The pejorative terms consist of words in langue and the phrases formed according to grammatical rules.
The haughty forms can be terms denoting one’s real identity, or terms denoting one’s imagined identity. People can be offended by names and forms include one’s surname or given name, nickname created according to one’s name, transferred name, the name’s implication, name plus words denoting one’s seniority among siblings, name given as a baby, endearment, etc. The terms created by means of parody include types in terms of linguistic unit, meaning, and structure.
The characteristics of offensive addressing terms include the limit of time in usage, the different degree of offence, the variation, the restrictive use, the shocking illocutionary force, the sensitivity of the offence. The limit of time in usage is manifested by the terms’disappearance, the degradation of the meaning, the different flavor, etc. The different degree of offence is shown by the fact the terms may be commendatory or derogatory in different context, different terms have different insulting flavor, different addressees have different attitudes to the same term, and the addressee may misunderstand the flavor of the terms. For variation, we have functional, gender and emotive flavor variations. The restrictive use means the restrictive use of place, addressee, speaker and forms.
Contextual factors play an important role in the production and understanding of the utterances. During the production of the utterances, the speaker’s cognition of and his tendency towards the context should be included in cognitive context in addition to the activation of long-term knowledge from the shared knowledge structure in the process of understanding; and the three elements of context are integrated and foster the correct production and understanding of utterances.
The three contextual factors such as co-text, context of situation and context of culture can restrict the switch of the offensive addressing terms themselves and the switch from other types of addressing terms to offensive addressing terms. At the same time, speaker can manipulate the above contextual factors for the sake of his ends. The contextual factors and speaker’s manipulation operate together to gear the production of the utterances.
Offensive addressing terms can perform expressive, performative, and social-cultural functions. The expressive function includes the release of such feelings as distress, sorrow, anger, anxiety, etc. and it can show the addressee’s positive and negative emotions; it can reveal the group awareness and identity among the communicators; it can help establish the roles played by the speaker and the addressee. Offensive addressing terms can enforce such illocutionary acts as rebuke, threatening, warning, etc. We think that the illocutionary force can be intended or unintended, the force is influenced by context, and the speaker must consider the length and the strength of the force. And we think offensive addressing terms can reflect the culture from the obvious and the hidden sides; and can regulate people’s moral conduct.
Offensive addressing terms can reflect the gender, social and cognitive psychology. The social psychology reflected includes taboo, prejudice, and imitation, etc. The associations of proximity, similarity and opposition are the cognitive psychology reflected.
从方式的角度来看,冒犯称谓语可以分为直接和间接冒犯称谓语;从动机的角度,可以分为有意和无意冒犯称谓语;从对象的角度,冒犯称谓语可涉及受话者的性别、职业、人种、民族、身心等方面;从程度的角度,可以分为詈称、蔑称、贬称和倨称等。
贬称与蔑称既有区别又有联系,在二者之间存在中间地带,即某一称谓语可以既是贬称,又是与蔑称。二者的区别主要体现在着眼点不同、指称者和被指称者的社会地位不同、主客观因素介入的不同、词语的选择不同、感情色彩的强弱不同等几个方面。
詈称就是为了宣泄愤怒、怨恨等情绪而使用的含有以恶言等否定色彩侮辱人的称谓语。与贬称和蔑称一样,它也有常态和变异两种用法。前者指这些称谓语使用时所表示的否定色彩,后者指使用时可表否定色彩以外的感情色彩。在语境中赋予蔑称和贬称以骂意后即可转变为詈称。
绰号是本人姓名之外,他人依据名主相貌、姓名、生理或行为等特征所取的、表达取名者思想感情、主观评判的称谓词语。绰号具有以下特点:绰号获取的被动性、绰号的特征突显性、绰号的表情性、使用场合的非正式性、个体专属性、流动性、数量的非唯一性等。
蔑称有蔑称词语和蔑称词语的组合两种形式。倨称可分为真实反映了身份的倨称和虚构身份的倨称。构成冒犯的姓名形式主要有:大名、姓名绰号、使用转用名、姓名的指代含义、姓氏﹢排行、乳名,爱称等。通过仿拟形成的冒犯称谓语的方式有:语言单位类型、意义类型、结构类型。
冒犯称谓语的特点主要包括:使用的时效性、冒犯程度的差异性、使用的变异性、使用的局限性、语用效果的震撼性、对冒犯的敏感性等。使用的时效性主要体现为某些冒犯称谓语的消亡、语义的降格、感情色彩在不同的时期褒贬色彩不同。冒犯程度的差异性表现为在不同的语用环境中,词语的褒贬色彩不同;不同词语的侮辱意味不同;不同的人对某一词语感情色彩的态度不同;对词语感情色彩的误解等。使用的变异性包括功能的变异性、性别角色的变异性以及感情色彩的变异性等几个方面。使用的局限性表现在使用场合、交际形式、使用对象等方面。
语境因素对言语的生成和理解起着十分重要的作用。人们在语境中进行交际时,不仅仅涉及在理解话语时依据语言语境和情景语境从已有知识结构中激活的长期记忆内容,还应该包括发话人在言语生成时即对语言和言语选择时对语境的认知和倾向性;同时我们认为三者密不可分,共同促成正确的言语的生成和理解。
语境三要素——语言语境、情景语境和文化语境对冒犯称谓语之间的转换以及其他类型的称谓语转换成冒犯称谓语时有制约作用,同时人们能动地利用上述语境因素为其交际目的服务,二者共同运作促成话语的建构。
冒犯称谓语能实施表情功能、行事取效功能、社会文化功能等。冒犯称谓语能宣泄人的诸如忧伤、悲痛、愤怒、焦虑等情感;能昭示肯定、喜爱、赞扬以及等否定、贬斥、憎恶等情感;能表明交际者之间的群体意识,以及他之间的群体认同;能帮助确认发话者和受话者的身份。冒犯称谓语能实施责备、威胁、警告等言外行为,能获得取效结果。这种取效结果可能是预期的和非预期的,其有效性受语境因素的影响,同时有必要考虑取效结果的时效性和震撼力等。冒犯称谓语能从正反两个方面反映文化。能对人们的道德行为进行规范。
冒犯称谓语能体现性差心理、社会心理和认知心理。冒犯称谓语的社会心理包括:禁忌心理、偏见心理、模仿心理等;认知心理包括接近联想、相似联想、对立联想等。
The address system is one which consists of words referring to human beings in communication. The system can be divided into nominal and pronoun subsystems. The terms in the system have two characteristic functions: referential and vocative. The distinction between the referential and vocative function of the terms is systematized as a distinction between what are called terms of reference and terms of address. We think that addressing terms are a part of the linguistic system and belong to what Saussure called langue. We hold the view that offensive and polite discourses are not complementary opposites; Offensive discourse are not deviations, instead they are just the normal; there is no such one to one correspondence between the form of offensive discourse and its function, and the offensive discourse may have positive and negative functions. Therefore offensive addressing terms are those politely/impolitely, friendly/unfriendly or even insulting terms which the speakers have uttered intentionally or unintentionally to create emotional reactions of the hearers. What we have discussed are the addressing terms and their referential and vocative use.
