美国电视分级制研究（1996-2009）
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摘要
电视业自诞生以来,行业竞争不断加剧,为提高收视率,吸引受众眼球,世界各国电视节目内容的低俗化倾向日趋严重。20世纪90年代,电视大国美国的电视节目内容低俗化趋势达到顶峰,其低俗化主要表现在电视暴力、色情、粗俗语言、性语言等方面。电视节目对受众尤其是未成年受众会产生重要影响,这体现在文化知识、价值观、心理和社会行为等多个方面。美国电视节目充斥低俗内容带来了诸多社会问题,包括青少年暴力犯罪上升、未婚性行为及性犯罪增加、社会价值观扭曲等,这些引起了美国全社会的忧虑和共同关注。
上世纪90年代以来,美国国会先后制定了一系列监管低俗电视节目内容的法律法规。克林顿执政期间,在美国政府推动下出台的美国电视节目分级制(television rating system)旨在降低电视暴力与色情等低俗内容对受众的负面影响,于1996年出台的联邦通讯法案(Telecommunication Act of 1996)中推出的美国电视分级制在众多电视法规中影响最大,争议最多,也最具美国特色。美国电视分级制一定程度上借鉴了1968年开始实施的美国电影分级制的模式和分级标准,并借助了V芯片(V-chip)的技术支持,它从适合受众年龄(Age-Based Ratings)和节目内容(Content Ratings)两个方面对电视节目进行定级,以指导受众在收看时对不适当的内容加以过滤或屏蔽。分级制的出台受到了家长的欢迎和美国社会公众的支持。美国政府在分级制出台和实施过程中发挥了重要的推动作用。美国特色的电视节目分级制并非强制性的,而是以自愿和行业自律为原则,由电视行业自行定级,家长自愿监护家中未成年人的收视行为。这种分级实施办法虽然达到了克林顿政府在不违背宪法第一修正案的前提下监管低俗节目内容的目的,但将控制低俗节目负面影响的责任由媒体和政府转嫁到家长身上,是舍本逐末。由于分级制实施后宣传推广并未达到家喻户晓,电视业的分级标准执行也较为随意,因此实施后效果不够理想,多项实证研究表明1996年分级制实施后电视节目中的低俗内容未降反增,无法从根本上解决问题。时至今日,这项已实施十余年的制度仍处于不断完善之中,美国国会在分级制出台后又相继出台了多项法律法规来净化电视屏幕,保护受众利益。
美国电视分级制实施多年来的结果表明,监管低俗电视节目内容是一项系统工程,必须制定专门法规,细化执行标准,统一监管尺度,同时强化社会监督,形成监管合力,并且加大处罚力度,使违规的代价巨大。只有这样,才能真正达到净化屏幕的目的。
我国电视业目前同样面临着节目内容日趋低俗的社会问题,并且一直没有寻求到有效的解决途径,本研究通过探讨美国电视分级制的出台背景和过程,深入分析其特点、实施效果和社会评价,为我国出台相关措施提供借鉴。
The tendency of broadcasting more and more indecent programs in many countries in the world has become increasingly serious since the birth of broadcasting TV programs as an industry. Such a status quo is mainly caused by the increasing competition within the TV program providers, the practice to enhance the audience ratings and the measures to attract the eyeballs. The 1990s witnessed the peak situation of this in the US. The indecent TV programs shown in this country cover TV violence, pornography, foul language and language describing sex etc. TV programs transmit knowledge related to culture, values, mental health and social behaviors etc and have profound influence on audience especially on the under-age children. The indecent TV programs have flooded the US TV screens and have also produced many social problems– rises in the campus violence, before-marriage sex and sex-related crimes which caused great worry and common concern in the American society.
The US congress has instituted a series of laws and regulations to supervise the content of the indecent TV programs since the 1990s when William B. Clinton worked as the president. These include the American Television Rating System which aims to lower the negative influence on the audience, and the Telecommunication Act of 1996 which caused a heated dispute and is commented to be most influential and most typical of American characteristics. The American Television Rating System, to a certain extent, used the models and standards of the American Movie Rating Systems which were issued in 1968 as the framework and got the technical backup from the V-chip. It had Age-Based Ratings and Content Ratings to guide the audience to select or screen a program which is suitable for them. This system was welcomed by the parents and got the support from the American public. American government played a great role in designing and implementing the American Television Rating System. However, the system was not enforced compulsorily. It is up to the willingness and self-discipline of the relevant people and industries. That is, the specific ratings are designated by the TV providers and parents supervise their under-age children voluntarily. The system did meet the purpose of supervising the TV programs without violating the First Amendment of the US Constitution during the Clinton administration. It passed the oversight responsibility of the media and government on to the parents. This is after all to put the cart before the horse. What makes it worse is that the system was not publicized greatly to every household and with its random implementation; it did not get the ideal result after being carried out. Quite a number of studies conducted in 1996 indicated that indecent TV programs increased instead of being decreased after the implementation of the rating system. The American TV Rating System still needs to be perfected up to today and American Congress issued several laws to clean up the TV screens of the country and protect the mass audience even after it was enforced for more than ten years.
