政治、文化、经济目标之平衡：加拿大广播电视产业政策演变及其启示
摘要
加拿大的广播电视体制和政策模式是西方国家中的一个典型代表,同时又有自身鲜明特点,且和我国有不少共通之处,对我国当前进行的广播电视体制改革颇具借鉴意义。
历经八十余年之发展演变,当下加拿大广播电视系统形成了以三大目标为框架之政策体系。首先是政治目标,即抵制美国文化同化之威胁,捍卫国家文化主权；政府为此实施了“加拿大内容”政策,从制作、传输、播出三个环节确保国产、本土内容优先。其次是社会文化目标,即发挥广播电视的特殊作用,促进各民族和谐相处,维护国家团结；政府为此实施了“广播系统多样性”政策,保证法语和英语在广播系统中具同等核心地位,同时给予土著人广播特殊地位,并鼓励其它少数民族内容之呈现。再次是经济目标,即确保广播电视产业之生存、发展和壮大,为加拿大人提供加拿大内容产品,并参与全球竞争：政府为此实施了对私营广播的支持政策,创造产业发展的良好市场和商业环境。加拿大广播电视产业政策八十余年之历史演变,即是寻求政治、文化、经济目标之平衡与再平衡的过程。近三十年来,伴随西方国家在通信、广播领域之放松管制和市场化、私有化浪潮,经济目标在加拿大广播电视产业政策中日益处于优先地位,私营广播亦逐步取代公共广播成为广播电视产业之主导力量。
加拿大广播电视产业政策对我国的启示主要体现在两大方面。首先,广播电视业应实现市场化运作,充分解放和发展广播电视生产力,以促进社会主义文化大发展大繁荣。本文为此建议：广播电台、电视台应从国有事业单位转制为国有企业,成为独立市场主体；引入竞争机制,成立与央视竞争的第二家全国性广播电视台；制定《通信法》,关照电信产业与广播电视产业的融合趋势；成立独立广播电视监管机构,从根本上实现“管办分离”。其次,广播电视系统应发挥其社会文化功能,促进民族团结和社会主义和谐社会建设；本文为此建议：成立一个全国性民族电视台,或至少在中央电视台开辟一个民族频道,增加少数民族内容之呈现,以增进各民族文化之理解、交流与融合；广播电视应增加反映弱势群体和民生的内容,并为弱势群体提供在广播电视系统的平等就业机会、为听力或视力残障者提供适合其利用的广播电视节目,以保障弱势群体的广播电视权益,促进社会公平与和谐。
本文之框架及主要内容如下：
绪言：阐明研究意义、研究对象,对国内、国外文献进行述评,并指出本文的研究方法、研究特色及创新之处。
第一章：梳理与广播电视产业政策研究相关的文化产业研究、传媒研究及公共政策研究相关理论。
第二章：考察了加拿大广播电视产业政策的历史演变,即公共广播主导时期(1958年之前),公、私广播平等竞争时期(1958-1980),私营广播主导时期(1980年至今)。
第三章：首先考察了加拿大广播电视产业政策制定过程和监管机构；其次以政治目标、社会文化目标和经济目标为基本框架,分析了加拿大广播电视产业的主要政策。
第四章：以加拿大广播电视政策和英国、美国进行比较,并分析西方广播电视产业政策之总体特征和发展趋势。
第五章：首先分析了我国广播电视产业政策之现状及存在问题,然后参照加拿大相关经验和教训提出了具体建议。
结语：对全文进行总结,并展望我国广播电视体制改革之前景。
The Canadian broadcasting system and policy model, typical among western countries and distinctive with its own characteristics, has a lot to inspire China in terms of China's ongoing broadcasting reform, as well as the role broadcasting can play in dealing with social and cultural issues.
In more than eighty years, the Canadian broadcasting policy has evolved to be a sophisticated system pivoted by three major goals.
Firstly, the political goal, or otherwise termed as national goal by some observers, is to maintain and enhance Canada's cultural sovereignty by imposing Canadian content requirement on BDUs and broadcasters, and financing Canadian content. Secondly, the social-cultural goal is to maintain national unity by promoting diversity in broadcasting, i.e., the equal importance of French to English as the core of Canada's broadcasting system, the special place of aboriginal broadcasting, and the exhibition of ethnic or third language programs. Thirdly, the economic goal is to maintain a viable broadcasting industry by providing necessary support to the private sector broadcasters. In short, the evolution of Canadian broadcasting policy is virtually a course in which the policymakers reconcile the political, social-cultural and economic goals. In last thirty years, with the tide of deregulation, marketization and privatization in the western world since1980s, the economic goals is increasingly taking priority and the private sector has surpassed the public broadcasting to be the mainstay of Canada's broadcasting system.
Taking full account of its status quo, what China can learn from the Canadian experience lies in two areas.
Above all, to mainly rely on market force fulfilling broadcasting goals is a major lesson China can learn from the evolution of Canadian broadcasting policy in20th century. To this end, firstly, broadcasters in China should be reorganized as corporations rather than state institutions as they are now; secondly, introducing a second national broadcaster to compete with CCTV in the market.; thirdly, making a Communication Act to address the convergence of telecommunication and broadcasting industries; fourthly, establishing a independent pubic authority to regulate and supervise broadcasting and telecommunication in China.
Another major lesson China can learn from the Canadian experience is the significant role broadcasting can plan in promoting social cohesion and national unity. Firstly, China should increase presenting of ethnic minorities on-air by licensing a national ethnic broadcaster or introducing an ethnic channel in CCTV. Secondly, China should protect the rights of under-represented social groups by increasing programming reflecting their interest and needs, providing them with equal employment opportunity in broadcasting industry, and encouraging broadcasting services to the hearing and visually impaired.
The content of this dissertation is as follows:
The Introduction includes the research objectives and scope, literature review, methodology, as well as the features of this dissertation.
Chapter One reviews theories relevant to this research, including culture industry research, media studies, and policy studies.
Chapter Two examines the history of Canadian broadcasting policy in three periods, i.e., the period before1958when public broadcasting dominated, the period from1958to1980when public and private broadcasters equally competed, and the period after1980when private sector dominated.
Chapter Three first examines the policy process and regulatory authority, and then explores the Canadian broadcasting policy in the framework of political, cultural and economic goals.
Chapter Four compares the Canadian broadcasting policy with that of the Great Britain and the United States, and analyses the trend of western countries' broadcasting policies as a whole.
Chapter Five diagnoses the problems of Chinese broadcasting policy and puts forward recommendation with reference to lessons from the Canadian experience.
The Conclusion summarizes the main findings of this research and prospects China's reform of broadcasting system in future.