The offensive addressing terms can be categorized from different perspectives. In terms of mode, we have direct and indirect ones; in terms of motive, we have intentional and unintentional ones; in terms of addressees, the offensive addressing terms can cover such aspects as the sex, the profession, the human race, the ethnic group, the physical and mental state of the addressees, etc. In terms of degree, we have cursing terms, pejorative terms,derogatory terms, haughty terms, etc.
We hold the view that derogatory terms and pejorative terms are related, and they form a continuum, i.e. some terms can both be derogatory and pejorative terms. And the major differences lie in the different point of departure, the different social status of the speaker and the addressee, the different involvement of the subjective and objective factors, the different choice of words, and the different strength of emotion, etc.
The cursing terms are addressing terms which give vent to the speaker’s pent-up feelings such as anger, resentment, etc. and with which the speaker intentionally insults the addressee maliciously. Just like the derogatory terms and pejorative terms, the cursing terms can be used in their own sense and can be used in variation. That is to say, the terms can express offence or other feelings. In certain context, when the derogatory terms and pejorative terms are invested with abusive intention, they are converted to cursing terms.
A nickname is a term other than one’s own name which is given by some other people characterizing the bearer’s features such as looks, name, physiological or behavior qualities, etc. and shows the giver’s subjective evaluation and emotion to the bearer. The important features of nicknames are the passiveness, the prominence, the expressiveness, the informality, individuality, the fluid nature and the non-uniqueness.
The constituent forms of offensive addressing terms are exemplified by the pejorative terms, the haughty forms, names, and the terms created by means of parody. The pejorative terms consist of words in langue and the phrases formed according to grammatical rules.
The haughty forms can be terms denoting one’s real identity, or terms denoting one’s imagined identity. People can be offended by names and forms include one’s surname or given name, nickname created according to one’s name, transferred name, the name’s implication, name plus words denoting one’s seniority among siblings, name given as a baby, endearment, etc. The terms created by means of parody include types in terms of linguistic unit, meaning, and structure.
The characteristics of offensive addressing terms include the limit of time in usage, the different degree of offence, the variation, the restrictive use, the shocking illocutionary force, the sensitivity of the offence. The limit of time in usage is manifested by the terms’disappearance, the degradation of the meaning, the different flavor, etc. The different degree of offence is shown by the fact the terms may be commendatory or derogatory in different context, different terms have different insulting flavor, different addressees have different attitudes to the same term, and the addressee may misunderstand the flavor of the terms. For variation, we have functional, gender and emotive flavor variations. The restrictive use means the restrictive use of place, addressee, speaker and forms.
Contextual factors play an important role in the production and understanding of the utterances. During the production of the utterances, the speaker’s cognition of and his tendency towards the context should be included in cognitive context in addition to the activation of long-term knowledge from the shared knowledge structure in the process of understanding; and the three elements of context are integrated and foster the correct production and understanding of utterances.
The three contextual factors such as co-text, context of situation and context of culture can restrict the switch of the offensive addressing terms themselves and the switch from other types of addressing terms to offensive addressing terms. At the same time, speaker can manipulate the above contextual factors for the sake of his ends. The contextual factors and speaker’s manipulation operate together to gear the production of the utterances.
Offensive addressing terms can perform expressive, performative, and social-cultural functions. The expressive function includes the release of such feelings as distress, sorrow, anger, anxiety, etc. and it can show the addressee’s positive and negative emotions; it can reveal the group awareness and identity among the communicators; it can help establish the roles played by the speaker and the addressee. Offensive addressing terms can enforce such illocutionary acts as rebuke, threatening, warning, etc. We think that the illocutionary force can be intended or unintended, the force is influenced by context, and the speaker must consider the length and the strength of the force. And we think offensive addressing terms can reflect the culture from the obvious and the hidden sides; and can regulate people’s moral conduct.
Offensive addressing terms can reflect the gender, social and cognitive psychology. The social psychology reflected includes taboo, prejudice, and imitation, etc. The associations of proximity, similarity and opposition are the cognitive psychology reflected.
引文
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