The TV program providers in our country also face the social problems of the increasing vulgarization of TV programs and they also have been working to find a better solution. A study on the designing process, the characteristics, the implementation effectiveness and the social feedback of the American TV Rating System can provide our TV professionals with successful experiences. The implementation results of the American TV Rating System indicate that the oversight of the indecent TV programs is a systematic engineering which requires the following works to be done: designing the special laws, specifying the implementation standards, unifying the supervising measures, intensifying the social role of supervision. In this way a combined role of supervision will be established. Meanwhile we should also increase the fine to those who violate the law. With all these measures to be appropriately implemented, can the Americans realize the purpose of cleansing the nationwide TV screens.
上世纪90年代以来,美国国会先后制定了一系列监管低俗电视节目内容的法律法规。克林顿执政期间,在美国政府推动下出台的美国电视节目分级制(television rating system)旨在降低电视暴力与色情等低俗内容对受众的负面影响,于1996年出台的联邦通讯法案(Telecommunication Act of 1996)中推出的美国电视分级制在众多电视法规中影响最大,争议最多,也最具美国特色。美国电视分级制一定程度上借鉴了1968年开始实施的美国电影分级制的模式和分级标准,并借助了V芯片(V-chip)的技术支持,它从适合受众年龄(Age-Based Ratings)和节目内容(Content Ratings)两个方面对电视节目进行定级,以指导受众在收看时对不适当的内容加以过滤或屏蔽。分级制的出台受到了家长的欢迎和美国社会公众的支持。美国政府在分级制出台和实施过程中发挥了重要的推动作用。美国特色的电视节目分级制并非强制性的,而是以自愿和行业自律为原则,由电视行业自行定级,家长自愿监护家中未成年人的收视行为。这种分级实施办法虽然达到了克林顿政府在不违背宪法第一修正案的前提下监管低俗节目内容的目的,但将控制低俗节目负面影响的责任由媒体和政府转嫁到家长身上,是舍本逐末。由于分级制实施后宣传推广并未达到家喻户晓,电视业的分级标准执行也较为随意,因此实施后效果不够理想,多项实证研究表明1996年分级制实施后电视节目中的低俗内容未降反增,无法从根本上解决问题。时至今日,这项已实施十余年的制度仍处于不断完善之中,美国国会在分级制出台后又相继出台了多项法律法规来净化电视屏幕,保护受众利益。
美国电视分级制实施多年来的结果表明,监管低俗电视节目内容是一项系统工程,必须制定专门法规,细化执行标准,统一监管尺度,同时强化社会监督,形成监管合力,并且加大处罚力度,使违规的代价巨大。只有这样,才能真正达到净化屏幕的目的。
我国电视业目前同样面临着节目内容日趋低俗的社会问题,并且一直没有寻求到有效的解决途径,本研究通过探讨美国电视分级制的出台背景和过程,深入分析其特点、实施效果和社会评价,为我国出台相关措施提供借鉴。
The tendency of broadcasting more and more indecent programs in many countries in the world has become increasingly serious since the birth of broadcasting TV programs as an industry. Such a status quo is mainly caused by the increasing competition within the TV program providers, the practice to enhance the audience ratings and the measures to attract the eyeballs. The 1990s witnessed the peak situation of this in the US. The indecent TV programs shown in this country cover TV violence, pornography, foul language and language describing sex etc. TV programs transmit knowledge related to culture, values, mental health and social behaviors etc and have profound influence on audience especially on the under-age children. The indecent TV programs have flooded the US TV screens and have also produced many social problems– rises in the campus violence, before-marriage sex and sex-related crimes which caused great worry and common concern in the American society.