历经八十余年之发展演变,当下加拿大广播电视系统形成了以三大目标为框架之政策体系。首先是政治目标,即抵制美国文化同化之威胁,捍卫国家文化主权；政府为此实施了“加拿大内容”政策,从制作、传输、播出三个环节确保国产、本土内容优先。其次是社会文化目标,即发挥广播电视的特殊作用,促进各民族和谐相处,维护国家团结；政府为此实施了“广播系统多样性”政策,保证法语和英语在广播系统中具同等核心地位,同时给予土著人广播特殊地位,并鼓励其它少数民族内容之呈现。再次是经济目标,即确保广播电视产业之生存、发展和壮大,为加拿大人提供加拿大内容产品,并参与全球竞争：政府为此实施了对私营广播的支持政策,创造产业发展的良好市场和商业环境。加拿大广播电视产业政策八十余年之历史演变,即是寻求政治、文化、经济目标之平衡与再平衡的过程。近三十年来,伴随西方国家在通信、广播领域之放松管制和市场化、私有化浪潮,经济目标在加拿大广播电视产业政策中日益处于优先地位,私营广播亦逐步取代公共广播成为广播电视产业之主导力量。
加拿大广播电视产业政策对我国的启示主要体现在两大方面。首先,广播电视业应实现市场化运作,充分解放和发展广播电视生产力,以促进社会主义文化大发展大繁荣。本文为此建议：广播电台、电视台应从国有事业单位转制为国有企业,成为独立市场主体；引入竞争机制,成立与央视竞争的第二家全国性广播电视台；制定《通信法》,关照电信产业与广播电视产业的融合趋势；成立独立广播电视监管机构,从根本上实现“管办分离”。其次,广播电视系统应发挥其社会文化功能,促进民族团结和社会主义和谐社会建设；本文为此建议：成立一个全国性民族电视台,或至少在中央电视台开辟一个民族频道,增加少数民族内容之呈现,以增进各民族文化之理解、交流与融合；广播电视应增加反映弱势群体和民生的内容,并为弱势群体提供在广播电视系统的平等就业机会、为听力或视力残障者提供适合其利用的广播电视节目,以保障弱势群体的广播电视权益,促进社会公平与和谐。
本文之框架及主要内容如下：
绪言：阐明研究意义、研究对象,对国内、国外文献进行述评,并指出本文的研究方法、研究特色及创新之处。
第一章：梳理与广播电视产业政策研究相关的文化产业研究、传媒研究及公共政策研究相关理论。
第二章：考察了加拿大广播电视产业政策的历史演变,即公共广播主导时期(1958年之前),公、私广播平等竞争时期(1958-1980),私营广播主导时期(1980年至今)。
第三章：首先考察了加拿大广播电视产业政策制定过程和监管机构；其次以政治目标、社会文化目标和经济目标为基本框架,分析了加拿大广播电视产业的主要政策。
第四章：以加拿大广播电视政策和英国、美国进行比较,并分析西方广播电视产业政策之总体特征和发展趋势。
第五章：首先分析了我国广播电视产业政策之现状及存在问题,然后参照加拿大相关经验和教训提出了具体建议。
结语：对全文进行总结,并展望我国广播电视体制改革之前景。
The Canadian broadcasting system and policy model, typical among western countries and distinctive with its own characteristics, has a lot to inspire China in terms of China's ongoing broadcasting reform, as well as the role broadcasting can play in dealing with social and cultural issues.
In more than eighty years, the Canadian broadcasting policy has evolved to be a sophisticated system pivoted by three major goals.
Firstly, the political goal, or otherwise termed as national goal by some observers, is to maintain and enhance Canada's cultural sovereignty by imposing Canadian content requirement on BDUs and broadcasters, and financing Canadian content. Secondly, the social-cultural goal is to maintain national unity by promoting diversity in broadcasting, i.e., the equal importance of French to English as the core of Canada's broadcasting system, the special place of aboriginal broadcasting, and the exhibition of ethnic or third language programs. Thirdly, the economic goal is to maintain a viable broadcasting industry by providing necessary support to the private sector broadcasters. In short, the evolution of Canadian broadcasting policy is virtually a course in which the policymakers reconcile the political, social-cultural and economic goals. In last thirty years, with the tide of deregulation, marketization and privatization in the western world since1980s, the economic goals is increasingly taking priority and the private sector has surpassed the public broadcasting to be the mainstay of Canada's broadcasting system.
Taking full account of its status quo, what China can learn from the Canadian experience lies in two areas.
Above all, to mainly rely on market force fulfilling broadcasting goals is a major lesson China can learn from the evolution of Canadian broadcasting policy in20th century. To this end, firstly, broadcasters in China should be reorganized as corporations rather than state institutions as they are now; secondly, introducing a second national broadcaster to compete with CCTV in the market.; thirdly, making a Communication Act to address the convergence of telecommunication and broadcasting industries; fourthly, establishing a independent pubic authority to regulate and supervise broadcasting and telecommunication in China.
Another major lesson China can learn from the Canadian experience is the significant role broadcasting can plan in promoting social cohesion and national unity. Firstly, China should increase presenting of ethnic minorities on-air by licensing a national ethnic broadcaster or introducing an ethnic channel in CCTV. Secondly, China should protect the rights of under-represented social groups by increasing programming reflecting their interest and needs, providing them with equal employment opportunity in broadcasting industry, and encouraging broadcasting services to the hearing and visually impaired.
The content of this dissertation is as follows:
The Introduction includes the research objectives and scope, literature review, methodology, as well as the features of this dissertation.
Chapter One reviews theories relevant to this research, including culture industry research, media studies, and policy studies.
Chapter Two examines the history of Canadian broadcasting policy in three periods, i.e., the period before1958when public broadcasting dominated, the period from1958to1980when public and private broadcasters equally competed, and the period after1980when private sector dominated.
Chapter Three first examines the policy process and regulatory authority, and then explores the Canadian broadcasting policy in the framework of political, cultural and economic goals.
Chapter Four compares the Canadian broadcasting policy with that of the Great Britain and the United States, and analyses the trend of western countries' broadcasting policies as a whole.
Chapter Five diagnoses the problems of Chinese broadcasting policy and puts forward recommendation with reference to lessons from the Canadian experience.
The Conclusion summarizes the main findings of this research and prospects China's reform of broadcasting system in future.
引文
① “林肯报告”全称是《我们的文化主权：进入第二个百年的加拿大广播》(Our Cultural Sovereignty:The Second Century of Canadian Broadcasting)。参见[1]LINCOLN C. Our Cultural Sovereignty:The Second Century of Canadian Broadcasting[R]. HERITAGE S C O C,2003. http://www.parl.gc.ca/content/hoc/Committee/372/HERI/Reports/RP1032284/herirp02/herirp02-e.pdf.
① 根据笔者的文献调查,在中央的各种正式文件中,目前还没有关于在文化产业发展中发挥市场机制“主导作用”的提法,显示了中央基于把意识形态和社会效益放在文化产业发展首位的考虑,对市场机制的主导作用有所保留。
① 参见[12]郭镇之.第一媒介：全球化背景下的中国电视[M].清华大学出版社,2009.
① 参见[19]杨波.坚持“两手抓”：实现广播事业和广播产业协调发展[EB/OL]. http://www.cnr.cn/wcm/gt/lt/t20050516_171338.html.
