跨文化视角下的晚清留英学生研究
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摘要
晚清时期中国面临着巨大的民族危机,留学教育被视为现代中国兴起的重要路径。本论文以晚清时期留学英国学生为研究对象,从历史层面研究晚清时期留学英国的主要群体在英国的经历及其归国后对中国社会转型做出的贡献,同时以跨文化视角剖析其对中国现代化发展影响的文化层面因素。
本文首先借助历史资料对晚清时期留学情况进行了研究分析。晚清时期是近代中国寻求现代化和发展的时期,晚清留学也经历了一系列的变化。留学组织者从个人转变为政府；在对待留学的态度上,从普遍抗拒到大众一致推崇,留学行动也从零星的个人行为演变为政府致力推行的国家政策,留学的目标国也从西方的欧美诸国辐射到东方的日本。
本文在晚清留学的大背景之下,着重研究留学英国情况。晚清留英生虽然在规模和数量上均不如留美和留日学生,但起步较早,而且质量也较高,其最主要的群体为同文馆学生和海军留英生。清政府先后共派出四批同文馆学生到英国留学。同文馆学生回国后主要服务于教育界及外交界,促进了中国外交、翻译和教育事业的发展。海军留英学生在甲午战争前共派遣过三期,在英国学习驾驶、制造等海军亟需人才；甲午战争后留英的海军学生所学专业更为多样化。海军留英生带着新思想和技术回到国内,冲击了当时统治集团和腐朽落后的顽固思想,对晚清时期社会的发展发挥了重要作用。同时,本论文对海军留英生中最重要的代表人物严复进行了个案研究。严复早期接受的教育是中国的传统教育。其后虽然以船政生身份在英国留学,但接触了大量的西方哲学与文化。回国后在传统官场屡遭挫折,转而致力于翻译并传播西学。严复认为中国与英国的差距,并非是技术,关键在于制度和文化的不同。中国人认识到中华民族深重危机的根源不仅在于声光电化、船坚利炮不如西方,更在于中国腐朽的政治制度,从而领悟到中国当“自强向上,奋发争存”方能摆脱危机。这与严复深入传播西学的功绩密不可分。此外,本文对晚清时期留学英国、美国、日本做了对比研究,分析赴不同国家留学人员的特点；同时通过研究清政府及日本政府留英学生的派遣的情况,分析研究为何晚清时期留英教育没有像日本留学教育一样为国家带来翻天覆地的变化。
对于晚清留英教育,从历史的角度已经有了比较系统的研究,因此本论文在结论部分重点从跨文化视角分析其对中国现代化发展所作贡献的文化因素。
从跨文化视角来看,本文认为无论是文化相对主义还是文化绝对主义,都不能成为中国实现民族复兴可以选择的路径。而文化交流主义,承认了不同文化之间的交流不仅必要而且可能。跨文化实际上就是跨越了不同国家、地区与民族界线的文化,是认同不同民族、国家及群体之间的文化共性与差异,是通过超越历史文化背景的人与人之间的互动和交流关系。而留学则是跨文化交流、学习极为重要的途径。
晚清留英教育在一定程度上促进了中国的发展,但没有彻底改变中国。不仅是留英学生,留学其他国家的学生面临着同样的问题。同日本相比,中国几乎是同时处于一个起跑线上,同时派出留学生,但晚清留学教育未能像日本留学那样给国家带来彻底的改变。这反映了留学教育在晚清时期所面临的有利及不利的因素。晚清留学教育的发展源于当时中国内忧外患的国情,留学生肩负着救亡图存的使命,他们从国外带回来的先进的技术与思想无疑为中国的发展起到了推动作用。但由于保守势力的强大,根深蒂固的传统阻碍了跨文化交流的发展。此外,人类社会的发展本身就是文化的发展,由于文化层次的制度变迁困难而且漫长；相较于其他国家和民族,中国文化的变迁更加困难和漫长。即便那些系统接受过西方教育留学归来的严复、辜鸿铭等人仍然囿于传统文化的束缚,更不用说普通大众了。
随着中国对外开放的扩大以及全球化的发展,中国人留学海外的规模和数量也达到了前所未有的程度。在这一背景下,从跨文化视角对晚清留学英国加以研究,有助于了解中西文化的差异,发挥留学教育在文化交流中的重要作用；有助于当代留学生继续承担起西学东渐及东学西渐的双重角色,在中国民族复兴的过程中发挥积极作用。
China in late-Qing Dynasty was faced with huge national crisis, and overseas education was regarded as a necessary way for the rise of China. This thesis probes into late-Qing British-educated students. It examines the main groups studying in the United Kingdom and their contributions to China from historical point of view. Moreover, it analyzes the cultural factors behind the experiences and contributions ofthe British-educated graduates from cross-cultural perspectives.
This thesis firstly studies the overseas education in late Qing by means of historical archives. Chinese history in late Qing period is a history of seeking a path to modernization and development, and its overseas education underwent changes in various aspects as well. It changed from individual behavior to national policy to organize studying abroad. Studying abroad as something new was firstly rejected but later highly admired by common populace. The target countries of overseas education spread from western European countries and the United States to the eastern country of Japan.
This thesis focuses on a cross-cultural study of late-Qing British education. Although the number of less late-Qing students studying in the UK was smaller than that in the US and Japan, studying in the UK started earlier and the quality of students was much better. The two main groups studying in the UK were students from Tongwen Guan and the naval students. The Qing Imperial dispatched four groups of Tongwen Guan students to study in the UK. After they returned, these students mainly served in the educational and diplomatic departments and promoted the development in translation, diplomacy and education. As for the naval students, three groups were sent to the UK before the Sino-Japanese war, studying ship-driving and manufacturing that were urgently needed in the Chinese navy. After the Sino-Japanese war, the naval students in the UK studied a wider range of disciplines. The British-educated naval graduates came back with new thought and technology, greatly influencing the ruling class at that time and their stubborn ideology. Besides, this thesis does individual case study into Yen Fu, the most outstanding character of the naval students. Yen Fu received traditional Chinese education in his early childhood. During his stay in the UK, although he was a naval student, he read a lot of works on Western philosophy and culture. After he came back, he was frustrated by the repeated failures in the traditional officialdom. Therefore he turned to the translation and introduction of Western Culture. He realized that the gap between China and the UK lay not in technology, but in system and culture. It was because of Yen Fu's introduction of Western learning into China that Chinese realized that Chinese national crisis came from the rotten political system instead of the backwardness in science and military. Thus it was deeply rooted in the Chinese people's mind that China should independently strive in order to be strong and get rid of the national crisis. In addition, this thesis views late-Qing overseas education from comparative perspectives. It makes an all-round comparison between Chinese students in the UK, Japan and the United States during the late Qing dynasty, to highlight the distinctive features of those who studied in the UK. It also makes a comparison of overseas education between Modern Japan and China and explores the different results of overseas education in the two countries.
Since there have been systematic studies on late-Qing overseas education in the UK in the discipline of historical studies, this thesis will employ cross-cultural perspectives to analyze the cultural factors in the movement of late Qing overseas studies.
