加速器驱动次临界系统（ADS）堆芯冷却系统换热优化
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摘要
核能是解决当前能源问题的主要途径之一,具有技术成熟与燃料储量丰富两大优势,但同时也面临核废料处理难题。目前普遍采用的“一次通过”处理方法虽然简单,但却存在巨大的能源浪费,更为严重的是未经处理的核素将长期对人类社会和自然环境构成潜在威胁,而采用分离嬗变技术的加速器驱动次临界系统(ADS)可有效解决这一问题。堆芯冷却系统是ADS的重要组成部分,其冷却性能直接关系到ADS的安全性和经济性。该系统包括三个回路：铅铋合金回路(一回路)、氦气回路(二回路)以及冷却水回路(三回路)。其中铅铋合金为堆芯冷却剂,氦气回路实现热功转换,而冷却水主要是将余热带走,一、二回路之间通过主换热器换热,二、三回路之间通过冷却器换热。本文希望通过对该系统的换热过程进行优化研究,以获得提高冷却系统性能的方法。
传统热力学分析将热源视为恒温(热容无穷大),没有考虑工质有限热容流率对系统性能的影响,使得优化结果存在一定局限性。为了考察工质有限热容流率对系统性能的影响,论文首先以传热系数和换热面积为无穷大的理想换热器(换热能力无穷大)为对象进行了研究,以排除换热器的换热能力对系统性能的影响。研究过程中将三个回路在温熵图上综合考虑,根据三者状态参数之间的关系,得到了理想换热器情况下系统性能参数的表达式,结果表明：三个回路的有限热容流率对系统性能有重要影响,并且当三个回路热容流率相等时系统性能最优。基于理想换热器研究结果,论文进一步对实际换热器(有限换热能力)进行了研究。实际换热器出口冷热流体存在有限温差,堆芯铅铋合金温度高于理想换热器的情况,此时三个回路在温熵图上的温度差别比理想换热器时大,通过求解该温差,获得了不同工况下工质有限热容流率、换热器有限传热系数以及有限换热面积对系统性能影响程度的统一表达式。
由于换热器冷热流体之间的相互作用,恒壁温与恒热流边界条件下单流道对流换热的Nu数无量纲关联式不能完全适用于换热器,本文对此提出了一种求解Nu数的新方法,即温度场匹配法,提出依据如下：接触面上,冷热流体的温度场必然连续且热流相等,因此冷热流体的温度场存在内在的对应关系。为了确定温度场的具体形式及相应的Nu数,论文对指数型边界条件(考虑到换热器冷热流体温差沿流动方向呈指数规律变化)下单流道内的对流换热问题进行了研究,获得了不同指数项系数下的温度场及Nu数,根据温度场匹配思想进一步获得了冷热流体匹配参数(表示为热容流率与指数项系数的函数)的对应关系,从而确定了冷热流体的Nu数以及换热器的总Nu数(表示为冷热流体热容流率比与固有热阻比的函数)。为了证明温度场匹配法的可靠性,论文将采用温度场匹配法得到的恒壁温与恒热流边界条件下的Nu数分别与文献中的Nu数结果进行了对比,结果表明：采用温度场匹配法求解换热器的Nu是可行的,所得结果是可靠的。
ADS冷却系统通过二回路实现热功转换,为了从做功角度对系统进行优化,论文对系统的不可逆性进行了研究。通过求解理想换热器顺、逆流时的熵增后发现：随着三个回路热容流率的变化,总传热不可逆熵增与系统循环效率均呈现出单调变化趋势且存在极限,表明以功量作为优化目标是可行的。优化过程中,选取换热器为板式结构且冷热流体为逆流换热,将循环总输出功与泵功的差值(即净输出功)作为优化目标,为了简化净输出功表达式,认为三个回路的热容流率相等。结果表明：不同约束条件下,存在最佳的回路热容流率和换热器流道尺寸,使得净输出功达到最大。在此基础上,进一步获得了回路热容流率和换热器流道尺寸两个参数给定其一情况下另外一个参数最优值的近似解析解,以及两个参数均为变量情况下最优参数的数值解。
为了在反应堆总功率不变情况下进一步提升ADS系统的经济性,论文研究了热载荷对系统净效率(净输出功与热载荷的比值)的影响,为了使结论更具可比性,将约束条件限定为几何相似(换热器长宽比、宽高比及比表面积不变)与载荷相似(单位换热面积承担的热载荷不变)。研究结果显示：系统净效率随热载荷的增大单调下降,表明在单位换热面积承担热载荷不变的条件下,采用多套子系统并联的冷却方式比单套冷却系统更具经济性。在上述相似假设前提下,三个回路的最优热容流率与热载荷近似为幂函数关系,而换热器流道尺寸的最优值受热载荷影响较小,近似为常数。
常规换热器优化过程中存在热阻与功耗“不同优”的问题,而基于系统的优化可以最大限度缓解这一矛盾。为了进一步提升系统性能,论文从部件层面对换热器结构进行了改进与优化,提出了一种热管型换热器的解决方案,并采用创新性提出的“热短路”分析模型对热管型换热器进行了研究,结果表明：热管型换热器可以显著降低热阻与功耗的“不同优”性,从而扩大系统整体性能的提升空间。
Owing to two advantages, i.e., mature technique and rich reserves of nuclear fuel, nuclear energy is one of the main ways to solve the present energy problem. However, it also faces the problem of nuclear waste disposal. The "once through" approach which is widely used currently is simple for operation, but causes huge waste of energy. The more serious consequence is that the untreated nuclides will pose a long-term potential threat to human society and natural environment. The Accelerator Driven Subcritical System (ADS) adopting the partition and transmutation techniques can solve this problem effectively. The core cooling system is part of ADS and plays a key role in ADS. Its cooling ability is directly related to the safety and economy of ADS. The core cooling system consists of three loops, i.e., the LBE loop (the first loop) with LBE as core coolant, the helium gas loop (the second loop) which turns thermal energy to power, and the cooling water loop (the third loop) which carries the waste heat out. The first loop exchanges heat with the second loops by the Main Heat Exchanger, and the Cooler is used for the heat exchange between the second and the third loops. In this thesis, the optimization of heat transfer in the core cooling system is conducted to improve the performance of the cooling system.