The US congress has instituted a series of laws and regulations to supervise the content of the indecent TV programs since the 1990s when William B. Clinton worked as the president. These include the American Television Rating System which aims to lower the negative influence on the audience, and the Telecommunication Act of 1996 which caused a heated dispute and is commented to be most influential and most typical of American characteristics. The American Television Rating System, to a certain extent, used the models and standards of the American Movie Rating Systems which were issued in 1968 as the framework and got the technical backup from the V-chip. It had Age-Based Ratings and Content Ratings to guide the audience to select or screen a program which is suitable for them. This system was welcomed by the parents and got the support from the American public. American government played a great role in designing and implementing the American Television Rating System. However, the system was not enforced compulsorily. It is up to the willingness and self-discipline of the relevant people and industries. That is, the specific ratings are designated by the TV providers and parents supervise their under-age children voluntarily. The system did meet the purpose of supervising the TV programs without violating the First Amendment of the US Constitution during the Clinton administration. It passed the oversight responsibility of the media and government on to the parents. This is after all to put the cart before the horse. What makes it worse is that the system was not publicized greatly to every household and with its random implementation; it did not get the ideal result after being carried out. Quite a number of studies conducted in 1996 indicated that indecent TV programs increased instead of being decreased after the implementation of the rating system. The American TV Rating System still needs to be perfected up to today and American Congress issued several laws to clean up the TV screens of the country and protect the mass audience even after it was enforced for more than ten years.
The TV program providers in our country also face the social problems of the increasing vulgarization of TV programs and they also have been working to find a better solution. A study on the designing process, the characteristics, the implementation effectiveness and the social feedback of the American TV Rating System can provide our TV professionals with successful experiences. The implementation results of the American TV Rating System indicate that the oversight of the indecent TV programs is a systematic engineering which requires the following works to be done: designing the special laws, specifying the implementation standards, unifying the supervising measures, intensifying the social role of supervision. In this way a combined role of supervision will be established. Meanwhile we should also increase the fine to those who violate the law. With all these measures to be appropriately implemented, can the Americans realize the purpose of cleansing the nationwide TV screens.
引文
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①吕斐宜:《受众心理与传统文化传播》,《贵州社会科学》,2007年第7期,第54页。
②[美]格兰·斯帕克斯:《媒介效果研究概论》,何朝阳译,北京大学出版社,2008年版,第103页。
①Donald F. Roberts,“Media Content Labeling System: Information Advisories or Judgemental Restrictions?”In: Monroe E. Price, The V-Chip Debate: Content Filtering From Television to The Internet. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Assciates.1998.
②Marjorie Heins,“Three Questions About Television Ratings”, In: Monroe E. Price, The V-Chip Debate: Content Filtering From Television to The Internet. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Assciates.1998.
③Monroe E. Price, The V-Chip Debate: Content Filtering From Television to The Internet. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Assciates.1998.
④Cooper, C., Violence on Television: Congressional Inquiry, Public Criticism and Industry Response, Lanham: University Press of America,1996.
⑤Keisha L Hoerrner,“Symbolic Politics: Congressional Interest in Television Violence From 1950 to 1996”,Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly.April 1999.
①刘小红,卜卫:《大众传播心理研究》,北京:中国广播电视出版社,200l年,第231页。
②[美]雪莉·贝尔吉:《媒介与冲击:大众媒介概论》(第四版),赵劲松译,大连:东北财经大学出版社,2000年,第314页。
③Commission on Obscenity and Pornography, Report of the Commission Obscenity and Pornography. New York: Bantam books. 1970.
④U.S.Department of Justice, Attorney General’s Commision on Pornography Final Report (Vol.1).Washington, DC: U.S. Deartment of Justice.
①FCC,“News Media Information 202 / 418-0500”,http://fjallfoss.fcc.gov/edocs_public/attachmatch/DOC-296538A1.pdf下载日期:2010年4月8日。
②TV Basics:“Television Households”, http://www.tvb.org/rcentral/mediatrendstrack/tvbasics/03_MultiSet_and_Color_HH.asp下载日期:2010年4月8日。
①赵淑萍:《美国电视纵横谈:美国电视全方位透析》,北京:华文出版社,1999年,第21页。
②同上,第33页。
①TV Basics:“ratings track”, http://www.tvb.org/rcentral/viewertrack/weekly/Weekly_Bdcst_vs_Cable_PrimeRatings.asp 下载日期:2009年4月8日。
②张谦:《美国广播电视业发展中的新问题》,《当代通讯》2003年第2期。
①FCC,“News Media Information 202 / 418-0500”,http://fjallfoss.fcc.gov/edocs_public/attachmatch/DOC-296538A1.pdf下载日期:2010年4月8日。
②[美]大卫·克罗图,威廉·霍伊尼斯:《运营媒体:在商业媒体与公共利益之间》,童关鹏、金城译,北京:清华大学出版社,2007年,第18页。
①Ernest Gellhom, Ronald M.Levin, Administrative Law and Process, St. Paul, Minn: West Group, 1997,p.1.