From cross-cultural perspectives, this thesis points out that neither the Cultural Relativism nor the Cultural Absolutism can be the possible path for China to realize National Rejuvenation. The Cultural Communicationism recognizes the necessity and possibility of cultural communication. In a broader sense, cross-culture communication is also the process of crossing the boundaries of different countries, regions and peoples. It shows both their cultural convergence and divergence and helps overcome the obstacles for effective communications. Studying abroad provides a chance for people to have cross-cultural interactions and communications that can help the development of their own countries.
Late-Qing overseas education in the UK promoted the development in China in a certain degree, but it failed to fulfil the goal of modernizing China. It was true to the overseas education in all the target countries. Besides, China started to dispatch students to study abroad almost at the same time as Japan, but it didn't bring the same change to the nation as that in Japan. This is a reflection of the favorable and unfavorable conditions of the cross-cultural communications. Late-Qing overseas education was initiated by the difficult social situations when China was facing national crisis. The students were undertaking the responsibility of saving the nation when they studied abroad. The advanced technology and ideas that they brought back were greatly needed. However, the strong conservative forces hindered the culture communications. Moreover, the culture development is in fact the human development, but the evolution of institution on the level of culture is difficult and long. Compared with other countries, the cultural changes in China can be even more difficult and longer. Even those people like Yen Fu and Ku Hweng-Ming who had received Western education were still under the constraint of traditional Chinese culture, let alone common populace.
When China keeps on opening to the world in this globalized era, the number of Chinese people studying abroad is increasing unprecedentedly. Under this circumstance, a study on the British-educated late-Qing students from cross-cultural perspectives can help people understand the divergence in Chinese and Western cultures, enhance the significance of overseas education in cultural communications. More importantly, it will help contemporary Western-educated Chinese students to better undertake their responsibilities in the National Rejuvenation.
本文首先借助历史资料对晚清时期留学情况进行了研究分析。晚清时期是近代中国寻求现代化和发展的时期,晚清留学也经历了一系列的变化。留学组织者从个人转变为政府；在对待留学的态度上,从普遍抗拒到大众一致推崇,留学行动也从零星的个人行为演变为政府致力推行的国家政策,留学的目标国也从西方的欧美诸国辐射到东方的日本。
本文在晚清留学的大背景之下,着重研究留学英国情况。晚清留英生虽然在规模和数量上均不如留美和留日学生,但起步较早,而且质量也较高,其最主要的群体为同文馆学生和海军留英生。清政府先后共派出四批同文馆学生到英国留学。同文馆学生回国后主要服务于教育界及外交界,促进了中国外交、翻译和教育事业的发展。海军留英学生在甲午战争前共派遣过三期,在英国学习驾驶、制造等海军亟需人才；甲午战争后留英的海军学生所学专业更为多样化。海军留英生带着新思想和技术回到国内,冲击了当时统治集团和腐朽落后的顽固思想,对晚清时期社会的发展发挥了重要作用。同时,本论文对海军留英生中最重要的代表人物严复进行了个案研究。严复早期接受的教育是中国的传统教育。其后虽然以船政生身份在英国留学,但接触了大量的西方哲学与文化。回国后在传统官场屡遭挫折,转而致力于翻译并传播西学。严复认为中国与英国的差距,并非是技术,关键在于制度和文化的不同。中国人认识到中华民族深重危机的根源不仅在于声光电化、船坚利炮不如西方,更在于中国腐朽的政治制度,从而领悟到中国当“自强向上,奋发争存”方能摆脱危机。这与严复深入传播西学的功绩密不可分。此外,本文对晚清时期留学英国、美国、日本做了对比研究,分析赴不同国家留学人员的特点；同时通过研究清政府及日本政府留英学生的派遣的情况,分析研究为何晚清时期留英教育没有像日本留学教育一样为国家带来翻天覆地的变化。
对于晚清留英教育,从历史的角度已经有了比较系统的研究,因此本论文在结论部分重点从跨文化视角分析其对中国现代化发展所作贡献的文化因素。
从跨文化视角来看,本文认为无论是文化相对主义还是文化绝对主义,都不能成为中国实现民族复兴可以选择的路径。而文化交流主义,承认了不同文化之间的交流不仅必要而且可能。跨文化实际上就是跨越了不同国家、地区与民族界线的文化,是认同不同民族、国家及群体之间的文化共性与差异,是通过超越历史文化背景的人与人之间的互动和交流关系。而留学则是跨文化交流、学习极为重要的途径。
晚清留英教育在一定程度上促进了中国的发展,但没有彻底改变中国。不仅是留英学生,留学其他国家的学生面临着同样的问题。同日本相比,中国几乎是同时处于一个起跑线上,同时派出留学生,但晚清留学教育未能像日本留学那样给国家带来彻底的改变。这反映了留学教育在晚清时期所面临的有利及不利的因素。晚清留学教育的发展源于当时中国内忧外患的国情,留学生肩负着救亡图存的使命,他们从国外带回来的先进的技术与思想无疑为中国的发展起到了推动作用。但由于保守势力的强大,根深蒂固的传统阻碍了跨文化交流的发展。此外,人类社会的发展本身就是文化的发展,由于文化层次的制度变迁困难而且漫长；相较于其他国家和民族,中国文化的变迁更加困难和漫长。即便那些系统接受过西方教育留学归来的严复、辜鸿铭等人仍然囿于传统文化的束缚,更不用说普通大众了。
随着中国对外开放的扩大以及全球化的发展,中国人留学海外的规模和数量也达到了前所未有的程度。在这一背景下,从跨文化视角对晚清留学英国加以研究,有助于了解中西文化的差异,发挥留学教育在文化交流中的重要作用；有助于当代留学生继续承担起西学东渐及东学西渐的双重角色,在中国民族复兴的过程中发挥积极作用。
China in late-Qing Dynasty was faced with huge national crisis, and overseas education was regarded as a necessary way for the rise of China. This thesis probes into late-Qing British-educated students. It examines the main groups studying in the United Kingdom and their contributions to China from historical point of view. Moreover, it analyzes the cultural factors behind the experiences and contributions ofthe British-educated graduates from cross-cultural perspectives.
This thesis firstly studies the overseas education in late Qing by means of historical archives. Chinese history in late Qing period is a history of seeking a path to modernization and development, and its overseas education underwent changes in various aspects as well. It changed from individual behavior to national policy to organize studying abroad. Studying abroad as something new was firstly rejected but later highly admired by common populace. The target countries of overseas education spread from western European countries and the United States to the eastern country of Japan.