For the traditional thermodynamic analysis, temperature of heat resource is regarded as constant (which means an infinite heat capacity), and the influence of finite heat capacity flow rates (HCFRs) of working fluids on system performance is neglected, which brings the limitations for the application of optimization results. In order to examine the effect of finite HCFRs on system performance, the ideal heat exchanger with infinite heat transfer coefficient and the heat transfer area (which means the infinite heat transfer ability) was explored so as to eliminate the influence of heat transfer ability of heat exchangers on system performance. The three loops were examined on the temperature-entropy diagram as a whole, and the expression for the system performance was obtained by analyzing the relationship among the status parameters of the three loops. The results show that the limited HCFRs of the three loops play important roles on the system performance, and the system achieves its best performance when the HCFRs of the three loops are equal. On this base, the real heat exchanger with the limited heat transfer ability was further explored. For real heat exchangers, there exists a finite temperature difference between cold and hot fluids at the outlet, so the temperature of LBE in the core is higher than that for ideal heat exchanger. The resultant temperature differences among the three loops are larger than that for ideal heat exchangers. Through calculating these temperature differences, the universal expression which describes the influence of such factors as finite HCFRs of the working fluids, finite heat transfer coefficient and finite heat transfer area on the system performance, was obtained for all working conditions.
Because of the interaction between hot and cold fluids in heat exchanger, the correlations of Nu for convective heat transfer in single duct under such boundary conditions as constant wall temperature and heat flux are not fully applicable for heat exchangers, and a new method calculating Nu of heat exchanger, i.e., temperature-matching method, was proposed in this thesis. The basis of this method is that the temperature fields of hot and cold fluids have intrinsic relationship because they are continuous and the heat flux is equal on the contacting wall. In order to determine the forms of temperature fields and the corresponding Nu, the convective heat transfer problem in single duct with exponentially-varying boundary condition along the flow direction was explored by considering the fact that the temperature difference of hot and cold fluids varies exponentially along the flow direction, and the temperature fields and Nu for different exponential coefficients were obtained. According to the temperature-matching principle, the matching parameters of hot and cold fluids were obtained, which are the function of HCFR and the exponential coefficient. Thereby, the Nu of hot and cold fluids and the total Nu (the function of the ratio of HCFRs of hot and cold fluids and the ratio of the inherent thermal resistances) of heat exchanger were determined. In order to check the reliability of the temperature-matching method, the Nu calculated by the temperature-matching method under constant wall temperature and constant heat flux was compared with the data from the literature. The result shows that the temperature-matching method is feasible for calculating the Nu of heat exchangers.