① 广播电台和电视台,以及新闻类节目制作,实行完全公有制；娱乐、文体类似节目的制作允许非公有资本参与,但公有资本须控股51%以上。
① 报告的英文原名是'Arid Commission Report".
② 公共模式与国营模式的所有权都是国有,并由政府提供公共资金以运营,但前者的日常运营不受政府直接管控,与政府保持“一臂之距”。此外,对很多国家而言,可能无法把其绝对归为其中一类模式,而更多的是混合型的模式。
① 但若以当代研究文化产业之理论观之,提供信息服务的传媒产业,消费者有很大部分并不是为以上目的,而主要是为了获取信息。因此,法兰克福学派对文化产业内涵之定义与“艺术产业”更接近。
② 在文学理论中,文本(text)是指传递信息的一组相干符号。参见[95]Text [M]//CHANDLER D, MUNDAY R. A Dictionary of Media and Communication. Oxford University Press Inc.2008 http://www.oxfordreference.com/views/ENTRY. html?subview=Main&entry=t326.e2764.
③ 图、文、声等传媒产品都可以是文本,是符号,符号即是代表一物之物。参见[95]ibid.
① 法兰克福学派最早是由法兰克福大学社会研究中心的一群社会科学学者、哲学家、文化批评家所组成员组成的。法兰克福学派最大的贡献是参与建立了批判理论。他们的理论借用、发展了欧洲社会学家的“大众社会理论,被认为是西方马克思主义学派的一支,其主要的人物包括阿多诺、马尔库塞、霍克海默、弗洛姆、班雅明、哈贝马斯等。
② 阿多诺的生平与学术,参见[98]Adorno, Theodor Wiesengrund (1903-1969) [M]. Cambridge Dictionary of Sociology. Cambridge University Press.2006 http://www. credoreference. com/entry/cupsoc/adorno_theodor_wiesengrund_1903_1969.
③ 参见[99]HORKHEIMER M, ADORNO T W. The culture industry:Enlightenment as mass deception[J]. Media and cultural studies:Keyworks,2001:71-101.
④ 参见[101]BETTIG R V. Culture Industries, Media as [M]//SCHEMENT J R. Encyclopedia of Communication and Information. New York; Macmillan Reference USA.2002:209-216 http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CCX3402900068&v=2.1&u=crepuq_mcgill&it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w.
① 参见[103]GROSSWILER P. Cultural Studies[M].//ibid.:199-206[2012/7/20/]. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?id-GALE%7CCX3402900066&v=2.1&u=crepuq_mcgill&it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w.
② 参见[104]BRENNEN B S. Williams, Raymond (1921-1988)[M].//ibid.:1087-1089[2012/7/30/]. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CCX3402900295&v=2.1&u=crepuq_mcgill&it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w.
① 例如,诽谤、隐私、淫秽等内容不许生产；成人节目只能由18岁以上的人士收看等法律规定。
② 参见[94]FRITH S. culture industries [M]//PAYNE M. Dictionary of Cultural and Critical Theory. Blackwell Publishing.1997 http://www.blackwellreference.com/subscriber/tocnode?id=g9780631207535_chunk_g97806312075356_ssl-68.
① 参见[102]ELAVSKY C M. Culture Industries [M]//DONSBACH W. The International Encyclopedia of Communication. Blackwell Publishing.2008 http://www.blackwellreference.com/subscriber/tocnode?id=g9781405131995_chunk_g97814051319958_ss176-1.
① 阿多诺指出,这种文化工业体系下生产出来的大众文化商品,实际上与“自发地由大众生发出来的”真正的大众文化,以及流行文化,是有别的。参见[107]胡惠林.文化产业概论[M].昆明：云南大学出版社,2005.。
① 例如,在《全球文化工业：物的媒介化》一书中,作者斯科特·拉什和西莉亚·卢瑞提出,在当今所谓的“全球文化工业”中,阿多诺所预言的文化工业种种弊端已经变为现实。参见[108]LASH S, LURY C. Global culture industry:the mediation of things[M]. Cambridge:Polity,2007.,
① 参见[109]regulation [M]//CHANDLER D, MUNDAY R. A Dictionary of Media and Communication. Oxford University Press Inc http://www.oxfordreference.con/views/ENTRY.html?subview=Main&entry=t326.e2291.
① 参见Horwitz, R. B. (1989). The irony of regulatory reform:The deregulation of American telecommunications. New York:Oxford University Press. McChesney, R. W. (1993). Telecommunications, mass media, and democracy:The battle for the control of US broadcasting,1928-1935. New York:Oxford University Press.
② 参见Webster, J. G. (2005). Beneath the veneer of fragmentation:Television audience polarization in a multichannel world. Journal of Communication, (55) (2),366-382.及Hindman, M. (2007). A mile wide and an inch deep:Measuring media diversity online and offline. In P. M. Napoli (ed.), Media diversity and localism:
③ 参见Hamilton, J. T. (ed.) (2000). Television violence and public policy. Ann Arbor:University of Michigan Press.
① 参见Owen, B. M. (1975). Economics and freedom of expression:Media structure and the First Amendment. Cambridge, MA:Ballinger.
② 参见Schwarzlose, R. A. (1989). The marketplace of ideas:A measure of free expression. Journalism Monographs,118.
① 参见Benkler, Y. (2006). The wealth of networks:How social production transforms markets and freedom. New Haven:Yale University Press.
① 参见Lerner, Daniel, and Harold D. Lasswell, eds.1951. The Policy Sciences:Recent Developments in Scope and Method. Stanford,CA:Stanford University Press.
① 参见[129]ALTHAUS C, BRIDGMAN P, DAVIS Q et al. The Australian policy handbook[M]. Crows Nest, NSW: Allen & Unwin,2007.
② 《文化产业》一书的作者Hesmondhalgh认为后期学者们对文化产业的态度乃是悲观与乐观并存,参见[93]HESMONDHALGH D. The cultural industries[M]. Los Angeles; London:SAGE,2007.
① 呼号是从事无线电操作人员(电台)在无线电通讯时的字母代号,有标准的字母发音朗读。
① 加拿大广播电视产业政策史上,由政府成立的各个皇家调查委员会通常被学术界以委员会的主席的名字指代,又如梅西委员会(Massey Commission)。
① 2012年,魁人党在省议会选举中再次取得胜利,重新执政魁北克,关于魁北克的未来命运再次引起加拿大国内各界的关注。
① 加拿大《广播法》中定义广播节目的功能为"to inform, enlighten and entertain."参见[18]Broadcasting Act [M]. Minister of Justice.1991 http://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/B-9.01/page-1.html#h-3.
① 参见[153]CRTC. About the CRTC[EB/OL]. http://www.crtc.gc.ca/eng/backgmd/brochures/b29903.htm.