This thesis focuses on a cross-cultural study of late-Qing British education. Although the number of less late-Qing students studying in the UK was smaller than that in the US and Japan, studying in the UK started earlier and the quality of students was much better. The two main groups studying in the UK were students from Tongwen Guan and the naval students. The Qing Imperial dispatched four groups of Tongwen Guan students to study in the UK. After they returned, these students mainly served in the educational and diplomatic departments and promoted the development in translation, diplomacy and education. As for the naval students, three groups were sent to the UK before the Sino-Japanese war, studying ship-driving and manufacturing that were urgently needed in the Chinese navy. After the Sino-Japanese war, the naval students in the UK studied a wider range of disciplines. The British-educated naval graduates came back with new thought and technology, greatly influencing the ruling class at that time and their stubborn ideology. Besides, this thesis does individual case study into Yen Fu, the most outstanding character of the naval students. Yen Fu received traditional Chinese education in his early childhood. During his stay in the UK, although he was a naval student, he read a lot of works on Western philosophy and culture. After he came back, he was frustrated by the repeated failures in the traditional officialdom. Therefore he turned to the translation and introduction of Western Culture. He realized that the gap between China and the UK lay not in technology, but in system and culture. It was because of Yen Fu's introduction of Western learning into China that Chinese realized that Chinese national crisis came from the rotten political system instead of the backwardness in science and military. Thus it was deeply rooted in the Chinese people's mind that China should independently strive in order to be strong and get rid of the national crisis. In addition, this thesis views late-Qing overseas education from comparative perspectives. It makes an all-round comparison between Chinese students in the UK, Japan and the United States during the late Qing dynasty, to highlight the distinctive features of those who studied in the UK. It also makes a comparison of overseas education between Modern Japan and China and explores the different results of overseas education in the two countries.
Since there have been systematic studies on late-Qing overseas education in the UK in the discipline of historical studies, this thesis will employ cross-cultural perspectives to analyze the cultural factors in the movement of late Qing overseas studies.
From cross-cultural perspectives, this thesis points out that neither the Cultural Relativism nor the Cultural Absolutism can be the possible path for China to realize National Rejuvenation. The Cultural Communicationism recognizes the necessity and possibility of cultural communication. In a broader sense, cross-culture communication is also the process of crossing the boundaries of different countries, regions and peoples. It shows both their cultural convergence and divergence and helps overcome the obstacles for effective communications. Studying abroad provides a chance for people to have cross-cultural interactions and communications that can help the development of their own countries.
Late-Qing overseas education in the UK promoted the development in China in a certain degree, but it failed to fulfil the goal of modernizing China. It was true to the overseas education in all the target countries. Besides, China started to dispatch students to study abroad almost at the same time as Japan, but it didn't bring the same change to the nation as that in Japan. This is a reflection of the favorable and unfavorable conditions of the cross-cultural communications. Late-Qing overseas education was initiated by the difficult social situations when China was facing national crisis. The students were undertaking the responsibility of saving the nation when they studied abroad. The advanced technology and ideas that they brought back were greatly needed. However, the strong conservative forces hindered the culture communications. Moreover, the culture development is in fact the human development, but the evolution of institution on the level of culture is difficult and long. Compared with other countries, the cultural changes in China can be even more difficult and longer. Even those people like Yen Fu and Ku Hweng-Ming who had received Western education were still under the constraint of traditional Chinese culture, let alone common populace.
When China keeps on opening to the world in this globalized era, the number of Chinese people studying abroad is increasing unprecedentedly. Under this circumstance, a study on the British-educated late-Qing students from cross-cultural perspectives can help people understand the divergence in Chinese and Western cultures, enhance the significance of overseas education in cultural communications. More importantly, it will help contemporary Western-educated Chinese students to better undertake their responsibilities in the National Rejuvenation.
引文
1 Ye Jun, "Further Study on Significance of Cultural History and Function of British Thoughts for British-educated Chinese Students". China Book Review. No.6. 2007. p.10.
2 The name of Yen Fu (严复) is spelled in Wade-Giles System instead of Pinyin. Some of other famous people in this thesis are spelled in this system and will be provided with their Chinese names in the first appearance. Most names are in Pinyin.
'Remarks by the First Lady at Stanford Center at Peking University, Mar. 22, 2014.
1 Benjamin Schwartg, In Search of Wealth & Power: Yen Fu and the West, Harvard University Press, 1983, pp.11-12.
1 https://www.tamu.edu/faculty/choudhury/culture.html, last accessed on 21 March 2014.
2 Remarks by the First Lady at Stanford Center at Peking University, 22 March 2014.
1Sun Youzhong. "On Cultural Communicationism". Journal of Renmin University of China. No.6. 2007. p.13.
2Williamson, O. E., "The New Institutional Economics: Taking Stock, Looking Ahead", Journal of Economic Literature,2000, Vol.38, pp.595-613.
3Ye Jun, "Further Study on Significance of Cultural History and Function of British Thoughts for British-educated Chinese Students", China Book Review, No. 6, 2007, p.44.
1 Wei Yuan, On the Grand Army (vol.12), Zhonghua Book Company, 1984, p.499.
2 Edited by China Institute of History: the Opium War V, Shanghai People's Publishing House, 1957, p.529.
1 Xu Qiheng, Li Ximi, Zhan Tianyou and Chinese Railway, Shanghai People's Publishing House, 1957, p.8.
1 Yung Wing, My Life in China and America, Transcribed by Cassandra Bates. 2006, Originally Published by New York Henry Holt Company. 1901, p.58.
2 Li Xisuo, Liu Jilin, Education in America for Modern Chinese, Tianjin Publishing House of Ancient Books, 2000, p.16.
1 Du Chunhe, "A Selection of Hu Shih's Letters to His Family", Historical Research in Anhui, No.1,1989, p.75.
1 Shu hsinch'eng. The History of Modern Chinese to Study Abroad, Chung Hwa Book Co.,1929, p.2.
2 Yan Phou Lee, When I was a Boy in China, D. Lothrop Company, 1887, p.93.
1 Liu Zhongguo, Huang Xiaodong, Yung Wing-the Pioneer of Chinese to Study Abroad, Guangdong People's Publishing House, 2005, p.117.
1 Li Xisuo, Modern Chinese Students Studying in Foreign Countries, People's Publishing House. 1987, p.78.
2 Xie Changfa, the Education History of Chinese Students Studying Abroad, Shanxi Education Press, 2006. pp.14-15.
1 Wang Qisheng, Historical Traces of Chinese Students Studying Abroad, Hubei Education Press. 1992, p.52.
1 Edited by Ming Qing Archives of National Archives, Historical Files on Hundred Days'Reform. Zhonghua Book Company, 1958, p.13.
1 History Department of Fudan University, Selected Documents on Modern Chinese Foreign Relations (Vol. I), Shanghai People's Publishing House, 1977, pp.255-256.
1 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Morrison_(missionary), last accessed on 16 March 2014.
1 Yung Wing, My Life in China and America, Transcribed by Cassandra Bates, 2006, Originally Published by New York Henry Holt Company, 1901, p.18.
2 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tongwen_Guan. last accessed on 23 March, 2014.
1 Tsung-li Ya-men(总理衙门)was the government body in charge of foreign affairs in imperial China during the late Qing dynasty. It was established by Prince Gong (Prince Kong) in 1861. following the Convention of Peking. It was abolished in 1901 and replaced with a Foreign Office of ministry rank. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zongli Yamen). last access on 22March 2014
2 Liu Xiaoqin, "Tongwen Guan and the Education of Studying Abroad in United Kingdom in late Qing Dynasty", Journal of Historical Science, No. 8. 2004, p47.
3 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tongwen_Guan, last accessed on 23 March. 2014.
1 Chen Xiangyang, A Study on the Organization of Tongwen Guan in Late Qing Dynasty Guangdong Higher Education Press, 2004, p.209.
