竹/木结构民宅的生命周期评价
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摘要
《国家中长期科学和技术发展规划纲要（2006—2020年）》把绿色建筑、节能降耗和开发利用农林生物质资源均列为重点领域及优先主题。以竹材或木材替代传统建筑材料符合国家战略需求。
然而，在实际的应用和推广中，我国民众对于竹/木结构建筑存在诸多质疑:其一，土地资源的约束使得在我国推广竹/木结构没有现实条件。其二，竹、木作为主要森林资源，具有保护环境、调节气候、保持水土等功能，推广利用竹/木结构民宅本身就是损毁环境的行为；其三，作为结构材料的竹材和木材，需要经过一系列的加工、改性处理，这一过程中化工材料的投入也会造成环境污染和能源消耗，使得竹/木结构的环境性能受到冲击；其四，造价超出普通民众预期，成为竹/木结构应用推广的一大阻碍。
基于以上原因，本研究将竹/木结构应用推广范围界定为乡镇民宅，以生命周期评价方法为基本框架，从资源、能源和环境排放三个维度对竹结构、木结构与当前主流的砖混结构民宅进行全面的比较分析与评价。并以生命周期清单为基础，对三种结构民宅的碳平衡和生态效率进行评估，试图发掘竹、木结构民宅的优势与不足，以期为政府制定相关政策提供决策依据。
在生命周期评价过程中，本文采取了一系列优化措施。依据国际标准ISO14044：2006，生命周期评价方法分为四个基本步骤：（1）目标与范围界定。研究目标界定为建立三种结构民宅的资源、能源和环境排放清单，完成三者的比较评价。由于竹结构民宅尚未推广使用，其废弃处置阶段无例可寻，因此本研究将评价范围界定为从资源采掘到主体结构建造完成的过程。为了剔除研究对象在功能面积上的差异和提高可比性，本研究的功能单位界定为1平方米民宅。（2）清单分析。清单分析是LCA方法最重要环节，主要在于数据采集和数据质量问题。依据生命周期评价国际惯例，本研究采取现场调研（重组竹、竹材层积材、竹材胶合板、砂石的生命周期清单数据）和文献数据（钢筋、水泥、木材层积材、OSB板、防腐木、混凝土多孔砖、电力、洁净煤、燃油、柴油和天然气的生产与燃烧）相结合的办法，对三种结构民宅的主要投入材料和半成品的生命周期清单进行整合，建立一个完整的生命周期清单数据库。（3）影响评价。该部分关键步骤是环境影响类型的划分、特征化过程的等效物以及归一化过程的权重选择。从清单数据构成来看，所涉及的环境影响类型包括：不可再生资源（ADP）、温室效应（GWP）、光化学影响潜力（POCP）、酸化影响（AP）、富营养化（EP）、水体污染（WTP）和人体毒性（HTP）。为了提高本研究结果的国内外可比性，等效物选择和归一化权重的选择都沿袭《生命周期评价国际标准操作手册》推荐的方法。（4）结果解释。对于三种结构民宅的生命周期评价结果，论文从主要污染物对环境影响类型贡献度大小以及主要污染物产生环节等角度进行论述。
在生命周期清单分析和评价结果的基础上，对三种结构民宅进行比较，我们得出如下结论：（1）以竹结构为基准，每平米木结构化石资源消耗量是竹结构的48.8%，砖混结构是竹结构的714.6%；（2）每平米木结构能源消耗是竹结构的51.7%，砖混结构是竹结构的322.2%；（3）每平米木结构环境总负荷是竹结构的70.6%，砖混结构是竹结构的696.8%；（4）从环境影响类型来看，三种结构民宅影响都较大的是ADP、GWP和AP，其中木结构是竹结构的49.3%、81.3%和76.7%，而砖混结构是竹结构的712.3%、418.8%和1333.3%倍。（5）从碳平衡角度来看，竹结构民宅以建筑材料形式封存的碳大于其碳排放，具有正的固碳功能，木结构固碳功能为负，而砖混结构不具有固碳功能。（6）从经济成本与生态成本之比来看，木结构民宅的生态效率最高，是竹结构的1.16倍，砖混结构是竹结构的0.15倍。
经过生命周期评价比较，可以得出，在资源、能源、环境排放和生态效率方面，竹结构民宅都优于砖混结构而劣于木结构民宅。究其原因主要有两点：（1）每平米竹结构民宅的基础混凝土用量是木结构的2.24倍，梁柱连接件用量是木结构的1.34倍。设计的差异导致材料用量悬殊，最终使得基于材料用量的能耗以及环境排放数据计算出现偏差。（2）竹结构现场调研取得的数据中，材料和能源消耗数据偏大，而污染物排放数据偏小。主观因素导致调研数据部分失真。
本论文获得了如下创新：（1）建立了竹结构、木结构和砖混结构民宅的生命周期清单数据库，其中竹结构清单在国内外尚未见报道，为我国生命周期清单数据库增添新的模块；（2）尝试把碳平衡和生态成本引入建筑生命周期评价，充分展现竹/木结构民宅的生态效率优势，吸引政府加大对竹/木结构民宅的支持力度，促进竹结构的规范化、产业化发展。
In the National Guideline on Medium-and Long-Term Program for Science andTechnology Development(2006-2020), green building,energy saving and consumptionreducing,biomass resources developing and utilizing have been listed as the key areas and theprior development subject. Use bamboo or wood to substitute conventional building materialsaccords with the strategy demands of China.