② 英文原文为：The CRTC is an independent public authority that regulates and supervises broadcasting and telecommunications in Canada。
① 议会通常也不干涉广电委员会的决议。如《广播法》第七条和第八条的规定表明议会不干涉广电委员会颁发、更新或收回执照的决定。参见[18]Broadcasting Act [M]. Minister of Justice.1991 http://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/B-9.01/page-1.html#h-3.
① 听证会起源于英美,是一种把司法审判的模式引入行政和立法程序的制度。听证会模拟司法审判,由意见相反的双方互相辩论,其结果通常对最后的处理有拘束力。
① 从CRTC及联邦文化遗产部“加拿大节目认证署”的认证(Canadian Program Certification)标准来看,加拿大内容主要是针对节目之生产者而言,即“加拿大人生产之内容”,大致可视作“加拿大国产内容”或“加加拿大本土内容”的同义词。以生产者为标准认证加拿大内容,也表明了加拿大政府对“经济目标”的追求。其实,满足第一层含义,必然满足第二层。因为加拿大人生产的内容,很难不反映加拿大性质的文化创意内容。参见[159]CRTC. Canadian Program Certification [M]. http://www.crtc.gc.ca/eng/info_sht/tv11.htm.
① 换言之,避免美国文化在加拿大文化市场“一枝独秀”。
② 即加拿大国产内容要占一半以上。
③ 本节所涉及的CRTC对电台广播的内容要求,参见[160]CRTC. Commercial Radio Policy 2006[EB/OL]. http://www.crtc.gc.ca/eng/archive/2006/pb2006-158.htm.
④ 笔者在加拿大留学期间,所听到的cBc电台广播新闻80%以上是本国和本地内容,国际新闻只占很小部分。
① 传统电视台是指采用空中电波发射广播信号,信号由观众直接用一台电视机和一个天线接收。观众可免费接收信号。与传统电视相对的有线电视,观众需要付费才能获得服务。
① 对无线电视广播电台而言,最主要的节目内容是音乐和语言类节目。所以对这两类节目的生产者的支持是政策的重点
② 参见[166]FACTOR. About Us[EB/OL]. http://www.factor.ca/AboutUs.aspx.
① 为了格式整齐,这里略去了小数点后的数字。详细数据请参见[167]1ACTOR. Annual Report 2011-2012[R]. 2012. http://www.factor.ca/annualreport.aspx.
① 政府设立的资助机构,即各种基金会,为非营利机构,创立方常常也包括私营企业和组织,所管理的资金来自于私营部门(根据CRTC的要求)捐献和政府拨款。
② 为了格式整齐,略去了小数点后的数字。
① 相当于国有企业。
① 参见[172]CANADA. DEPARTMENT OF JUSTICE. Investment Canada Act [M].1985 http://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/I-21.8/index.html.
① 2012年,中国已成为加拿大第二大出口国。
① 加拿大和法国等国以“文化多样性”取代“文化例外”口号,是为了赢得更多国际支持,参见[173]GRANT P S. The UNESCO Convention on Cultural Diversity:Cultural Policy and International Trade in Cultural Products[M].// MANSELL R, RABOY M. The handbook of global media and communication policy. Wiley-Blackwell,2011.
① 社会问题和文化问题常常互相重叠,很难区分,因此本节采用“社会文化”术语来统称社会、文化相议题。参见[10]ARMSTRONG R. Broadcasting policy in Canada[M]. Toronto:University of Toronto Press,2010.
② 参见[11]RABOY M. Missed opportunities:the story of Canada's broadcasting policy[M]. Montreal; Buffalo: McGill-Queen's University Press,1990.
① 笔者于2012年参观CBC位于蒙特利尔的法语广播总部时,对一位法语电台广播的早间新闻主播Philippe进行了采访,他表示政府与CBC保持一臂之距,不干预新闻的采编自主权；他本人选播各类报纸的新闻时,可自行决定,没有任何上级或政府部门对其发出指示。
① 例如[10]ARMSTRONG R. Broadcasting policy in Canada[M]. Toronto:University of Toronto Press,2010, [11] RABOY M. Missed opportunities:the story of Canada's broadcasting policy[M]. Montreal; Buffalo:McGill-Queen's University Press,1990.
① 参见[178]CBC. Who We Are, What We Do[EB/OL]. http://cbc.radio-canada.ca/en/explore/who-we-are-what-we-do/.
① 绝大部分讲法语的人居住在魁北克省,但在安大略省和大西洋地区各省(尤其是新不伦瑞克省)也有很多讲法语的社区。
① 英语和法语是加拿大并列的官方语言。从人口数量上而言,说英语和说法语的人在加拿大的比例最大,都不能算作少数民族。这里所言之英语和法语少数民族,是所谓语言少数民族,是两大语言在对方占优势的地区相对成为少数民族。例如,在魁北克省的英语社区,即成为英语语言少数民族社区：而法语在魁北克之外都是少数民族。
② 参见[181]CRTC. Ethnic broadcasting policy [M].1999 http://www.crtc.gc.ca/eng/archive/1999/pb99-117.htm.
① 市场营销学术语,是指企业为了避免在市场上与强大的竞争对手发生正面冲突而受其攻击,选取被大企业忽略的、需求尚未得到满足、力量薄弱的、有获利基础的小市场作为其目标市场的营销战略。
① 参见[186]CANADIAN BROADCAST STANDARDS COUNCIL. CRTC Public Notice[R].1988. http://www.cbsc.ca/english/links/crtcdocuments/pn1988159.php.
② 参见[187]CANADA BROADCAST STANDARD COUNCIL. About the CBSC[EB/OL]. http://www.cbsc.ca/english/index.php.
③ 若有针对某一业者之投诉,CRTC会进行有约束力的处理,因为其掌握对业者营业执照吊销的权力。
④ 主要是防止歧视性刻画特定性别或群体的形象,因这有可能骟动社会分化甚至是仇恨。例如,穆斯林在一些影视剧中的刻板形象。
① 指向儿童的广告(advertising directed to children)是指在儿童节目间隙插播的广告,一般是广告商推销儿童商品。成人广告当然更不允许在儿童节目中播出。
② 参见[189]CRTC. CODE FOR BROADCAST ADVERTISING OF ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES [M].1996 http://www.crtc.gc.ca/eng/general/codes/alcohol.htm.
① 参见[190]CRTC. POLICY ON VIOLENCE IN TELEVISION PROGRAMMING [M].1996 http://www.crtc.gc.ca/eng/archive/1996/Pb96-36.htm.
② 能阻止过度暴烈或性感电视节目之收看的电脑晶片或其它电子装置
③ 媒介素养的英文是“media literacy",就是指人们正确地判断和估价媒介信息的意义和作用,有效地创造和传播信息的素养。
④ 参见[191]CAB. CAB Code Regarding Violence in Television Programming [M].1992 http://www.cab-acr.ca/english/social/codes/violencecode.shtm.