1 The Whole Story of Preparation for Foreign Affairs (Tongzhi Reign), Vol. 39, pp. 1-2. Quoted in: Chen Xuexun. Tian Zhcngping. Material Collections of Modern Chinese Educational History-Section of Studying Abroad, Shanghai Century Publishing Company Limited, 2007. p.5.
2 Ibid.. p.5.
3 Ibid,, p.5.
4 [Qing] Zhang Deyi, The Collection of Anecdotes in Navigation Manuscripts (Book One), Beijing Library Press. 1996, p.31.
5 Written by Ding Weiliang, edited and translated by Fu Rengan, Biography of Tongwen Guan. Please refer to Appendix to Chinese Published History Materials, Zhang Jinglu, Appendix to Published Historical Material in China. Zhonghua Book Company, 1957, p.9.
6 [Qing] Zhang Deyi,The Collection of Anecdotes in Navigation Manuscripts (Book One), Beijing Library Press, 1996, p.31.
1 Binchun, Diaries on the Ship, Hunan People's Publishing House, 1981, pp.1-2.
2 The Whole Story of Preparation for Foreign Affairs (Tongzhi Reign), Vol. 39, pp.1-2. Quoted in: Chen Xuexun, Tian Zhengping, Material Collections of Modern Chinese Educational History-Section of Studying Abroad, Shanghai Century Publishing Company Limited, 2007, p.5.
3Binchun, Diaries on Ship, Hunan People's Publishing House, 1981, p.27.
1 Ibid., p.28.
2 Zhang Deyi, Anecdotes on the Sea, Hunan People's Publishing House, 1981, p.77.
3 Ibid., p.81.
1 Ibid., p.41.
2 Qian Shifu, Foreign Affairs Office of Qing Dynasty, Joint Publishing, 1959, p.236.
1 Under the Imperial Order of March the 15th Year of Guangxu (1879), Compiled by Gao Shiliang, Material Collections of Modern Chinese Educational History-Education in Modernization Movement, Shanghai Education Press,2007, p.101.
1 Knight Biggerstaff, translated by Zeng Jusheng, The Earliest Modern Government Schools in China, Hangzhou University Press, 1993, p.205.
1 Kuo Sung-t'ao, The Journal of Kuo Sung-t'ao, Vol.3,Hunan People's Publishing House, 1982, p.496.
2 Checked and punctuated by Yu Yueheng, Posthumous Works of Zeng Jize. Yuelu Press, 1983. p.85.
3 Chen Xuexun, the chief editor, Teaching Reference Material of Modern Chinese Educational History, Vol 1, People's Education Press(lst Edition), 1986, p.686.
1 Zhu Youxian, Wang Xian, Historical Material of Modern China Educational System, Vol.1, East China Normal University Publishing House, 1983.p.144.
1 Li Tao, Chief Editor, A Historical Memoir of the Education of Studying Abroad in China(1840-1949), Higher Education Press, 2005.p.63.
2 Ibid., p.7.
3 Ibid., p.8.
1 Excerpted from:Liu Xiaoqing, Educational History of Studying in the UK in Modern China, Nan Kai University Publishing House, 2005, p.53.
1 The First Historical Archive: Files of Ministry of Agriculture, Industry & Commerce Department of Supplementary Operation School. File No. 249, a Business Letter from Zhang (Deyi), the Chinese Minister to the UK, to the Ministry of Commerce, the 19th day of June in the 31th year Guang Xu. Excerpt From: Liu Xiaoqin, Educational History of Studying in the UK in Modern China. Nan Kai University Publishing House, 2005, p.67.
1 Edited by school history research office of Peking University, History Material of Peking University, Vol.1 (1898-1911), Peking University Press, 1993, p.442.
2 [New Zealand]John Rowland, translated by Jiang Bingxin, Ernest Rutherford-An Outstanding Nuclear Physics, Beijing, Atomic Energy Press, 1978, pp.51-53.
1 Westernization Movement Volume 5, Chiefly edited by Association of Chinese Historians; edited by Historical Material Editorial Office of Modern History Institute of Chinese Academy of Sciences and Editting Group of Ming-Qing Archives Department of State Archives Administration, Shanghai People's Publishing House, 1961, p.449.
1 Chen Xuexun & Tian Zhengping, Compilation of Modern Chinese Education History, Shanghai Educational Publishing House, 1991, p.225.
1 Gu Tinglong and Dai Yi, chief editors, Complete Works of Li Hungchang, the 7thPart of Memorial to the Throne, Anhui Education Press,2008,p.259.
2 Ibid., p.259.
1 Li Tao,ed.,Chinese Educational History of Studying Abroad 1840-1949, Higher Education Press, 2005,p.53.
2 Ibid., p.55.
1 Chen Xue\un. the chief editor. Teaching Reference Material of Modern Chinese Educational History. Vol1. People's Education Press (1st Edition),1986, pp. 162-163.
2 Westernization Movement, Vol.5,chiefly edited by Association of Chinese Historians, edited by Historical Material Editorial Office of Modern History Institute of Chinese Academy of Sciences and Editing Group of Ming-Qing Archives Department of State Archives Administration, Shanghai People's Publishing House, 1961, p.234.
1 Wang Jiajian, Li Hungchang and Beiyang Fleet: What Can Be Learnt from the Failure of the Establishment of Modern Chinese Navy, Joint Publishing, 2008, p.216.
2 Ibid., p.216.
1 Ibid., pp.217-220.
2 Zhang Zuoxing, main editor, Study of Marine Culture: Collated Marine Memorials to Emperors, Haichao Photography Art Publishing House, 2006, p.472.
1 Compiled by Shanghai Commercial Press:The Punctuated Version of New Laws of Qing Dynasty (1901-1911) vol. 1. The Commercial Press, 2010, p.17.
2 Li Tao, Chief Editor, A Historical Memoir of the Education of Studying Abroad in China(1840-1949),Higher Education Press, 2005,p. 67.
1 Complete Works of Zhang Zhidong, Hebei People's Publishing House, 1998, p.2007.
2 Wang Wei, editor and proof-reader. (A Memoir of Qing Dynasty) The Compilation of Historical Material on Imperial Examinations. Wuhan University Press, 2009, p.1104.
3 Zhang Xia, Yang Zhiben, etc., Historical Materials of Navy in the Late Qing Dynasty, Vol.1, China Ocean Press, 1982,p.416.
4 The editorial team modern of history data of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences and Institute of Modern History, No.61 of Modern History Data, China Social Science Press, 1986,p.111.
5 Negotiation Abstract in Bing Wu (the 32nd) Year, Guang Xu Reign [z], Chapter of Overseas Study, Vol. 3,Gravure,Taibei:Wen Hai Press,1976.
1 The editorial team modern of history data of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences and Institute of Modern History. No. 61 of Modern History Data, China Social Science Press, 1986.p.111.
2 Ibid., p.115.
3 Ibid., p.117.
4 Xu Bingxian, The Whole History of Yantai Naval College, Historical Records of the Navy of Republic of China, Ocean Press, 1987, p. 917.