Howerever, there are still some doubts about bamboo/wood structure house:1, Shortage ofland resources makes the application and extension of bamboo/wood structure house impossible.2, As main forest resources, bamboo and wood itself can protect our environment, regulateclimate, retain soil and water, so built bamboo/wood house would also destroy our environment.3, Bamboo/wood must be produce and modify to become structure members, in these proceses,environment pollution and energy consumption still exist.4, The cost of bamboo/woodstructure house is high than the expection of ordinary people.
For the above reasons, our research restrict the use bondary of bamboo/wood structurehouse in rural areas, adopts the method of Life Cycle Assessment as the basic framework,analyzes the carbon balance and ecological efficiency of the three types of residentialhouses--the bamboo structure, wooden structure, and brick structure. We attempts to explorethe comparative advantages and shortcomings of the bamboo structure houses, in order toprovide a analytical support for the government to formulate relevant policies and decisionmaking. In the life cycle assessment process, this thesis has taken a series of analyticalmeasures in each of the following standard procedures: ISO14044.
(1) Goal and scope definition. The research objective is defined to establish an inventoryof the resources, energy and environmental emissions of three types of structures of houses, andconduct a comparative evaluation of the three. As a new phenomenon, the bamboo structurehousing has not been put into official practices，nor "a report as worthless" case of it can befound. In this circumstance, this study defines the scope of the evaluation as such, fromresource extraction to the construction process. In order to present the study differences in thefunctional area and to improve comparability, the functional units of this study is defined as onesquare meters of houses.
(2) Inventory analysis. The inventory analysis is the most important part of the LCAmethod, mainly due to data acquisition and data quality issues. In accordance with theinternational practice in the field of life cycle assessment, this study has taken the approach offield research (bamboo scrimber, bamboo laminated timber, bamboo plywood, gravel life cycleinventory data) and literature data (steel, cement, wood laminated timber, OSB board, wood preservative, concrete, porous brick, electricity, coal, fuel oil, diesel and natural gas productionand combustion), to integrate into a main input materials and semi-finished products inventoryof the three types of houses, and established a life cycle inventory database.
(3) Impact assessment. From the list of data, it involves the following types ofenvironmental impact: non-renewable resources (ADP), the greenhouse effect (GWP),photochemical consequences of potential (POCP), acidification (AP), eutrophication (EP),water pollution (WTP) and human toxicity (HTP). In order to improve the comparability of theresults, the equivalent material selection and the normalized weighting, have adopted therecommendation by the "manual of international standard of life cycle assessment".
(4) Interpretation. For the three types of houses, we interprete the LCA result from theangle of the main pollutants' contribution size in the environmental impact, as well as wherethey are generated.
Based on the comparative evaluation of life cycle inventory and evaluation of the threetypes of houses, we draw the following conclusions:(1) with bamboo structure as a benchmark,the consumption of fossil resources each square meter of wood structure is48.8%of that of thebamboo structure, while the brick-concrete structure consumes714.6%of that of bamboostructure;(2) the energy consumption per square meter of wooden structure accounts for51.7%of that of the bamboo structure, while the brick-concrete structure accounts for322.2%of that ofthe bamboo structure;(3) the total environmental load per square meter of wood structure is70.6%of that of the bamboo structure, while the brick structure accounts for696.8%of that ofthe bamboo structure;(4) in term of the types of environmental impact, the three structures ofhouses all demonstrate great impact in ADP, GWP and AP. The ratios of the impact of the ADP,GWP and AP of the wooden structure to the bamboo structure are respectively49.3%,81.3%and76.7percent; likewise, the ratios of the brick structure to the bamboo structure arerespectively712.3%.418.8%and1333.3%;(5) from the carbon balance point of view, thebamboo structure house demonstrates positive carbon balance because its carbon sequestrationin the building materials is greater than that of its carbon emissions, while the wood structurehouse shows negative carbon balance, and the brick-concrete structure does not have thefunction of carbon sequestration.(6) Regarding the ratio of economic costs to ecological cost,wooden structure house has the highest eco-efficiency, accounts for1.16times of that of thebamboo structure, and the brick structure accounts for0.15times of that of the bamboostructure.