①Gerald W. Brock, Telecommunication Policy for the Information Age: from Monopoly to Competition, Cambridge: Harvard University Press. 1994, p.52.
①国家广电总局发展研究中心课题组:《发达国家广播景视管理体制和管理手段研究》,北京:中国传媒大学出版社,2007年,第24-25页。
②Weingast, B. R., Moran, M. J.,“The Myth of Runaway Bureaucracy”, Regulation, Vol. 6, No.3, 1982.
①Philip M. Napoli,“Government Assessment of FCC Performance”, Telecommunication Policy, Vol. 22, No. 4-5.1998.
②M. G. F.,“Communications Act of 1934”, Virginia Law Review, Vol. 21, No. 3 (Jan., 1935), pp. 318-325.
①“Telecommunication Act of 1996”, http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/F?c104:1:./temp/~c1048TeZCD:e275441: 下载日期:2008年3月26日。
①“Telecommunication Act of 1996”,§551, http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/F?c104:1:./temp/~c1048TeZCD:e275441:下载日期:2008年3月26日。
②Ibid.
③林如鹏:《中国媒介集团做大做强的必由之路》,新闻大学,2002年冬季号。
①杨凯:《美国电视辛迪加节目运行管理机制及启示》,《中国广播电视学刊》2003年第3期,第74页。
②并不是所有的辛迪加节目都以独有权方式发布。独有权昂贵的费用令许多电视台望而生畏,在没有收视率的绝对保证时,电视台网宁愿放弃独有权而以较低的价格购买播出权。
③谢玲,彭逸林:《撬动电视传媒产业的杠杆--美国〈财政利益与辛迪加法案〉的演变与中国电视制播分离辨析比较》,《长江传播》2008年第7期。
①郭镇之:《美国电视节目供应体制扫描》,《中国记者》,2000年第6期,第69页。
②Shidler Jon,“Network TV Sex as a Counterprogramming Strategy During a Sweeps Period: An Analysis of Content and Ratings”, Journalist & Mass Communications Quarterly 72 (1995).pp.147-155.
③University of California, Center for Communication and Social Policy, National Television Violence Study. Vol 3. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage; 1998.
①[美]大卫·克罗图威廉·霍伊尼斯:《运营媒体:在商业媒体与公共利益之间》,童关鹏、金城译,北京:清华大学出版社,2007年,第138页。
②Steve Johnson,“How Low Can TV News Go?”,Columbia Journalism Review (July/August,1997):24-29.
③Brian Lowry,“Network Seeking to Redefine‘reality’,”Richmond Times-Dispatch , December 18,1999,B11.
④Mark Boal,“Summer of Surveillance,”Brill’s Content (June,2000), pp.122-125.
⑤Madeline Rogers,“Moguls Past and Present,”Media Studies Journal(Spring/Summer,1996).
①Neil Hickey,“Money Lust,’’Columbia Journalism Review (July/August,1998),p.28.
②[美]大卫·克罗图、威廉·霍伊尼斯:《运营媒体:在商业媒体与公共利益之间》,童关鹏、金城译,北京:清华大学出版社,2007年,第143页。
③[美]尼尔·波兹曼:《娱乐至死》,章艳译,南宁:广西师范大学出版社,2009年,第202页。
①鞠艳:《榜样的力量:班杜拉观察学习研究》,《基础教育》,2008年第9期,第60页。
②鞠艳:《榜样的力量:班杜拉观察学习研究》,《基础教育》,2008年第9期,第62页。
③Joseph T. Klapper, The Effects of Mass Communication. New York: Free Press.1960, p.8.
④[美]格兰·斯帕克斯:《媒介效果研究概论》,何朝阳译,北京:北京大学出版社,2008年,第47页。
①[美]格兰·斯帕克斯:《媒介效果研究概论》,何朝阳译,北京大学出版社,2008年,第61-63页。
②[美]格兰·斯帕克斯:《媒介效果研究概论》,何朝阳译,北京大学出版社,2008年,第62页。
③刘海龙:《大众传播理论:范式与流派》,北京:中国人民大学出版社,2008年,第242—247页。
④[美]格兰·斯帕克斯:《媒介效果研究概论》,何朝阳译,北京大学出版社,2008年,第143页。
①刘海龙:《大众传播理论:范式与流派》,北京:中国人民大学出版社,2008年,第281—282页。
②[美]格兰·斯帕克斯:《媒介效果研究概论》,何朝阳译,北京大学出版社,2008年,88页。
③[英]大卫·麦克奎恩:《理解电视》,苗棣,赵长军,李黎丹译,北京:华夏出版社,2003年,第3页。
①刘小红,卜卫:《大众传播心理研究》,北京:中国广播电视出版社,200l年,第231页。
②[美]雪莉·贝尔吉:《媒介与冲击:大众媒介概论》(第四版)[M],赵劲松译,大连:东北财经大学出版社,2000年,第314页。
③Commission on Obscenity and Pornography, Report of the Commission Obscenity and Pornography. New York:1970, Bantam books.