1 Xue Fucheng: Journals as an Envoy in the Four Countries, Social Sciences Academic Press, 2007, pp. 155-156.
2 Kuo Sung-t'ao, Diary of Kuo Sung-t'ao, Vol.3 (Guangxu Reign, Vol. 1), Hunan People's Publishing House, 1982, p.406.
1 Ibid., pp.406-407.
2 Li Hongzhang, Complete Works of Li Wenzhong · Letters and Documents of Navy (Vol.1),The Commercial Press,192], p.1.
1 Kuo Sung-t'ao,Diary ofKuo Sung-t'ao, Vol.3 (Guangxu reign:Vol. 1), Hunan People's Publishing House. 1982,pp.721-722.
2 Xue Fucheng, Journals as an Envoy in the Four Countries, Social Sciences Academic Press, 2007,pp. 156-157.
1 Complete Works of Sir Li Wenzhong · Reports,Taipei:Taiwan Wenhai Press,Vol.24, 1974, p.26.
1 Ibid., p.15.
2 Ibid., p.17.
1 Report from Shen Shoukun, Selected Works of Sheng Xuanhuai's Archive(ii), Vol.Ⅲ, Shanghai People's Publishing House. 1982. p.403.
2 Xiting, The Sketch Book of Navy in the Late Qing Dynasty(extract). the Continuation of Chinese Modern History Materials · the Chinese-Japanese War of 1894-1895, Vol.Ⅵ,Zhonghua Book Company, 1993,p.22.
3 R.L. Powell, The Rise of Chinese Military Strength 1895-1912, translated by Chen Zexian. Chen Xiafei, China Social Science Press, 1979, p. 42.
1 Zhu Youhuan, China's Modern Schooling Historical Materials, Book One I, East China Normal University Press, 1983, p.390.
2 Edited by Wu Jiezhang, Su Xiaodong, Cheng Zhifa. Naval History of Modern China, Chinese People's Liberation Army Publishing House, 1989, p.47.
1 Edited by the History Materials Edit Office of Modern History Institution of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Westernization Movement (series of books),Volume V, Shanghai People's Publishing House, 1961, p.138.
2 Ibid.,p.110.
1 A successful candidate in the imperial examinations at the provincial level in the Ming and Oing dynasties
2 Yan Tingyun, The Life of My Grandfather Yen Fu, Edited by Yen Fu Research Collection in Fujian province, Collected Papers of Yen Fu International Academic Seminars of 1993, Hai Xia Literature and Art Press, 1995, p.5.
3 Wang Quchang, AChronicle of Yen Jidao, Commercial Press. 1936, p.3.
1 Luo Yaojiu, The New Writing of Yen Fu Chronicle, LuJiang Press, 2004, p.14.
2 Westernization Movement Volume 5. chiefly edited by Association of Chinese Historians; edited by Historical Material Editorial Office of Modem History Institute of Chinese Academy of Sciences and Editing Group of Ming-Qing Archives Department of State Archives Administration, Shanghai People's Publishing House, 1961, p.24.
3 Ibid., p.449.
1 Ibid.,p.25.
2 Ibid.,p.55.
1 Yen Fu, Navy Memorabilia, From China's Modern History Review (Book one, Vol.6)The first Sino-Japanese War, Compiled by Bao Zunpeng and WuXiangxiang,ZhengZhong Press, 1957, p.1.
1 Kuo Sung-t'ao, Journal in London and Paris, Yuelu Press. 1984, p.535.
2 In the Chronicle of Yen Fu's Life (Fuzhou: Fujian People's Publishing House. 2003). which is newly published. Sun Yingxiang deemed that Yen Fu started to serve as the chief teaching director of Tianjin Beiyang Naval College on August 27th. 1880, when he reported for duty. Yan's position referred between 1881 and 1888 was called as "chief teaching director of Tianjin Beiyang Naval College'. See also Biography of YenFu, written by Pi Houfeng, Fuzhou: Fujian People's Publishing House, 2003, p.67.
3 Jiang Ming, The fleet with Dragon Flags waving- the Rise and Fall of the Modern Chinese Navy (revised edition), Beijing: Sanlian Press, 2002, pp.148&162.
1 Ma Zivi, "Chief Teaching Director" or "Foreign Language Teacher in Charge"-Several Textual Research on the Historical Facts about Yen Fu's Position in Tianjin Beivang Naval College", Historical Research. No.2. 2004. p.73.
2 Jiang Ming. The Reproof of the Historical Facts of Yen Fu Taking Office in Tianjin Navy Academy,Historical Research. No.3,2008, p.164.
3 Report to Li Hungchang by Pan Junde et al. from Machine Department. Beiyang Chronicle,Vol.X:Naval College.
4 Port to Minister Li of Beiyang by Wu Zhongxiang from Beiyang Naval College on March 23,8th Year of Guangxu Reign,Beiyang Chronicle, Vol.Ⅹ: Naval College.
1 Detailed Report to Minister Li of Beigang by Wu Zhongxiang and Luo Fenglu from Beiyang Naval College on Sep. 22, 10th Year of Guangxu Reign, Beiyang Chronicle, Vol.Ⅹ:Naval College.
2 Li Hungchang,Complete Works of Li Wenzhong·Letters and Documents, The Commercial Press, 1921, Vol.52, p.7.
3 Detailed Report to Minister Li of Beiyang by Lu Yaodou, Shen Baojing and Luo Fenglu of the Beiyang Naval College on Oct. 29 of the 13th Year of Guangxu Reign, Beiyang Chronicles, Volume X:the Naval College.
1 Complete Records of Curriculum Vitae Documents of Officers in Qing Dynasty, Guangdong Normal University Publishing! House. Vol.6. 1997. p.486.
2 Wang Shi, Yen Fu Anthology, Vol.5, Zhonghua Book Company,1986, p.1547.
3 Complete Records of Curriculum Vitae Documents of Officers in Oing Dynasty; Guangdong Normal University Publishing House, 1997. Vol.6, p.486.
4 Yan Xiaoqian, A Newly Found Letter of Yen Fu, Today's Evening News, Apr. 25th, 2005. p.21.
1 Complete Records of Curriculum Vitae Documents of Officers in Qing Dynasty, Guangdong Normal University Publishing House. 1997. p.486.
2 Li Hungchang, Complete Works of Li Wenzhong · Letters and Documents (Vol.52), The Commercial Press.1921, p.7.
3 Quoted from:Jiang Ming: Reproof of the Historical Facts that Yen Fu Taking Office of the Tianjin Navy Academy. Historical Research. No.3,2008, pp.164-179.
4 Ibid.
1 Quote from a secondary source: Jiangming. Reconfirm of the Historical Facts of Yen Fu's Position in Tianjin Navy School, History Research. No. 3.2008.
2 Successive Graduate List of Navy Schools. Zhang Xia et al. Navy Historical at the End of the Oing Dynasty, pp 440-442, Beijing:Ocean Press, 1982. By: according to Successive Graduate List of Navy Schools, the number of the announced successive graduates from Tianjin Navy Academy was 120. while the book also wrote that the number of all the six terms of graduates was 125.
1 Zhang Xia, ed., Documentary to All School Staff and Students about Provincial Examination from Li Hungchang. A History of Navy of the Late Qing Dynasty, Oceanic Publishing House, pp.397-398.