After a comparative life cycle assessment, it can be drawn that the bamboo structure housesare better than brick structure in terms of resources, energy, environmental emissions andeco-efficiency, but not as good as the wooden structure houses. The major reasons are two:(1)the amount of foundation concrete usage of bamboo structure houses is2.24times of that of the wooden structures, and the usage of beams and columns that connect the pieces of bamboostructure is1.34times of that of the wooden structure;(2) in the survey data, materials andenergy consumption of the bamboo structure may be higher, and the emission data may be lowerthan reality.
The nature of the contribution of this thesis lies in twofold:(1) it established a life cycleinventory database for bamboo structure, wood structure and brick-concrete structure houses;especially, this is the first original work of such kind for the bamboo structure houses;(2) itintroduced carbon balance and eco-efficiency into the life cycle assessment of buildingmaterials.
然而，在实际的应用和推广中，我国民众对于竹/木结构建筑存在诸多质疑:其一，土地资源的约束使得在我国推广竹/木结构没有现实条件。其二，竹、木作为主要森林资源，具有保护环境、调节气候、保持水土等功能，推广利用竹/木结构民宅本身就是损毁环境的行为；其三，作为结构材料的竹材和木材，需要经过一系列的加工、改性处理，这一过程中化工材料的投入也会造成环境污染和能源消耗，使得竹/木结构的环境性能受到冲击；其四，造价超出普通民众预期，成为竹/木结构应用推广的一大阻碍。
基于以上原因，本研究将竹/木结构应用推广范围界定为乡镇民宅，以生命周期评价方法为基本框架，从资源、能源和环境排放三个维度对竹结构、木结构与当前主流的砖混结构民宅进行全面的比较分析与评价。并以生命周期清单为基础，对三种结构民宅的碳平衡和生态效率进行评估，试图发掘竹、木结构民宅的优势与不足，以期为政府制定相关政策提供决策依据。
在生命周期评价过程中，本文采取了一系列优化措施。依据国际标准ISO14044：2006，生命周期评价方法分为四个基本步骤：（1）目标与范围界定。研究目标界定为建立三种结构民宅的资源、能源和环境排放清单，完成三者的比较评价。由于竹结构民宅尚未推广使用，其废弃处置阶段无例可寻，因此本研究将评价范围界定为从资源采掘到主体结构建造完成的过程。为了剔除研究对象在功能面积上的差异和提高可比性，本研究的功能单位界定为1平方米民宅。（2）清单分析。清单分析是LCA方法最重要环节，主要在于数据采集和数据质量问题。依据生命周期评价国际惯例，本研究采取现场调研（重组竹、竹材层积材、竹材胶合板、砂石的生命周期清单数据）和文献数据（钢筋、水泥、木材层积材、OSB板、防腐木、混凝土多孔砖、电力、洁净煤、燃油、柴油和天然气的生产与燃烧）相结合的办法，对三种结构民宅的主要投入材料和半成品的生命周期清单进行整合，建立一个完整的生命周期清单数据库。（3）影响评价。该部分关键步骤是环境影响类型的划分、特征化过程的等效物以及归一化过程的权重选择。从清单数据构成来看，所涉及的环境影响类型包括：不可再生资源（ADP）、温室效应（GWP）、光化学影响潜力（POCP）、酸化影响（AP）、富营养化（EP）、水体污染（WTP）和人体毒性（HTP）。为了提高本研究结果的国内外可比性，等效物选择和归一化权重的选择都沿袭《生命周期评价国际标准操作手册》推荐的方法。（4）结果解释。对于三种结构民宅的生命周期评价结果，论文从主要污染物对环境影响类型贡献度大小以及主要污染物产生环节等角度进行论述。
在生命周期清单分析和评价结果的基础上，对三种结构民宅进行比较，我们得出如下结论：（1）以竹结构为基准，每平米木结构化石资源消耗量是竹结构的48.8%，砖混结构是竹结构的714.6%；（2）每平米木结构能源消耗是竹结构的51.7%，砖混结构是竹结构的322.2%；（3）每平米木结构环境总负荷是竹结构的70.6%，砖混结构是竹结构的696.8%；（4）从环境影响类型来看，三种结构民宅影响都较大的是ADP、GWP和AP，其中木结构是竹结构的49.3%、81.3%和76.7%，而砖混结构是竹结构的712.3%、418.8%和1333.3%倍。（5）从碳平衡角度来看，竹结构民宅以建筑材料形式封存的碳大于其碳排放，具有正的固碳功能，木结构固碳功能为负，而砖混结构不具有固碳功能。（6）从经济成本与生态成本之比来看，木结构民宅的生态效率最高，是竹结构的1.16倍，砖混结构是竹结构的0.15倍。
经过生命周期评价比较，可以得出，在资源、能源、环境排放和生态效率方面，竹结构民宅都优于砖混结构而劣于木结构民宅。究其原因主要有两点：（1）每平米竹结构民宅的基础混凝土用量是木结构的2.24倍，梁柱连接件用量是木结构的1.34倍。设计的差异导致材料用量悬殊，最终使得基于材料用量的能耗以及环境排放数据计算出现偏差。（2）竹结构现场调研取得的数据中，材料和能源消耗数据偏大，而污染物排放数据偏小。主观因素导致调研数据部分失真。
本论文获得了如下创新：（1）建立了竹结构、木结构和砖混结构民宅的生命周期清单数据库，其中竹结构清单在国内外尚未见报道，为我国生命周期清单数据库增添新的模块；（2）尝试把碳平衡和生态成本引入建筑生命周期评价，充分展现竹/木结构民宅的生态效率优势，吸引政府加大对竹/木结构民宅的支持力度，促进竹结构的规范化、产业化发展。
In the National Guideline on Medium-and Long-Term Program for Science andTechnology Development(2006-2020), green building,energy saving and consumptionreducing,biomass resources developing and utilizing have been listed as the key areas and theprior development subject. Use bamboo or wood to substitute conventional building materialsaccords with the strategy demands of China.