The core cooling system realizes the conversion of heat to work by means of its second loop, therefore the investigation on the irreversibility of the system was conducted to lay a foundation for the system optimization from the perspective of work production. By studying the entropy generation of the cases with ideal heat exchangers under parallel and counter flows, it is found that both the entropy generation caused by heat transfer irreversibility and the cycle efficiency monotonically varies with the HCFR of each loop and have limit value. This indicates that it is feasible to use work as the objective parameter of the system optimization. During the optimization process, the plate-type heat exchanger was chosen, and the relative flow pattern of hot and cold fluids is counter flow. In addition, the difference between the total work output and the bump work consumption, i.e., Net Work Output (NWO), was defined as the target parameter for the optimization. In order to simplify the expression of the Net Work Output, the HCFRs of the three loops are supposed to be equal. The result shows that, under different constraints, there are the optimal HCFRs for the loops and channel dimensions for heat exchanger, which brings the maximum Net Work Output. On this basis, the approximate analytical solution of the optimum value of the other parameter was obtained when one of such parameters as HCFR and channel thickness is given, as well as the numerical solutions of the optimal parameters when both HCFR and channel thickness are variable.
In order to improve the economy of ADS with the constant reactor core heat power, the influence of heat load on the Net Efficiency (the ratio of NWO to heat load) of the system was explored. In order to make the results more comparable, geometric similarity (the ratios of length to width, the ratio of width to height, and the specific area for heat exchanger are constant) and load similarity (the heat load per unit area is constant) are regarded as the constraints. The result shows that the Net Efficiency monotonically decreases with the increasing heat load. This indicates that the cooling scheme with multiple parallel subsystems has better economy than that with only single cooling system under the constant heat load per unit area. Under the above constraints, the optimal HCFR of each loop approximately changes with power function of the heat load, and the optimal thickness of each channel is less affected by the heat load and keeps constant.
The optimization of ordinary heat exchanger will be subjected to the problem of "non-synchronous behavior" between minimum heat resistance and minimum pump power consumption, and the optimization from the system level can release such contradiction. In order to further improve the system performance, the improvement and optimization was made for the structure of heat exchanger from the component level, and a scheme of heat-pipe-type heat exchanger was proposed. By adopting the innovatively proposed "thermally short-cut" model, the heat-pipe-type heat exchanger was analyzed. The results show that heat-pipe-type heat exchanger can significantly reduce the "non-synchronous behavior" between heat resistance and pump power consumption, and make the improvement space of the system performance be expanded.
传统热力学分析将热源视为恒温(热容无穷大),没有考虑工质有限热容流率对系统性能的影响,使得优化结果存在一定局限性。为了考察工质有限热容流率对系统性能的影响,论文首先以传热系数和换热面积为无穷大的理想换热器(换热能力无穷大)为对象进行了研究,以排除换热器的换热能力对系统性能的影响。研究过程中将三个回路在温熵图上综合考虑,根据三者状态参数之间的关系,得到了理想换热器情况下系统性能参数的表达式,结果表明：三个回路的有限热容流率对系统性能有重要影响,并且当三个回路热容流率相等时系统性能最优。基于理想换热器研究结果,论文进一步对实际换热器(有限换热能力)进行了研究。实际换热器出口冷热流体存在有限温差,堆芯铅铋合金温度高于理想换热器的情况,此时三个回路在温熵图上的温度差别比理想换热器时大,通过求解该温差,获得了不同工况下工质有限热容流率、换热器有限传热系数以及有限换热面积对系统性能影响程度的统一表达式。
由于换热器冷热流体之间的相互作用,恒壁温与恒热流边界条件下单流道对流换热的Nu数无量纲关联式不能完全适用于换热器,本文对此提出了一种求解Nu数的新方法,即温度场匹配法,提出依据如下：接触面上,冷热流体的温度场必然连续且热流相等,因此冷热流体的温度场存在内在的对应关系。为了确定温度场的具体形式及相应的Nu数,论文对指数型边界条件(考虑到换热器冷热流体温差沿流动方向呈指数规律变化)下单流道内的对流换热问题进行了研究,获得了不同指数项系数下的温度场及Nu数,根据温度场匹配思想进一步获得了冷热流体匹配参数(表示为热容流率与指数项系数的函数)的对应关系,从而确定了冷热流体的Nu数以及换热器的总Nu数(表示为冷热流体热容流率比与固有热阻比的函数)。为了证明温度场匹配法的可靠性,论文将采用温度场匹配法得到的恒壁温与恒热流边界条件下的Nu数分别与文献中的Nu数结果进行了对比,结果表明：采用温度场匹配法求解换热器的Nu是可行的,所得结果是可靠的。