1 Wang Shi, Yen Fu Anthology, Zhonghua Book Company, Vol.1,1986, p.2.
1 Kuo Sung-t'ao's Letter to ZengGuofan, Letters of Famous People in Taofeng Mansion, Book 5. Quoted from:Sang Bing, School Students and Social Changes in Late Qing Dynasty, Guangxi Normal University Press, 2007, p.31.
2 GuoSongtao, GuoSongtao's Diaries, Volume Ⅲ, Changsha: Hunan People's Publishing House, 1982, p.814.
3 Ibid., p.137.
4Ibid., p.548.
1 Report Essays of Kuo Sung-t'ao, Kuo Sung-t'ao, Yuelu Press, 1983. pp.346-347.
2 Ibid., p.345.
3 Kuo Sung-t'ao, The Diary of Kuo Sung-t'ao, Volume Ⅲ, Hunan People's Publishing House, 1982,p.137.
4 Poetry of Kuo Sung-t'ao, Kuo Sung-t'ao, Yuelu Press, 1984, p.553.
1 Wang Shi, ed., Yen Fu Anthology,Book I, Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1986, p.1.
2 Ibid., p.117.
3 Wang Shi, ed., Yen Fu Anthology, Book Ⅰ, Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1986,p.3.
2 Liu Mengxi, Chinese Modern Academic Classics, Volume Yen Fu.Preface, Hebei Education Press, 1996,p.55.
1 Wang Shi, ed.. Yen Fu Anthology, Book Ⅰ, Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company. 1986, p.780.
2 Ibid., p.525.
3 Ibid., pp.525-526.
1 Revised Draft of The Original Strength from Yen Fu Anthology, Vol.1, Zhonghua Book Company, 1986. p.16.
2 Ibid., p.16.
1 Liang Qichao, Collected Works of Liang Qichao. Beijing Yanshan Press, 1997, p.689.
2 Ibid., p693.
3Kang Youwei, Anthology ofKang Youwei, Vol.5, Renmin University Publishing House, 2007, p.314.
1 Lu Xun,Dawn Blossoms Plucked at Duskfrom Anthology of LuXun,Vol.1,People's Literature Publishing House,1959, pp.285-286.
2 Hu Shih,Narrative at Forty, In Shanghai(first edition), Taipei Far East Books, 1962, pp.59-60.
1 Ibid., p.567.
2 [Ame]Barrington Moore,Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy, translated by Tuo Fu etc., Huaxia Publishing House, 1987, p.26.
1 Wang Quchang, The Chronicle of Yan Jidao's Life, Commercial Printing House, 1936, pp.7-8.
2 Written by Montesquieu (France), translated by Yen Fu, Montesquieu Law (Vol. Ⅰ), Commercial Press, 1981, p.224.
1 Wang Shi, ed., Yen Fu Anthology, Volume IV, Zhonghua Book Company, 1986, p.985.
2 Dictated by XieQinggao, written by Yang Bingnan, noted by Feng Chengjun, Notes for Sea Record, Vol.2, Zhonghua Book Company, 1955, pp.73-74.
1 Jiang Wenhan, What Kind of Institutions is The Christian Literature Society for China, The One-Volume Edition of History Data and Selected Volume,Book 15 of the 43rd album. The Literature and History Research Committee of CPPCC, Chinese Literature Press, 1982, p.7.
1 Zhang Xia et al editors, Historical Materials of Navy in the Late Qing Dynasty, Beijing, Ocean Press, 1982, p.397.
2 Wang Shi, Yen Fu Anthology, Vol.1, Zhonghua Book Company, 1986. p.97.
1 Song Yuanfang, Chief Editor, Historical Publishing Material of China: Contemporary China, Shandong Educational Publishing House, 2004, p.226.
2 Thomas Henry Huxley, Evolution and Ethics, translated by Yen Fu, the Commercial Press, 1981, p.6.
3Ibid., p. 52.
1 Wang Shi, Collected Works of Yen Fu, Vol.1, Zhonghua Book Company,1986, p.4.
2 Annotated by Zhou Zhengfu, Selected Works of Yen Fu, People's Literature Publishing House, 2004, pp.31-32.
3Xu Shoukai, Shi Peiyi, Complete Works of Wu Rulun, Huangshan Press,2002, p.229.
1 Wang Shi, Collected Works of Yen Fu, Vol. 1, Zhonghua Book Company, 1986.p.31.
1 Ibid.,25.
2 Annotated by Zhou Zhengfu, Selected Works of Yen Fu, People's Literature Publishing House, 2004, p.118.
3 Ibid., p.11.
4 Ibid., p.156.
1 Ibid., pp.6-7.
1 Wang Qisheng, Historical Traces of Chinese Students Studying Abroad, Hubei Education Press, 1992, p.52.
1 Edited by Ming Qing Archives of National Archives. Historical Files on Hundred Days'Reform, Zhonghua Book Company, 1958, p.13.
1 Wang Tieya, Compiles of Old Governs at Home and Abroad, Joint Publishing, 1957, Book Ⅰ,p.263.
2 Zuo Zongtang, Art Theory, Collected Works by Zuo Zongtang, Book 14,Yuelu Publishing House, 1986, p.605.
3Chen Xuexun, Tian Zhengping, Compilation of Modern Chinese Education History, Shanghai Educational Publishing House, 1991, p.225.
1 Luo Xianglin, Liang Cheng's visit to United States, Taipei: Wenhai Publishing House. 1979, p.200.
1 Hui-ch'ing Yen,East-West Kaleidoscope, 1877-1946: An Autobiography, translated by Wu Jianyong, Li Baochen, Ye Fengmei, etc., Commercial Press, 2003, p.75.
1 Edited by Tsinghua University History Research Office. Selected Historical Data of Tsinghua University. Vol.1. Tsinghua University Press, 1991, pp. 106-108.
2 Ibid.,p.116.
1 Li Hungchang, Complete Works of Li Wenzhong · Letters and Documents of Navy (Vol.1), The Commercial Press, 1921, p.1.
1 Tang Zhijun, Collection of Kang Youwei's Political Comments, Vol.1, Zhonghua Book Company, 1981. p.250.
2 Zhu Youhuan, Chinese Modern Academic Historical the second series (Vol.1). East China Normal University Press, 1987, p.17.
3 Wang Qisheng, Historical Traces of Chinese Overseas Students, Hubei Education Press, 1992, p.137.
4Zheng Dengyun, ed., Chinese Modern History of Education, East China Normal University Press, 1994, p.105.
1 Wang Qisheng, Historical Traces of Chinese Overseas Students, Hubei Education Press, 1992, p.134.
1 Wang Huanchen, Education for Studying Abroad, Taipei National Institute for Compilation and Translation in 1980. p.295.
2 Ibid., p. 296.
1 Yang Shu, Prospectus for Studying Abroad, from the book compiled by Chen Xuexun and Tian Zhengping, Material Collection of Educational History in Modern China'Education for Studying Abroad. Shanghai Educational Publishing House, 1991,p.37O.