① 电视台为失去听觉或听力不佳的观众设置的)隐藏字幕,闭路字幕,但要通过解码器才可以看到。其实正常人也可能需要解码器,例如在所谓英语少数民族地区,笔者在蒙特利尔时,观看法语节目听不懂,但可以通过解码器看到翻译成英文的字幕。
② 虽然美国、澳大利亚等国家也是多元文化并存的移民国家,但都是以英裔民族为绝对主体；只有加拿大是以英裔和法裔民族并列为主体民族,且在历史上英国和法国殖民者为争夺加拿大的控制权曾经发生长期战争。
③ 1995年的公投,49.42%选民认同魁北克应脱离加拿大,50.58%选民反对,联邦主义者以微弱优势险胜。2012年,魁人党在省议会选举中再次取得胜利,重新执政魁北克,关于魁北克的未来命运再次引起加拿大国内各界的关注。
① 早在1971年,多元文化主义即在加拿大开始传播。多元文化政策包括种族包容政策和公开承认文化多样性的多元社会。广播是体现文化多元政策的重要领域,其政策目标包括广播使用权、平等权和社会凝聚力。参见[75]ROTH L. "Snapshots and Dialogues:Canadian Ethnic Television Broadcasting and Social Cohesion [M]//D'HAENENS L, HOOGHE M, VANHEULE D, et al. New Citizens, New Policies?:Developments in Diversity Policy in Canada and Flanders. Gent; Academia Press.2006:171-200
② 社会弱势群体一般是指在种族、性别、年龄、宗教、身体等方面居于“少数”或是“弱势”的群体。如少数民族、女性、儿童、残障人士等。
① 如无特别说明,本部分所引用数据综合来自[197]CRTC. CRTC Communications Monitoring Report[R].2012. http://www.crtc.gc.ca/eng/publications/reports/PolicyMonitoring/2012/cmr.htm#toc, [198]STATISTICS CANADA. Government Expenditures on Culture:Data Tables [R].2012. http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/87f0001x/87f0001x2012001-eng.htm.以及[199]OFFICE OF THE AUDITOR GENERAL OF CANADA. Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Special Examination Report-2013[R].2013. http://cbc.radio-canada.ca/files/cbcrc/documents/submissions/oag-2013-e.pdf.
② 加拿大通信产业(communication industry)包括广播电视产业(broadcasting industry)和电信产业(telecommunication industry)。
③ 加元与美元的汇率基本相同。
④ 国家公共广播公司CBC,其无线电台广播不播放商业广告,因此没有经济收入。
① 换言之,10%的观众选择了免费的传统电视。
② IPTV全称为Internet Protocol Television,即互联网电视。
① 参见[139]HOFFMANN-RIEM W. Regulating media:the licensing and supervision of broadcasting in six countries[M]. New York:Guilford Press,1996.
① 相对广播而言,其它媒体,如平面媒体、电影等在西方国家已不受政府的严格规制。参见[117]NAPOLI P M. Media Policy [M]//DONSBACH W. The International Encyclopedia of Communication.2008 http://www.blackwellreference.com/subscriber/tocnode?id=g9781405131995_yr2012_chunk_g978140513199518_ss4
① 参见[213]U.K. PARLIAMENT. Cable and Broadcasting Act 1984 [M].1984 http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1984/46/pdfs/ukpga_19840046_en.pdf.
② 参见[214]U.K. PARLIAMENT. Broadcasting Act 1990 [M].1990 http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1990/42/contents.
① 参见[215]U.K. PARLIAMENT. Communication Act [M].2003 http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2003/21/pdfs/ukpga_20030021_en.pdf. 134
① 参见[139]HOFFMANN-RIEM W. Regulating media:the licensing and supervision of broadcasting in six countries[M]. New York:Guilford Press,1996.
① 参见[216]JNESCO. Investing in Cultural Diversity and Intercultural Dialogue[R].2009. http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0018/001852/185202e.pdf.
② 参见[176]NORDICITY GROUP LTD. Analysis of Government Support for Public Broadcasting and Other Culture inCanada[R].2006. http://www.nordicity.com/reports/CBC%20Public%20Broadcaster%20Comparison%20FINAL%20%28Submitted%29 .pdf.
① 参见[209]SADLER R L. Regulation of Television Broadcasting [M]//DONSBACH W. The International Encyclopedia of Communication. Blackwell Publishing.2008 http://www.blackwellreference.com/subscriber/tocnode.html?id=g9781405131995_yr2012 chunk_g978140513199525 ss35-1.
① 参见[219]国务院.广播电视管理条例[M].1997http://www.sarft.gov.cn/articles/2003/10/21/20070922142857170492.html.
① 我国广播电视的收入来源主要是：广告收入、有线电视收视维护费、财政拨款。参见[226]国家广播电影电视总局发展改革研究中心.中国广播影视发展报告(2011)[M].社会科学文献出版社,2011.
① 参见[234]国家广播电影电视总局发展研究中心.中国广播电影电视发展报告(2011)[R].2011.
① 2010年,全国广播电视总收入构成中,广告收入最多,占40.84%,参见[234]ibid.
① 根据国家广电总局发展研究中心2011年的统计,全国广播电视总收入构成中,国家财政收入只占11.93%.在非财政收入中,广播收入排在第一位,占总收入的40.84%。相比之下,加拿大公共广播公司CBC的收入主要来自议会拨款,达到63%,广告收入仅占27%。参见[226]国家广播电影电视总局发展改革研究中心.中国广播影视发展报告(2011)[M].社会科学文献出版社,2011.
① 2012年12月3日,湖南省岳阳市公安局官方微博@岳阳公安警事发布了一则消息,村民凌某在购买新疆人核桃仁糖果时,因语言沟通不畅造成误会,双方口角导致肢体冲突引发群体殴打事件。参见[247]价值16万切糕事件[M].百度百科.2012
② 为了确保提供最低数量的少数民族语言之节目,加拿大政府要求所有的地面广播传输公司保证每传送十个主体语言节目时,必须传送一个少数语言节目。为了支持少数民族节目制作,成立了第三语言节目制作基金。参见本文第三章。
① 参见[9]朱虹.广播影视业：改革与发展[M].河南大学出版社,2004.
① 加拿大学者Edwardson曾把政府为构建国家意识而进行的加拿大化(Canadianization)历史分为三个时期：第一个时期是建国之始的亲英国家主义,政府支持艺术,赋予传媒国家使命,确保从殖民地向国家之转化以大英帝国为其根源：第二个时期是1960年代中期到1970年初,新国家主义者(new nationalist)致力于以多元文化主义构建国家认同；第三个时期是从1960年代末持续至今日,政府通过对文化产业之直接投入来促进联邦统一(federal unity),形成今日自文化遗产部以下运行的庞大文化官僚机构。参见[136]EDWARDSON R. Introduction:A guide to Canadianization [M].//Canadian content:Culture and the quest for nationhood Toronto University of Toronto Press 2008
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① 根据笔者的文献调查,在中央的各种正式文件中,目前还没有关于在文化产业发展中发挥市场机制“主导作用”的提法,显示了中央基于把意识形态和社会效益放在文化产业发展首位的考虑,对市场机制的主导作用有所保留。
① 参见[12]郭镇之.第一媒介：全球化背景下的中国电视[M].清华大学出版社,2009.