④U.S. Department of Justice, Attorney General’s Commision on Pornography Final Report (Vol.1).Washington, DC: U.S. Deartment of Justice.
⑤“Joint statement on the impact of entertainment violence on children: Congressional Public Health Summit. July 26, 2000”, http://www.aap.org/advocacy/releases/jstmtevc.htm,下载日期:2009-10-20。
①Jack valenti,“The birth of ratings”, http://www.mpaa.org/Ratings_BrthofRt.asp.下载日期: 2008年3月20日。
②Ibid.
①MPAA,“film ratings”, http://www.mpaa.org/FlmRat_Ratings.asp.下载日期:2008年3月20日。
②Richard M.Mosk,“Motion picture ratings in the united states”,Cardozo Arts & Entertainment Law Journal,1997,p.135.
①Dale Kunkel, Tendy .Jo, Maynard Farrnola.,“Deciphering the V-Chip: An Examination of the Television Industry's Program. Rating Judgments”, Journal of Communication, March 2002.p.133.
①黄勇:《中国广播电视事业法中和体制改革》,《中国广播》,2006年第7期。
①张群力:《我国少儿电视频道运营状况》,《视听界》,2006年第5期。
①黄会林,王韵等:《电视文化对北京地区未成年人影响的调研与思考》上,《.现代传播》,2007年第1期,第124页。
②黄会林,王韵等:《.电视文化对北京地区未成年人影响的调研与思考》下,《.现代传播》,2007年第2期,第128页。
③韩红梅,王善科:《中美电视评价之比较》,《中国广播电视学刊》,2006年第10期。
④中华传媒,《中国电视剧市场报告2003——2004》中华传媒网,http://Chinese.mediachina.net,下载日期:2008年8月17日。
①王红:《我国电视剧中暴力镜头扫描》,《记者摇篮》,2004年第12期。
②同上。
①参见中国广播电视技术网《电视剧审查暂行规定》http://www.cbttn.cn/ShowArticle.asp?ArticleID=3718。下载日期: 2009年2月15日。
②刘小红,卜卫:《大众传播心理研究》北京:中国广播电视出版社,200l年,第247-248页。
③王更喜:《电视暴力与电视分级》,《声屏世界》,2003年第6期,第21页。
①参见《广播电视节目监管细则》(2009年版). http://www.scrftb.gov.cn/dzds/content.asp?id=3394.下载日期:2009年2月15日。
②中国广播电视年鉴编辑部:《世界各地广播电视反低俗化法规资料选编》,北京:中国传媒大学出版社,2008年。
①王朋进:《美国电视节目内容管制分析》,《视听界》,2007年第5期。
②“FCC.Obscene, Indecent, and Profane Broadcasts”, http://www.fcc.gov/cgb/consumerfacts/obscene.html.下载时间:2007 .年3月16日。
①《FCC对播出低俗内容的广播机构罚款400万美元》,胡洁译,《世界广播电视节目参考》2006第6期,第38页。
②中国广播电视年鉴编辑部:《世界各地广播电视反低俗化法规资料选编》,北京:中国传媒大学出版社, 2008年,第11页。
①中国广播电视年鉴编辑部:《世界各地广播电视反低俗化法规资料选编》,北京:中国传媒大学出版社,2008年, 第6页。.
①“Indecency Complaints and NALs,1993-2004.”www.fcc.gov/eb/broadcast/ichart.pdf ,下载日期: 2007年7月8日。
②Loomis, Kenneth D,“The FCC and Indecency: LocalTelevision General Managers' Perceptions”, International Journal on Media., October 2008, p.47.
③Ibid.
④Lisa de Moraes,“Saving Private Ryan’: A New Casualty of the Indecency War”,Washington Post,Nov 11,2004, p. C1.
⑤Lynn Smith,“PBS opts to trim nude scene from film‘Dirty War’”,Los Angeles Times, Jan 17, 2005, E1.