2 Li Xisuo and Liu Jilin,Education for Studying Abroad in Modem China, Tianjin Ancient Books Press, 2000, p.102.
3 Wang Qisheng, Historical Traces of Chinese Overseas Students, Hubei Education Press, 1992, p.86.
1 Yung Wing, My Life in China and America, Transcribed by Cassandra Bates, 2006, Originally Published by New York Henry Holt Company, 1901,p.1.
1 Liu Yihui, The History of Chinese Culture, Vol.2, Encyclopedia of China Publishing House, 1988, p.803.
1 Wang Qisheng, Historical Traces of Chinese Overseas Students, Hubei Education Press, 1992, pp. 125-126.
2 Ibid., p.54.
1 Ibid., p.22.
2 Zhang Nan, Wang Renzhi, Theory Anthology of Prior Decade in Xinhai Revolution, Vol. 1 (B), Joint Publishing Company, 1960,p.685.
3 Shun Tian Times, August, 11th of the 31st year of Guangxu.
1 Wang Qisheng, Historical Traces of Chinese Overseas Students, Hubei Education Press, 1992, p.108.
1 Zhang Xia. Navy Historyof the Late Oing Dynasty. Navy Press, 1982. p.378.
2 A shogun (literally, "military commander") was often one of the hereditary military governors of Japan from 1192 to 1867. In this period, the shoguns, or their shikken regents (1203-1333). were the de facto rulers of Japan though they were nominally appointed by the emperor. When Portuguese explorers first came into contact with the Japanese (see Nanban trade), they described Japanese conditions in analogy, likening the emperor, with great symbolic authority but little political power, to the Pope, and the shogun to secular European rulers, e.g. the King of Portugal. In keeping with the analogy, they even used the term "emperor" in reference to the shogun/regent, e.g. in the case of Toyotomi Hideyoshi, whom missionaries called "Emperor Taicosama" (from Taiko and the honorific sama): http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shogun, last accessed on 22 March 2014.
1 Westernization Movement, Vol.2, Shanghai People's Publishing House, 1973, p.30.
1 Hiroyasu Ogata. Research of Japanese Education History, Waseda University Press, 1980.
2 Wu Shiying, Yan Guohua, Comparative History of Foreign Education (Modern Volume), Shandong Education Press, 1997, p.201.
1 Shu hsinch'eng, History of Modern Chinese Students, Zhonghua Book, 1928, p.219.
2 Lin Ziyun, Educational History of Chinese Overseas Students, Taipei Huagang Publishing Co. Ltd.,1976, p.589.
1 Wang Gui, History of Japanese Education, Jilin Educational Publisher in 1987, p.108.
1 Chen Yuanhui, Compilation of Data on Modern Chinese Educational History · Overseas Education, Shanghai Educational Publishing House, 1991,p.72.
1 Lin Ziyun, Educational History of Chinese Overseas Students, Taipei Huagang Publishing Co. Ltd.,1976, p.590.
Wu Shiying, Yan Guohuay,An Outline History of Educational Comparison between China and Foreign Countries (Modern volume), Shandong Educational Publishing House, 1997, p.195.
1 Zhong Shuhe, From The East to The West-Going Global Series of Books, Yuelu Publishing House, 2002, p.263.
2 Li Xisuo and Liu Jilin,Education for Studying Abroad in Modern China, Tianjin Ancient Books Press, 2000, p.12.
3 Yi Wencheng, translated by Ma Jiajun,History of Meiji Restoration, Liaoning Education Press, 1987, p.367
1 Zhu Shoupeng, ed., & collated by Zhang Jinglu, et al., Guangxu Dynasty Donghua Record. Zhonghua Book Company. 1958, p.3824.
2 Masa Suzuki et al, Ten philosophers in Modern Japan, Shanghai People's Publishing House, 1989, p.23.
1 Guan Haiting, History of China's Modern Political Development, Peking University Press, 2005, p.68.
1 Huang Renyu, My Understanding towards Capitalism, Recognition on Chinese Traditional Culture.p.43O.
1 Xu Ruoqi. "A Comparison of China's and Japan's Thoughts on Opening to the Outside World", Jianghuai Tribune, No.4, 1994, p.43.
2 Liang Qichao, Bibliography of Li Hung-chang, China Three Gorges Press, 2009, p.112.
1 Li Wenying, Imitation, Independence and Innovation: Research on Japan's study from the European and American Education. Hebei Education Press, 2001. p.10.
1 Yuan Weishi, Dogfight: Newly born and Not Dead, Thread-Binding Books Publishing House, 2013, p.320.
1 Sun Youzhong, "On Cultural Communicationism", Journal of Renmin University of China, No.6, 2007, p.13.
1 Li Xisuo, Overseas Students in Modern Age and Culture at Home and Abroad, Tianjin People Press, 1997, p.133.
1 Zhang Qing, Academic Significance of Modern Chinese Students Speaking Position Shifting,Historical Research, No.4, 1996, p.60.
1 According to anthropologists of 19th century, Culture is earlier and Civilization is later. Everything created by man is culture, civilization is an advanced state of cultural development. http://dilipchandral2.hubpages.com/hub/Difference-between-Culture-and-Civilization, last accessed on 29 March 2014
2 http://www.kouyi.org/field/media/1749.html, last accessed on 19 April 2014.
1 Wang Xuezhen and Zhang Wancang, ed., Selection of Beijing Higher Education Literature Information (1861-1948), Capital Normal University Press, 2004, p.34.
1 Cai Lu, The Story of Peking Translation Institute, please refer to:Collection of Literature and History Archives, Volume 24, Education Part. Complied by the Committee of Literature of History of National Committee of CPPCC, Issue of August, 2002, p.808.
1 Cited from:Liu Xiaoqin, Education History of Studying in Britain of Modern China, Nankai University Press,2005, p.108.
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2 The name of Yen Fu (严复) is spelled in Wade-Giles System instead of Pinyin. Some of other famous people in this thesis are spelled in this system and will be provided with their Chinese names in the first appearance. Most names are in Pinyin.
'Remarks by the First Lady at Stanford Center at Peking University, Mar. 22, 2014.
1 Benjamin Schwartg, In Search of Wealth & Power: Yen Fu and the West, Harvard University Press, 1983, pp.11-12.
1 https://www.tamu.edu/faculty/choudhury/culture.html, last accessed on 21 March 2014.
2 Remarks by the First Lady at Stanford Center at Peking University, 22 March 2014.
1Sun Youzhong. "On Cultural Communicationism". Journal of Renmin University of China. No.6. 2007. p.13.
2Williamson, O. E., "The New Institutional Economics: Taking Stock, Looking Ahead", Journal of Economic Literature,2000, Vol.38, pp.595-613.
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2 Edited by China Institute of History: the Opium War V, Shanghai People's Publishing House, 1957, p.529.
1 Xu Qiheng, Li Ximi, Zhan Tianyou and Chinese Railway, Shanghai People's Publishing House, 1957, p.8.
1 Yung Wing, My Life in China and America, Transcribed by Cassandra Bates. 2006, Originally Published by New York Henry Holt Company. 1901, p.58.