① 参见[19]杨波.坚持“两手抓”：实现广播事业和广播产业协调发展[EB/OL]. http://www.cnr.cn/wcm/gt/lt/t20050516_171338.html.
① 广播电台和电视台,以及新闻类节目制作,实行完全公有制；娱乐、文体类似节目的制作允许非公有资本参与,但公有资本须控股51%以上。
① 报告的英文原名是'Arid Commission Report".
② 公共模式与国营模式的所有权都是国有,并由政府提供公共资金以运营,但前者的日常运营不受政府直接管控,与政府保持“一臂之距”。此外,对很多国家而言,可能无法把其绝对归为其中一类模式,而更多的是混合型的模式。
① 但若以当代研究文化产业之理论观之,提供信息服务的传媒产业,消费者有很大部分并不是为以上目的,而主要是为了获取信息。因此,法兰克福学派对文化产业内涵之定义与“艺术产业”更接近。
② 在文学理论中,文本(text)是指传递信息的一组相干符号。参见[95]Text [M]//CHANDLER D, MUNDAY R. A Dictionary of Media and Communication. Oxford University Press Inc.2008 http://www.oxfordreference.com/views/ENTRY. html?subview=Main&entry=t326.e2764.
③ 图、文、声等传媒产品都可以是文本,是符号,符号即是代表一物之物。参见[95]ibid.
① 法兰克福学派最早是由法兰克福大学社会研究中心的一群社会科学学者、哲学家、文化批评家所组成员组成的。法兰克福学派最大的贡献是参与建立了批判理论。他们的理论借用、发展了欧洲社会学家的“大众社会理论,被认为是西方马克思主义学派的一支,其主要的人物包括阿多诺、马尔库塞、霍克海默、弗洛姆、班雅明、哈贝马斯等。
② 阿多诺的生平与学术,参见[98]Adorno, Theodor Wiesengrund (1903-1969) [M]. Cambridge Dictionary of Sociology. Cambridge University Press.2006 http://www. credoreference. com/entry/cupsoc/adorno_theodor_wiesengrund_1903_1969.
③ 参见[99]HORKHEIMER M, ADORNO T W. The culture industry:Enlightenment as mass deception[J]. Media and cultural studies:Keyworks,2001:71-101.
④ 参见[101]BETTIG R V. Culture Industries, Media as [M]//SCHEMENT J R. Encyclopedia of Communication and Information. New York; Macmillan Reference USA.2002:209-216 http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CCX3402900068&v=2.1&u=crepuq_mcgill&it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w.
① 参见[103]GROSSWILER P. Cultural Studies[M].//ibid.:199-206[2012/7/20/]. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?id-GALE%7CCX3402900066&v=2.1&u=crepuq_mcgill&it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w.
② 参见[104]BRENNEN B S. Williams, Raymond (1921-1988)[M].//ibid.:1087-1089[2012/7/30/]. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CCX3402900295&v=2.1&u=crepuq_mcgill&it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w.
① 例如,诽谤、隐私、淫秽等内容不许生产；成人节目只能由18岁以上的人士收看等法律规定。
② 参见[94]FRITH S. culture industries [M]//PAYNE M. Dictionary of Cultural and Critical Theory. Blackwell Publishing.1997 http://www.blackwellreference.com/subscriber/tocnode?id=g9780631207535_chunk_g97806312075356_ssl-68.
① 参见[102]ELAVSKY C M. Culture Industries [M]//DONSBACH W. The International Encyclopedia of Communication. Blackwell Publishing.2008 http://www.blackwellreference.com/subscriber/tocnode?id=g9781405131995_chunk_g97814051319958_ss176-1.
① 阿多诺指出,这种文化工业体系下生产出来的大众文化商品,实际上与“自发地由大众生发出来的”真正的大众文化,以及流行文化,是有别的。参见[107]胡惠林.文化产业概论[M].昆明：云南大学出版社,2005.。
① 例如,在《全球文化工业：物的媒介化》一书中,作者斯科特·拉什和西莉亚·卢瑞提出,在当今所谓的“全球文化工业”中,阿多诺所预言的文化工业种种弊端已经变为现实。参见[108]LASH S, LURY C. Global culture industry:the mediation of things[M]. Cambridge:Polity,2007.,
① 参见[109]regulation [M]//CHANDLER D, MUNDAY R. A Dictionary of Media and Communication. Oxford University Press Inc http://www.oxfordreference.con/views/ENTRY.html?subview=Main&entry=t326.e2291.
① 参见Horwitz, R. B. (1989). The irony of regulatory reform:The deregulation of American telecommunications. New York:Oxford University Press. McChesney, R. W. (1993). Telecommunications, mass media, and democracy:The battle for the control of US broadcasting,1928-1935. New York:Oxford University Press.
② 参见Webster, J. G. (2005). Beneath the veneer of fragmentation:Television audience polarization in a multichannel world. Journal of Communication, (55) (2),366-382.及Hindman, M. (2007). A mile wide and an inch deep:Measuring media diversity online and offline. In P. M. Napoli (ed.), Media diversity and localism:
③ 参见Hamilton, J. T. (ed.) (2000). Television violence and public policy. Ann Arbor:University of Michigan Press.
① 参见Owen, B. M. (1975). Economics and freedom of expression:Media structure and the First Amendment. Cambridge, MA:Ballinger.
② 参见Schwarzlose, R. A. (1989). The marketplace of ideas:A measure of free expression. Journalism Monographs,118.
① 参见Benkler, Y. (2006). The wealth of networks:How social production transforms markets and freedom. New Haven:Yale University Press.
① 参见Lerner, Daniel, and Harold D. Lasswell, eds.1951. The Policy Sciences:Recent Developments in Scope and Method. Stanford,CA:Stanford University Press.
① 参见[129]ALTHAUS C, BRIDGMAN P, DAVIS Q et al. The Australian policy handbook[M]. Crows Nest, NSW: Allen & Unwin,2007.
② 《文化产业》一书的作者Hesmondhalgh认为后期学者们对文化产业的态度乃是悲观与乐观并存,参见[93]HESMONDHALGH D. The cultural industries[M]. Los Angeles; London:SAGE,2007.
① 呼号是从事无线电操作人员(电台)在无线电通讯时的字母代号,有标准的字母发音朗读。
① 加拿大广播电视产业政策史上,由政府成立的各个皇家调查委员会通常被学术界以委员会的主席的名字指代,又如梅西委员会(Massey Commission)。
① 2012年,魁人党在省议会选举中再次取得胜利,重新执政魁北克,关于魁北克的未来命运再次引起加拿大国内各界的关注。
① 加拿大《广播法》中定义广播节目的功能为"to inform, enlighten and entertain."参见[18]Broadcasting Act [M]. Minister of Justice.1991 http://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/B-9.01/page-1.html#h-3.