①Peter D. Hart Research Associates and The Luntz Research Companies,“National Survey on Decency in Television”, http://www.televisionwatch.org/NewsPolls/FactSheets/Luntz-Hart-Survey.pdf .下载时间:2008年5月17日。
①“Remarks of U.S. Senator Barack Obama as prepared for delivery. November 9 , 2005”, http://www.kff.org/entmedia/upload/entmedia110905oth2.pdf.下载日期:2007年7月12日。
②中国广播电视年鉴编辑部:《世界各地广播电视反低俗化法规资料选编》,北京:中国传媒大学出版社,2008年,第21-22页。
③“Remarks of U.S. Senator Barack Obama as prepared for delivery. November 9 , 2005”’http://www.kff.org/entmedia/upload/entmedia110905oth2.pdf.下载日期:2007-7-12.
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[1] www.aclu.org
[2] www.aap.org
[3] www.annenbergpublicpolicycenter.org
[4] www.childrennow.org
[5] www.childrennow.org/media
[6] www.controlyourtv.org
[7] www.cqcm.org
[8] www.fcc.com
[9] www.independentratings.org
[10] www.kff.org
[11] www.leaonline.com
[12] www.mediascope.org
[13] www.mediaweek..com
[14] www.mpaa.org
[15] www.medialit.org
[16] www.ncta.com
[17] www.nytimes.com
[18] www.pbs.org
[19] www.psvratings.com
[20] www.tvguardian-online.com
[21] www.tvguideline.org
[22] www.televisionwatch.org
[23] www.thomas.loc.go
①吕斐宜:《受众心理与传统文化传播》,《贵州社会科学》,2007年第7期,第54页。
②[美]格兰·斯帕克斯:《媒介效果研究概论》,何朝阳译,北京大学出版社,2008年版,第103页。
①Donald F. Roberts,“Media Content Labeling System: Information Advisories or Judgemental Restrictions?”In: Monroe E. Price, The V-Chip Debate: Content Filtering From Television to The Internet. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Assciates.1998.
②Marjorie Heins,“Three Questions About Television Ratings”, In: Monroe E. Price, The V-Chip Debate: Content Filtering From Television to The Internet. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Assciates.1998.
③Monroe E. Price, The V-Chip Debate: Content Filtering From Television to The Internet. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Assciates.1998.
④Cooper, C., Violence on Television: Congressional Inquiry, Public Criticism and Industry Response, Lanham: University Press of America,1996.
⑤Keisha L Hoerrner,“Symbolic Politics: Congressional Interest in Television Violence From 1950 to 1996”,Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly.April 1999.
①刘小红,卜卫:《大众传播心理研究》,北京:中国广播电视出版社,200l年,第231页。
②[美]雪莉·贝尔吉:《媒介与冲击:大众媒介概论》(第四版),赵劲松译,大连:东北财经大学出版社,2000年,第314页。
③Commission on Obscenity and Pornography, Report of the Commission Obscenity and Pornography. New York: Bantam books. 1970.
④U.S.Department of Justice, Attorney General’s Commision on Pornography Final Report (Vol.1).Washington, DC: U.S. Deartment of Justice.
①FCC,“News Media Information 202 / 418-0500”,http://fjallfoss.fcc.gov/edocs_public/attachmatch/DOC-296538A1.pdf下载日期:2010年4月8日。
②TV Basics:“Television Households”, http://www.tvb.org/rcentral/mediatrendstrack/tvbasics/03_MultiSet_and_Color_HH.asp下载日期:2010年4月8日。
①赵淑萍:《美国电视纵横谈:美国电视全方位透析》,北京:华文出版社,1999年,第21页。
②同上,第33页。
①TV Basics:“ratings track”, http://www.tvb.org/rcentral/viewertrack/weekly/Weekly_Bdcst_vs_Cable_PrimeRatings.asp 下载日期:2009年4月8日。
②张谦:《美国广播电视业发展中的新问题》,《当代通讯》2003年第2期。
①FCC,“News Media Information 202 / 418-0500”,http://fjallfoss.fcc.gov/edocs_public/attachmatch/DOC-296538A1.pdf下载日期:2010年4月8日。
②[美]大卫·克罗图,威廉·霍伊尼斯:《运营媒体:在商业媒体与公共利益之间》,童关鹏、金城译,北京:清华大学出版社,2007年,第18页。
①Ernest Gellhom, Ronald M.Levin, Administrative Law and Process, St. Paul, Minn: West Group, 1997,p.1.
①Gerald W. Brock, Telecommunication Policy for the Information Age: from Monopoly to Competition, Cambridge: Harvard University Press. 1994, p.52.
①国家广电总局发展研究中心课题组:《发达国家广播景视管理体制和管理手段研究》,北京:中国传媒大学出版社,2007年,第24-25页。
②Weingast, B. R., Moran, M. J.,“The Myth of Runaway Bureaucracy”, Regulation, Vol. 6, No.3, 1982.