ADS冷却系统通过二回路实现热功转换,为了从做功角度对系统进行优化,论文对系统的不可逆性进行了研究。通过求解理想换热器顺、逆流时的熵增后发现：随着三个回路热容流率的变化,总传热不可逆熵增与系统循环效率均呈现出单调变化趋势且存在极限,表明以功量作为优化目标是可行的。优化过程中,选取换热器为板式结构且冷热流体为逆流换热,将循环总输出功与泵功的差值(即净输出功)作为优化目标,为了简化净输出功表达式,认为三个回路的热容流率相等。结果表明：不同约束条件下,存在最佳的回路热容流率和换热器流道尺寸,使得净输出功达到最大。在此基础上,进一步获得了回路热容流率和换热器流道尺寸两个参数给定其一情况下另外一个参数最优值的近似解析解,以及两个参数均为变量情况下最优参数的数值解。
为了在反应堆总功率不变情况下进一步提升ADS系统的经济性,论文研究了热载荷对系统净效率(净输出功与热载荷的比值)的影响,为了使结论更具可比性,将约束条件限定为几何相似(换热器长宽比、宽高比及比表面积不变)与载荷相似(单位换热面积承担的热载荷不变)。研究结果显示：系统净效率随热载荷的增大单调下降,表明在单位换热面积承担热载荷不变的条件下,采用多套子系统并联的冷却方式比单套冷却系统更具经济性。在上述相似假设前提下,三个回路的最优热容流率与热载荷近似为幂函数关系,而换热器流道尺寸的最优值受热载荷影响较小,近似为常数。
常规换热器优化过程中存在热阻与功耗“不同优”的问题,而基于系统的优化可以最大限度缓解这一矛盾。为了进一步提升系统性能,论文从部件层面对换热器结构进行了改进与优化,提出了一种热管型换热器的解决方案,并采用创新性提出的“热短路”分析模型对热管型换热器进行了研究,结果表明：热管型换热器可以显著降低热阻与功耗的“不同优”性,从而扩大系统整体性能的提升空间。
Owing to two advantages, i.e., mature technique and rich reserves of nuclear fuel, nuclear energy is one of the main ways to solve the present energy problem. However, it also faces the problem of nuclear waste disposal. The "once through" approach which is widely used currently is simple for operation, but causes huge waste of energy. The more serious consequence is that the untreated nuclides will pose a long-term potential threat to human society and natural environment. The Accelerator Driven Subcritical System (ADS) adopting the partition and transmutation techniques can solve this problem effectively. The core cooling system is part of ADS and plays a key role in ADS. Its cooling ability is directly related to the safety and economy of ADS. The core cooling system consists of three loops, i.e., the LBE loop (the first loop) with LBE as core coolant, the helium gas loop (the second loop) which turns thermal energy to power, and the cooling water loop (the third loop) which carries the waste heat out. The first loop exchanges heat with the second loops by the Main Heat Exchanger, and the Cooler is used for the heat exchange between the second and the third loops. In this thesis, the optimization of heat transfer in the core cooling system is conducted to improve the performance of the cooling system.
For the traditional thermodynamic analysis, temperature of heat resource is regarded as constant (which means an infinite heat capacity), and the influence of finite heat capacity flow rates (HCFRs) of working fluids on system performance is neglected, which brings the limitations for the application of optimization results. In order to examine the effect of finite HCFRs on system performance, the ideal heat exchanger with infinite heat transfer coefficient and the heat transfer area (which means the infinite heat transfer ability) was explored so as to eliminate the influence of heat transfer ability of heat exchangers on system performance. The three loops were examined on the temperature-entropy diagram as a whole, and the expression for the system performance was obtained by analyzing the relationship among the status parameters of the three loops. The results show that the limited HCFRs of the three loops play important roles on the system performance, and the system achieves its best performance when the HCFRs of the three loops are equal. On this base, the real heat exchanger with the limited heat transfer ability was further explored. For real heat exchangers, there exists a finite temperature difference between cold and hot fluids at the outlet, so the temperature of LBE in the core is higher than that for ideal heat exchanger. The resultant temperature differences among the three loops are larger than that for ideal heat exchangers. Through calculating these temperature differences, the universal expression which describes the influence of such factors as finite HCFRs of the working fluids, finite heat transfer coefficient and finite heat transfer area on the system performance, was obtained for all working conditions.