① 参见[153]CRTC. About the CRTC[EB/OL]. http://www.crtc.gc.ca/eng/backgmd/brochures/b29903.htm.
② 英文原文为：The CRTC is an independent public authority that regulates and supervises broadcasting and telecommunications in Canada。
① 议会通常也不干涉广电委员会的决议。如《广播法》第七条和第八条的规定表明议会不干涉广电委员会颁发、更新或收回执照的决定。参见[18]Broadcasting Act [M]. Minister of Justice.1991 http://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/B-9.01/page-1.html#h-3.
① 听证会起源于英美,是一种把司法审判的模式引入行政和立法程序的制度。听证会模拟司法审判,由意见相反的双方互相辩论,其结果通常对最后的处理有拘束力。
① 从CRTC及联邦文化遗产部“加拿大节目认证署”的认证(Canadian Program Certification)标准来看,加拿大内容主要是针对节目之生产者而言,即“加拿大人生产之内容”,大致可视作“加拿大国产内容”或“加加拿大本土内容”的同义词。以生产者为标准认证加拿大内容,也表明了加拿大政府对“经济目标”的追求。其实,满足第一层含义,必然满足第二层。因为加拿大人生产的内容,很难不反映加拿大性质的文化创意内容。参见[159]CRTC. Canadian Program Certification [M]. http://www.crtc.gc.ca/eng/info_sht/tv11.htm.
① 换言之,避免美国文化在加拿大文化市场“一枝独秀”。
② 即加拿大国产内容要占一半以上。
③ 本节所涉及的CRTC对电台广播的内容要求,参见[160]CRTC. Commercial Radio Policy 2006[EB/OL]. http://www.crtc.gc.ca/eng/archive/2006/pb2006-158.htm.
④ 笔者在加拿大留学期间,所听到的cBc电台广播新闻80%以上是本国和本地内容,国际新闻只占很小部分。
① 传统电视台是指采用空中电波发射广播信号,信号由观众直接用一台电视机和一个天线接收。观众可免费接收信号。与传统电视相对的有线电视,观众需要付费才能获得服务。
① 对无线电视广播电台而言,最主要的节目内容是音乐和语言类节目。所以对这两类节目的生产者的支持是政策的重点
② 参见[166]FACTOR. About Us[EB/OL]. http://www.factor.ca/AboutUs.aspx.
① 为了格式整齐,这里略去了小数点后的数字。详细数据请参见[167]1ACTOR. Annual Report 2011-2012[R]. 2012. http://www.factor.ca/annualreport.aspx.
① 政府设立的资助机构,即各种基金会,为非营利机构,创立方常常也包括私营企业和组织,所管理的资金来自于私营部门(根据CRTC的要求)捐献和政府拨款。
② 为了格式整齐,略去了小数点后的数字。
① 相当于国有企业。
① 参见[172]CANADA. DEPARTMENT OF JUSTICE. Investment Canada Act [M].1985 http://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/I-21.8/index.html.
① 2012年,中国已成为加拿大第二大出口国。
① 加拿大和法国等国以“文化多样性”取代“文化例外”口号,是为了赢得更多国际支持,参见[173]GRANT P S. The UNESCO Convention on Cultural Diversity:Cultural Policy and International Trade in Cultural Products[M].// MANSELL R, RABOY M. The handbook of global media and communication policy. Wiley-Blackwell,2011.
① 社会问题和文化问题常常互相重叠,很难区分,因此本节采用“社会文化”术语来统称社会、文化相议题。参见[10]ARMSTRONG R. Broadcasting policy in Canada[M]. Toronto:University of Toronto Press,2010.
② 参见[11]RABOY M. Missed opportunities:the story of Canada's broadcasting policy[M]. Montreal; Buffalo: McGill-Queen's University Press,1990.
① 笔者于2012年参观CBC位于蒙特利尔的法语广播总部时,对一位法语电台广播的早间新闻主播Philippe进行了采访,他表示政府与CBC保持一臂之距,不干预新闻的采编自主权；他本人选播各类报纸的新闻时,可自行决定,没有任何上级或政府部门对其发出指示。
① 例如[10]ARMSTRONG R. Broadcasting policy in Canada[M]. Toronto:University of Toronto Press,2010, [11] RABOY M. Missed opportunities:the story of Canada's broadcasting policy[M]. Montreal; Buffalo:McGill-Queen's University Press,1990.
① 参见[178]CBC. Who We Are, What We Do[EB/OL]. http://cbc.radio-canada.ca/en/explore/who-we-are-what-we-do/.
① 绝大部分讲法语的人居住在魁北克省,但在安大略省和大西洋地区各省(尤其是新不伦瑞克省)也有很多讲法语的社区。
① 英语和法语是加拿大并列的官方语言。从人口数量上而言,说英语和说法语的人在加拿大的比例最大,都不能算作少数民族。这里所言之英语和法语少数民族,是所谓语言少数民族,是两大语言在对方占优势的地区相对成为少数民族。例如,在魁北克省的英语社区,即成为英语语言少数民族社区：而法语在魁北克之外都是少数民族。
② 参见[181]CRTC. Ethnic broadcasting policy [M].1999 http://www.crtc.gc.ca/eng/archive/1999/pb99-117.htm.
① 市场营销学术语,是指企业为了避免在市场上与强大的竞争对手发生正面冲突而受其攻击,选取被大企业忽略的、需求尚未得到满足、力量薄弱的、有获利基础的小市场作为其目标市场的营销战略。
① 参见[186]CANADIAN BROADCAST STANDARDS COUNCIL. CRTC Public Notice[R].1988. http://www.cbsc.ca/english/links/crtcdocuments/pn1988159.php.
② 参见[187]CANADA BROADCAST STANDARD COUNCIL. About the CBSC[EB/OL]. http://www.cbsc.ca/english/index.php.
③ 若有针对某一业者之投诉,CRTC会进行有约束力的处理,因为其掌握对业者营业执照吊销的权力。
④ 主要是防止歧视性刻画特定性别或群体的形象,因这有可能骟动社会分化甚至是仇恨。例如,穆斯林在一些影视剧中的刻板形象。
① 指向儿童的广告(advertising directed to children)是指在儿童节目间隙插播的广告,一般是广告商推销儿童商品。成人广告当然更不允许在儿童节目中播出。
② 参见[189]CRTC. CODE FOR BROADCAST ADVERTISING OF ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES [M].1996 http://www.crtc.gc.ca/eng/general/codes/alcohol.htm.
① 参见[190]CRTC. POLICY ON VIOLENCE IN TELEVISION PROGRAMMING [M].1996 http://www.crtc.gc.ca/eng/archive/1996/Pb96-36.htm.
② 能阻止过度暴烈或性感电视节目之收看的电脑晶片或其它电子装置
③ 媒介素养的英文是“media literacy",就是指人们正确地判断和估价媒介信息的意义和作用,有效地创造和传播信息的素养。
④ 参见[191]CAB. CAB Code Regarding Violence in Television Programming [M].1992 http://www.cab-acr.ca/english/social/codes/violencecode.shtm.