Howerever, there are still some doubts about bamboo/wood structure house:1, Shortage ofland resources makes the application and extension of bamboo/wood structure house impossible.2, As main forest resources, bamboo and wood itself can protect our environment, regulateclimate, retain soil and water, so built bamboo/wood house would also destroy our environment.3, Bamboo/wood must be produce and modify to become structure members, in these proceses,environment pollution and energy consumption still exist.4, The cost of bamboo/woodstructure house is high than the expection of ordinary people.
For the above reasons, our research restrict the use bondary of bamboo/wood structurehouse in rural areas, adopts the method of Life Cycle Assessment as the basic framework,analyzes the carbon balance and ecological efficiency of the three types of residentialhouses--the bamboo structure, wooden structure, and brick structure. We attempts to explorethe comparative advantages and shortcomings of the bamboo structure houses, in order toprovide a analytical support for the government to formulate relevant policies and decisionmaking. In the life cycle assessment process, this thesis has taken a series of analyticalmeasures in each of the following standard procedures: ISO14044.
(1) Goal and scope definition. The research objective is defined to establish an inventoryof the resources, energy and environmental emissions of three types of structures of houses, andconduct a comparative evaluation of the three. As a new phenomenon, the bamboo structurehousing has not been put into official practices，nor "a report as worthless" case of it can befound. In this circumstance, this study defines the scope of the evaluation as such, fromresource extraction to the construction process. In order to present the study differences in thefunctional area and to improve comparability, the functional units of this study is defined as onesquare meters of houses.
(2) Inventory analysis. The inventory analysis is the most important part of the LCAmethod, mainly due to data acquisition and data quality issues. In accordance with theinternational practice in the field of life cycle assessment, this study has taken the approach offield research (bamboo scrimber, bamboo laminated timber, bamboo plywood, gravel life cycleinventory data) and literature data (steel, cement, wood laminated timber, OSB board, wood preservative, concrete, porous brick, electricity, coal, fuel oil, diesel and natural gas productionand combustion), to integrate into a main input materials and semi-finished products inventoryof the three types of houses, and established a life cycle inventory database.
(3) Impact assessment. From the list of data, it involves the following types ofenvironmental impact: non-renewable resources (ADP), the greenhouse effect (GWP),photochemical consequences of potential (POCP), acidification (AP), eutrophication (EP),water pollution (WTP) and human toxicity (HTP). In order to improve the comparability of theresults, the equivalent material selection and the normalized weighting, have adopted therecommendation by the "manual of international standard of life cycle assessment".
(4) Interpretation. For the three types of houses, we interprete the LCA result from theangle of the main pollutants' contribution size in the environmental impact, as well as wherethey are generated.