Because of the interaction between hot and cold fluids in heat exchanger, the correlations of Nu for convective heat transfer in single duct under such boundary conditions as constant wall temperature and heat flux are not fully applicable for heat exchangers, and a new method calculating Nu of heat exchanger, i.e., temperature-matching method, was proposed in this thesis. The basis of this method is that the temperature fields of hot and cold fluids have intrinsic relationship because they are continuous and the heat flux is equal on the contacting wall. In order to determine the forms of temperature fields and the corresponding Nu, the convective heat transfer problem in single duct with exponentially-varying boundary condition along the flow direction was explored by considering the fact that the temperature difference of hot and cold fluids varies exponentially along the flow direction, and the temperature fields and Nu for different exponential coefficients were obtained. According to the temperature-matching principle, the matching parameters of hot and cold fluids were obtained, which are the function of HCFR and the exponential coefficient. Thereby, the Nu of hot and cold fluids and the total Nu (the function of the ratio of HCFRs of hot and cold fluids and the ratio of the inherent thermal resistances) of heat exchanger were determined. In order to check the reliability of the temperature-matching method, the Nu calculated by the temperature-matching method under constant wall temperature and constant heat flux was compared with the data from the literature. The result shows that the temperature-matching method is feasible for calculating the Nu of heat exchangers.
The core cooling system realizes the conversion of heat to work by means of its second loop, therefore the investigation on the irreversibility of the system was conducted to lay a foundation for the system optimization from the perspective of work production. By studying the entropy generation of the cases with ideal heat exchangers under parallel and counter flows, it is found that both the entropy generation caused by heat transfer irreversibility and the cycle efficiency monotonically varies with the HCFR of each loop and have limit value. This indicates that it is feasible to use work as the objective parameter of the system optimization. During the optimization process, the plate-type heat exchanger was chosen, and the relative flow pattern of hot and cold fluids is counter flow. In addition, the difference between the total work output and the bump work consumption, i.e., Net Work Output (NWO), was defined as the target parameter for the optimization. In order to simplify the expression of the Net Work Output, the HCFRs of the three loops are supposed to be equal. The result shows that, under different constraints, there are the optimal HCFRs for the loops and channel dimensions for heat exchanger, which brings the maximum Net Work Output. On this basis, the approximate analytical solution of the optimum value of the other parameter was obtained when one of such parameters as HCFR and channel thickness is given, as well as the numerical solutions of the optimal parameters when both HCFR and channel thickness are variable.
In order to improve the economy of ADS with the constant reactor core heat power, the influence of heat load on the Net Efficiency (the ratio of NWO to heat load) of the system was explored. In order to make the results more comparable, geometric similarity (the ratios of length to width, the ratio of width to height, and the specific area for heat exchanger are constant) and load similarity (the heat load per unit area is constant) are regarded as the constraints. The result shows that the Net Efficiency monotonically decreases with the increasing heat load. This indicates that the cooling scheme with multiple parallel subsystems has better economy than that with only single cooling system under the constant heat load per unit area. Under the above constraints, the optimal HCFR of each loop approximately changes with power function of the heat load, and the optimal thickness of each channel is less affected by the heat load and keeps constant.
The optimization of ordinary heat exchanger will be subjected to the problem of "non-synchronous behavior" between minimum heat resistance and minimum pump power consumption, and the optimization from the system level can release such contradiction. In order to further improve the system performance, the improvement and optimization was made for the structure of heat exchanger from the component level, and a scheme of heat-pipe-type heat exchanger was proposed. By adopting the innovatively proposed "thermally short-cut" model, the heat-pipe-type heat exchanger was analyzed. The results show that heat-pipe-type heat exchanger can significantly reduce the "non-synchronous behavior" between heat resistance and pump power consumption, and make the improvement space of the system performance be expanded.
引文
[1]夏海鸿,罗璋琳,赵志祥.加强ADS技术研究促进核能大规模可持续发展[J].现代物理知识,2011,23(4)：44-51.
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