① 电视台为失去听觉或听力不佳的观众设置的)隐藏字幕,闭路字幕,但要通过解码器才可以看到。其实正常人也可能需要解码器,例如在所谓英语少数民族地区,笔者在蒙特利尔时,观看法语节目听不懂,但可以通过解码器看到翻译成英文的字幕。
② 虽然美国、澳大利亚等国家也是多元文化并存的移民国家,但都是以英裔民族为绝对主体；只有加拿大是以英裔和法裔民族并列为主体民族,且在历史上英国和法国殖民者为争夺加拿大的控制权曾经发生长期战争。
③ 1995年的公投,49.42%选民认同魁北克应脱离加拿大,50.58%选民反对,联邦主义者以微弱优势险胜。2012年,魁人党在省议会选举中再次取得胜利,重新执政魁北克,关于魁北克的未来命运再次引起加拿大国内各界的关注。
① 早在1971年,多元文化主义即在加拿大开始传播。多元文化政策包括种族包容政策和公开承认文化多样性的多元社会。广播是体现文化多元政策的重要领域,其政策目标包括广播使用权、平等权和社会凝聚力。参见[75]ROTH L. "Snapshots and Dialogues:Canadian Ethnic Television Broadcasting and Social Cohesion [M]//D'HAENENS L, HOOGHE M, VANHEULE D, et al. New Citizens, New Policies?:Developments in Diversity Policy in Canada and Flanders. Gent; Academia Press.2006:171-200
② 社会弱势群体一般是指在种族、性别、年龄、宗教、身体等方面居于“少数”或是“弱势”的群体。如少数民族、女性、儿童、残障人士等。
① 如无特别说明,本部分所引用数据综合来自[197]CRTC. CRTC Communications Monitoring Report[R].2012. http://www.crtc.gc.ca/eng/publications/reports/PolicyMonitoring/2012/cmr.htm#toc, [198]STATISTICS CANADA. Government Expenditures on Culture:Data Tables [R].2012. http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/87f0001x/87f0001x2012001-eng.htm.以及[199]OFFICE OF THE AUDITOR GENERAL OF CANADA. Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Special Examination Report-2013[R].2013. http://cbc.radio-canada.ca/files/cbcrc/documents/submissions/oag-2013-e.pdf.
② 加拿大通信产业(communication industry)包括广播电视产业(broadcasting industry)和电信产业(telecommunication industry)。
③ 加元与美元的汇率基本相同。
④ 国家公共广播公司CBC,其无线电台广播不播放商业广告,因此没有经济收入。
① 换言之,10%的观众选择了免费的传统电视。
② IPTV全称为Internet Protocol Television,即互联网电视。
① 参见[139]HOFFMANN-RIEM W. Regulating media:the licensing and supervision of broadcasting in six countries[M]. New York:Guilford Press,1996.
① 相对广播而言,其它媒体,如平面媒体、电影等在西方国家已不受政府的严格规制。参见[117]NAPOLI P M. Media Policy [M]//DONSBACH W. The International Encyclopedia of Communication.2008 http://www.blackwellreference.com/subscriber/tocnode?id=g9781405131995_yr2012_chunk_g978140513199518_ss4
① 参见[213]U.K. PARLIAMENT. Cable and Broadcasting Act 1984 [M].1984 http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1984/46/pdfs/ukpga_19840046_en.pdf.
② 参见[214]U.K. PARLIAMENT. Broadcasting Act 1990 [M].1990 http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1990/42/contents.
① 参见[215]U.K. PARLIAMENT. Communication Act [M].2003 http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2003/21/pdfs/ukpga_20030021_en.pdf. 134
① 参见[139]HOFFMANN-RIEM W. Regulating media:the licensing and supervision of broadcasting in six countries[M]. New York:Guilford Press,1996.
① 参见[216]JNESCO. Investing in Cultural Diversity and Intercultural Dialogue[R].2009. http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0018/001852/185202e.pdf.
② 参见[176]NORDICITY GROUP LTD. Analysis of Government Support for Public Broadcasting and Other Culture inCanada[R].2006. http://www.nordicity.com/reports/CBC%20Public%20Broadcaster%20Comparison%20FINAL%20%28Submitted%29 .pdf.
① 参见[209]SADLER R L. Regulation of Television Broadcasting [M]//DONSBACH W. The International Encyclopedia of Communication. Blackwell Publishing.2008 http://www.blackwellreference.com/subscriber/tocnode.html?id=g9781405131995_yr2012 chunk_g978140513199525 ss35-1.
① 参见[219]国务院.广播电视管理条例[M].1997http://www.sarft.gov.cn/articles/2003/10/21/20070922142857170492.html.
① 我国广播电视的收入来源主要是：广告收入、有线电视收视维护费、财政拨款。参见[226]国家广播电影电视总局发展改革研究中心.中国广播影视发展报告(2011)[M].社会科学文献出版社,2011.
① 参见[234]国家广播电影电视总局发展研究中心.中国广播电影电视发展报告(2011)[R].2011.
① 2010年,全国广播电视总收入构成中,广告收入最多,占40.84%,参见[234]ibid.
① 根据国家广电总局发展研究中心2011年的统计,全国广播电视总收入构成中,国家财政收入只占11.93%.在非财政收入中,广播收入排在第一位,占总收入的40.84%。相比之下,加拿大公共广播公司CBC的收入主要来自议会拨款,达到63%,广告收入仅占27%。参见[226]国家广播电影电视总局发展改革研究中心.中国广播影视发展报告(2011)[M].社会科学文献出版社,2011.
① 2012年12月3日,湖南省岳阳市公安局官方微博@岳阳公安警事发布了一则消息,村民凌某在购买新疆人核桃仁糖果时,因语言沟通不畅造成误会,双方口角导致肢体冲突引发群体殴打事件。参见[247]价值16万切糕事件[M].百度百科.2012
② 为了确保提供最低数量的少数民族语言之节目,加拿大政府要求所有的地面广播传输公司保证每传送十个主体语言节目时,必须传送一个少数语言节目。为了支持少数民族节目制作,成立了第三语言节目制作基金。参见本文第三章。
① 参见[9]朱虹.广播影视业：改革与发展[M].河南大学出版社,2004.
① 加拿大学者Edwardson曾把政府为构建国家意识而进行的加拿大化(Canadianization)历史分为三个时期：第一个时期是建国之始的亲英国家主义,政府支持艺术,赋予传媒国家使命,确保从殖民地向国家之转化以大英帝国为其根源：第二个时期是1960年代中期到1970年初,新国家主义者(new nationalist)致力于以多元文化主义构建国家认同；第三个时期是从1960年代末持续至今日,政府通过对文化产业之直接投入来促进联邦统一(federal unity),形成今日自文化遗产部以下运行的庞大文化官僚机构。参见[136]EDWARDSON R. Introduction:A guide to Canadianization [M].//Canadian content:Culture and the quest for nationhood Toronto University of Toronto Press 2008
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