Based on the comparative evaluation of life cycle inventory and evaluation of the threetypes of houses, we draw the following conclusions:(1) with bamboo structure as a benchmark,the consumption of fossil resources each square meter of wood structure is48.8%of that of thebamboo structure, while the brick-concrete structure consumes714.6%of that of bamboostructure;(2) the energy consumption per square meter of wooden structure accounts for51.7%of that of the bamboo structure, while the brick-concrete structure accounts for322.2%of that ofthe bamboo structure;(3) the total environmental load per square meter of wood structure is70.6%of that of the bamboo structure, while the brick structure accounts for696.8%of that ofthe bamboo structure;(4) in term of the types of environmental impact, the three structures ofhouses all demonstrate great impact in ADP, GWP and AP. The ratios of the impact of the ADP,GWP and AP of the wooden structure to the bamboo structure are respectively49.3%,81.3%and76.7percent; likewise, the ratios of the brick structure to the bamboo structure arerespectively712.3%.418.8%and1333.3%;(5) from the carbon balance point of view, thebamboo structure house demonstrates positive carbon balance because its carbon sequestrationin the building materials is greater than that of its carbon emissions, while the wood structurehouse shows negative carbon balance, and the brick-concrete structure does not have thefunction of carbon sequestration.(6) Regarding the ratio of economic costs to ecological cost,wooden structure house has the highest eco-efficiency, accounts for1.16times of that of thebamboo structure, and the brick structure accounts for0.15times of that of the bamboostructure.
After a comparative life cycle assessment, it can be drawn that the bamboo structure housesare better than brick structure in terms of resources, energy, environmental emissions andeco-efficiency, but not as good as the wooden structure houses. The major reasons are two:(1)the amount of foundation concrete usage of bamboo structure houses is2.24times of that of the wooden structures, and the usage of beams and columns that connect the pieces of bamboostructure is1.34times of that of the wooden structure;(2) in the survey data, materials andenergy consumption of the bamboo structure may be higher, and the emission data may be lowerthan reality.
The nature of the contribution of this thesis lies in twofold:(1) it established a life cycleinventory database for bamboo structure, wood structure and brick-concrete structure houses;especially, this is the first original work of such kind for the bamboo structure houses;(2) itintroduced carbon balance and eco-efficiency into the life cycle assessment of buildingmaterials.
引文
1Shweta Singh, Bhavik R. Bakshi,"Eco-LCA: A tool for quantifying the role of ecological resources in LCA," issst, pp.1,2009IEEE International Symposium on Sustainable Systems and Technology,2009。
2相关内容可参见网站http://resilience.eng.ohio-state.edu/eco-lca/。
1Odum, H. T., Environmental Accounting: Emergy and Environmental Decision Making, John Wiley,1996.
2Emergy或可利用能源的单位是Emjoule，使用“可利用能源”概念，太阳光、燃料、电力和人力服务都可置于相同的单位，用产生相似水平的太阳能来表达，缩写为seJ.
3边际预防成本是指使环境负荷回到可持续水平时的
1数据来源：2010和2011年《中国统计年鉴》，农村人口依据第五次（2000年）和第六次（2010年）普查人口数，80739万人和67415万人，2009年农村人口采取匀速递减法计算结果，定为68642万人。
1先进制造与自动化科学数据共享网：http://www.amadata.net.cn/sjgx_data/ysj_list.aspx?bsf=10502060000。
1中国电力年鉴编辑委员会，中国电力年鉴2010[M].北京：中国电力出版社，2010。
2资料来源于http://www.amadata.net.cn/sjgx_data/ysj_list.aspx?bsf=10502060000。
1先进制造与自动化科学数据共享网：http://www.amadata.net.cn/sjgx_data/ysj_list.aspx?bsf=10502060000。
1先进制造与自动化科学数据共享网：http://www.amadata.net.cn/sjgx_data/ysj_list.aspx?bsf=10502060000。
1参考宋景智等的《建筑工程概预算定额与工程量清单计价实例应用手册》，中国建筑工业出版社，2006.
1参考宋景智等的《建筑工程概预算定额与工程量清单计价实例应用手册》，中国建筑工业出版社，2006.
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1先进制造与自动化科学数据共享网：http://www.amadata.net.cn/sjgx_data/ysj_list.aspx?bsf=10502060000。
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2资料来源于http://www.amadata.net.cn/sjgx_data/ysj_list.aspx?bsf=10502060000。
1先进制造与自动化科学数据共享网：http://www.amadata.net.cn/sjgx_data/ysj_list.aspx?bsf=10502060000。
1先进制造与自动化科学数据共享网：http://www.amadata.net.cn/sjgx_data/ysj_list.aspx?bsf=10502060000。
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