①Philip M. Napoli,“Government Assessment of FCC Performance”, Telecommunication Policy, Vol. 22, No. 4-5.1998.
②M. G. F.,“Communications Act of 1934”, Virginia Law Review, Vol. 21, No. 3 (Jan., 1935), pp. 318-325.
①“Telecommunication Act of 1996”, http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/F?c104:1:./temp/~c1048TeZCD:e275441: 下载日期:2008年3月26日。
①“Telecommunication Act of 1996”,§551, http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/F?c104:1:./temp/~c1048TeZCD:e275441:下载日期:2008年3月26日。
②Ibid.
③林如鹏:《中国媒介集团做大做强的必由之路》,新闻大学,2002年冬季号。
①杨凯:《美国电视辛迪加节目运行管理机制及启示》,《中国广播电视学刊》2003年第3期,第74页。
②并不是所有的辛迪加节目都以独有权方式发布。独有权昂贵的费用令许多电视台望而生畏,在没有收视率的绝对保证时,电视台网宁愿放弃独有权而以较低的价格购买播出权。
③谢玲,彭逸林:《撬动电视传媒产业的杠杆--美国〈财政利益与辛迪加法案〉的演变与中国电视制播分离辨析比较》,《长江传播》2008年第7期。
①郭镇之:《美国电视节目供应体制扫描》,《中国记者》,2000年第6期,第69页。
②Shidler Jon,“Network TV Sex as a Counterprogramming Strategy During a Sweeps Period: An Analysis of Content and Ratings”, Journalist & Mass Communications Quarterly 72 (1995).pp.147-155.
③University of California, Center for Communication and Social Policy, National Television Violence Study. Vol 3. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage; 1998.
①[美]大卫·克罗图威廉·霍伊尼斯:《运营媒体:在商业媒体与公共利益之间》,童关鹏、金城译,北京:清华大学出版社,2007年,第138页。
②Steve Johnson,“How Low Can TV News Go?”,Columbia Journalism Review (July/August,1997):24-29.
③Brian Lowry,“Network Seeking to Redefine‘reality’,”Richmond Times-Dispatch , December 18,1999,B11.
④Mark Boal,“Summer of Surveillance,”Brill’s Content (June,2000), pp.122-125.
⑤Madeline Rogers,“Moguls Past and Present,”Media Studies Journal(Spring/Summer,1996).
①Neil Hickey,“Money Lust,’’Columbia Journalism Review (July/August,1998),p.28.
②[美]大卫·克罗图、威廉·霍伊尼斯:《运营媒体:在商业媒体与公共利益之间》,童关鹏、金城译,北京:清华大学出版社,2007年,第143页。
③[美]尼尔·波兹曼:《娱乐至死》,章艳译,南宁:广西师范大学出版社,2009年,第202页。
①鞠艳:《榜样的力量:班杜拉观察学习研究》,《基础教育》,2008年第9期,第60页。
②鞠艳:《榜样的力量:班杜拉观察学习研究》,《基础教育》,2008年第9期,第62页。
③Joseph T. Klapper, The Effects of Mass Communication. New York: Free Press.1960, p.8.
④[美]格兰·斯帕克斯:《媒介效果研究概论》,何朝阳译,北京:北京大学出版社,2008年,第47页。
①[美]格兰·斯帕克斯:《媒介效果研究概论》,何朝阳译,北京大学出版社,2008年,第61-63页。
②[美]格兰·斯帕克斯:《媒介效果研究概论》,何朝阳译,北京大学出版社,2008年,第62页。
③刘海龙:《大众传播理论:范式与流派》,北京:中国人民大学出版社,2008年,第242—247页。
④[美]格兰·斯帕克斯:《媒介效果研究概论》,何朝阳译,北京大学出版社,2008年,第143页。
①刘海龙:《大众传播理论:范式与流派》,北京:中国人民大学出版社,2008年,第281—282页。
②[美]格兰·斯帕克斯:《媒介效果研究概论》,何朝阳译,北京大学出版社,2008年,88页。
③[英]大卫·麦克奎恩:《理解电视》,苗棣,赵长军,李黎丹译,北京:华夏出版社,2003年,第3页。
①刘小红,卜卫:《大众传播心理研究》,北京:中国广播电视出版社,200l年,第231页。
②[美]雪莉·贝尔吉:《媒介与冲击:大众媒介概论》(第四版)[M],赵劲松译,大连:东北财经大学出版社,2000年,第314页。
③Commission on Obscenity and Pornography, Report of the Commission Obscenity and Pornography. New York:1970, Bantam books.
④U.S. Department of Justice, Attorney General’s Commision on Pornography Final Report (Vol.1).Washington, DC: U.S. Deartment of Justice.
⑤“Joint statement on the impact of entertainment violence on children: Congressional Public Health Summit. July 26, 2000”, http://www.aap.org/advocacy/releases/jstmtevc.htm,下载日期:2009-10-20。
①Jack valenti,“The birth of ratings”, http://www.mpaa.org/Ratings_BrthofRt.asp.下载日期: 2008年3月20日。
②Ibid.
①MPAA,“film ratings”, http://www.mpaa.org/FlmRat_Ratings.asp.下载日期:2008年3月20日。
②Richard M.Mosk,“Motion picture ratings in the united states”,Cardozo Arts & Entertainment Law Journal,1997,p.135.
①Dale Kunkel, Tendy .Jo, Maynard Farrnola.,“Deciphering the V-Chip: An Examination of the Television Industry's Program. Rating Judgments”, Journal of Communication, March 2002.p.133.
①黄勇:《中国广播电视事业法中和体制改革》,《中国广播》,2006年第7期。
①张群力:《我国少儿电视频道运营状况》,《视听界》,2006年第5期。
①黄会林,王韵等:《电视文化对北京地区未成年人影响的调研与思考》上,《.现代传播》,2007年第1期,第124页。
②黄会林,王韵等:《.电视文化对北京地区未成年人影响的调研与思考》下,《.现代传播》,2007年第2期,第128页。
③韩红梅,王善科:《中美电视评价之比较》,《中国广播电视学刊》,2006年第10期。
④中华传媒,《中国电视剧市场报告2003——2004》中华传媒网,http://Chinese.mediachina.net,下载日期:2008年8月17日。
①王红:《我国电视剧中暴力镜头扫描》,《记者摇篮》,2004年第12期。
②同上。
①参见中国广播电视技术网《电视剧审查暂行规定》http://www.cbttn.cn/ShowArticle.asp?ArticleID=3718。下载日期: 2009年2月15日。
②刘小红,卜卫:《大众传播心理研究》北京:中国广播电视出版社,200l年,第247-248页。
③王更喜:《电视暴力与电视分级》,《声屏世界》,2003年第6期,第21页。
①参见《广播电视节目监管细则》(2009年版). http://www.scrftb.gov.cn/dzds/content.asp?id=3394.下载日期:2009年2月15日。
②中国广播电视年鉴编辑部:《世界各地广播电视反低俗化法规资料选编》,北京:中国传媒大学出版社,2008年。
①王朋进:《美国电视节目内容管制分析》,《视听界》,2007年第5期。
②“FCC.Obscene, Indecent, and Profane Broadcasts”, http://www.fcc.gov/cgb/consumerfacts/obscene.html.下载时间:2007 .年3月16日。
①《FCC对播出低俗内容的广播机构罚款400万美元》,胡洁译,《世界广播电视节目参考》2006第6期,第38页。
②中国广播电视年鉴编辑部:《世界各地广播电视反低俗化法规资料选编》,北京:中国传媒大学出版社, 2008年,第11页。
①中国广播电视年鉴编辑部:《世界各地广播电视反低俗化法规资料选编》,北京:中国传媒大学出版社,2008年, 第6页。.
①“Indecency Complaints and NALs,1993-2004.”www.fcc.gov/eb/broadcast/ichart.pdf ,下载日期: 2007年7月8日。
②Loomis, Kenneth D,“The FCC and Indecency: LocalTelevision General Managers' Perceptions”, International Journal on Media., October 2008, p.47.
③Ibid.
④Lisa de Moraes,“Saving Private Ryan’: A New Casualty of the Indecency War”,Washington Post,Nov 11,2004, p. C1.
⑤Lynn Smith,“PBS opts to trim nude scene from film‘Dirty War’”,Los Angeles Times, Jan 17, 2005, E1.
①Peter D. Hart Research Associates and The Luntz Research Companies,“National Survey on Decency in Television”, http://www.televisionwatch.org/NewsPolls/FactSheets/Luntz-Hart-Survey.pdf .下载时间:2008年5月17日。
①“Remarks of U.S. Senator Barack Obama as prepared for delivery. November 9 , 2005”, http://www.kff.org/entmedia/upload/entmedia110905oth2.pdf.下载日期:2007年7月12日。
②中国广播电视年鉴编辑部:《世界各地广播电视反低俗化法规资料选编》,北京:中国传媒大学出版社,2008年,第21-22页。
③“Remarks of U.S. Senator Barack Obama as prepared for delivery. November 9 , 2005”’http://www.kff.org/entmedia/upload/entmedia110905oth2.pdf.下载日期:2007-7-12.