2 Li Xisuo, Liu Jilin, Education in America for Modern Chinese, Tianjin Publishing House of Ancient Books, 2000, p.16.
1 Du Chunhe, "A Selection of Hu Shih's Letters to His Family", Historical Research in Anhui, No.1,1989, p.75.
1 Shu hsinch'eng. The History of Modern Chinese to Study Abroad, Chung Hwa Book Co.,1929, p.2.
2 Yan Phou Lee, When I was a Boy in China, D. Lothrop Company, 1887, p.93.
1 Liu Zhongguo, Huang Xiaodong, Yung Wing-the Pioneer of Chinese to Study Abroad, Guangdong People's Publishing House, 2005, p.117.
1 Li Xisuo, Modern Chinese Students Studying in Foreign Countries, People's Publishing House. 1987, p.78.
2 Xie Changfa, the Education History of Chinese Students Studying Abroad, Shanxi Education Press, 2006. pp.14-15.
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1 Edited by Ming Qing Archives of National Archives, Historical Files on Hundred Days'Reform. Zhonghua Book Company, 1958, p.13.
1 History Department of Fudan University, Selected Documents on Modern Chinese Foreign Relations (Vol. I), Shanghai People's Publishing House, 1977, pp.255-256.
1 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Morrison_(missionary), last accessed on 16 March 2014.
1 Yung Wing, My Life in China and America, Transcribed by Cassandra Bates, 2006, Originally Published by New York Henry Holt Company, 1901, p.18.
2 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tongwen_Guan. last accessed on 23 March, 2014.
1 Tsung-li Ya-men(总理衙门)was the government body in charge of foreign affairs in imperial China during the late Qing dynasty. It was established by Prince Gong (Prince Kong) in 1861. following the Convention of Peking. It was abolished in 1901 and replaced with a Foreign Office of ministry rank. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zongli Yamen). last access on 22March 2014
2 Liu Xiaoqin, "Tongwen Guan and the Education of Studying Abroad in United Kingdom in late Qing Dynasty", Journal of Historical Science, No. 8. 2004, p47.
3 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tongwen_Guan, last accessed on 23 March. 2014.
1 Chen Xiangyang, A Study on the Organization of Tongwen Guan in Late Qing Dynasty Guangdong Higher Education Press, 2004, p.209.
1 The Whole Story of Preparation for Foreign Affairs (Tongzhi Reign), Vol. 39, pp. 1-2. Quoted in: Chen Xuexun. Tian Zhcngping. Material Collections of Modern Chinese Educational History-Section of Studying Abroad, Shanghai Century Publishing Company Limited, 2007. p.5.
2 Ibid.. p.5.
3 Ibid,, p.5.
4 [Qing] Zhang Deyi, The Collection of Anecdotes in Navigation Manuscripts (Book One), Beijing Library Press. 1996, p.31.
5 Written by Ding Weiliang, edited and translated by Fu Rengan, Biography of Tongwen Guan. Please refer to Appendix to Chinese Published History Materials, Zhang Jinglu, Appendix to Published Historical Material in China. Zhonghua Book Company, 1957, p.9.
6 [Qing] Zhang Deyi,The Collection of Anecdotes in Navigation Manuscripts (Book One), Beijing Library Press, 1996, p.31.
1 Binchun, Diaries on the Ship, Hunan People's Publishing House, 1981, pp.1-2.
2 The Whole Story of Preparation for Foreign Affairs (Tongzhi Reign), Vol. 39, pp.1-2. Quoted in: Chen Xuexun, Tian Zhengping, Material Collections of Modern Chinese Educational History-Section of Studying Abroad, Shanghai Century Publishing Company Limited, 2007, p.5.
3Binchun, Diaries on Ship, Hunan People's Publishing House, 1981, p.27.
1 Ibid., p.28.
2 Zhang Deyi, Anecdotes on the Sea, Hunan People's Publishing House, 1981, p.77.
3 Ibid., p.81.
1 Ibid., p.41.
2 Qian Shifu, Foreign Affairs Office of Qing Dynasty, Joint Publishing, 1959, p.236.
1 Under the Imperial Order of March the 15th Year of Guangxu (1879), Compiled by Gao Shiliang, Material Collections of Modern Chinese Educational History-Education in Modernization Movement, Shanghai Education Press,2007, p.101.
1 Knight Biggerstaff, translated by Zeng Jusheng, The Earliest Modern Government Schools in China, Hangzhou University Press, 1993, p.205.
1 Kuo Sung-t'ao, The Journal of Kuo Sung-t'ao, Vol.3,Hunan People's Publishing House, 1982, p.496.
2 Checked and punctuated by Yu Yueheng, Posthumous Works of Zeng Jize. Yuelu Press, 1983. p.85.
3 Chen Xuexun, the chief editor, Teaching Reference Material of Modern Chinese Educational History, Vol 1, People's Education Press(lst Edition), 1986, p.686.
1 Zhu Youxian, Wang Xian, Historical Material of Modern China Educational System, Vol.1, East China Normal University Publishing House, 1983.p.144.
1 Li Tao, Chief Editor, A Historical Memoir of the Education of Studying Abroad in China(1840-1949), Higher Education Press, 2005.p.63.
2 Ibid., p.7.
3 Ibid., p.8.
1 Excerpted from:Liu Xiaoqing, Educational History of Studying in the UK in Modern China, Nan Kai University Publishing House, 2005, p.53.
1 The First Historical Archive: Files of Ministry of Agriculture, Industry & Commerce Department of Supplementary Operation School. File No. 249, a Business Letter from Zhang (Deyi), the Chinese Minister to the UK, to the Ministry of Commerce, the 19th day of June in the 31th year Guang Xu. Excerpt From: Liu Xiaoqin, Educational History of Studying in the UK in Modern China. Nan Kai University Publishing House, 2005, p.67.
1 Edited by school history research office of Peking University, History Material of Peking University, Vol.1 (1898-1911), Peking University Press, 1993, p.442.
2 [New Zealand]John Rowland, translated by Jiang Bingxin, Ernest Rutherford-An Outstanding Nuclear Physics, Beijing, Atomic Energy Press, 1978, pp.51-53.
1 Westernization Movement Volume 5, Chiefly edited by Association of Chinese Historians; edited by Historical Material Editorial Office of Modern History Institute of Chinese Academy of Sciences and Editting Group of Ming-Qing Archives Department of State Archives Administration, Shanghai People's Publishing House, 1961, p.449.
1 Chen Xuexun & Tian Zhengping, Compilation of Modern Chinese Education History, Shanghai Educational Publishing House, 1991, p.225.
1 Gu Tinglong and Dai Yi, chief editors, Complete Works of Li Hungchang, the 7thPart of Memorial to the Throne, Anhui Education Press,2008,p.259.
2 Ibid., p.259.
1 Li Tao,ed.,Chinese Educational History of Studying Abroad 1840-1949, Higher Education Press, 2005,p.53.
2 Ibid., p.55.
1 Chen Xue\un. the chief editor. Teaching Reference Material of Modern Chinese Educational History. Vol1. People's Education Press (1st Edition),1986, pp. 162-163.
2 Westernization Movement, Vol.5,chiefly edited by Association of Chinese Historians, edited by Historical Material Editorial Office of Modern History Institute of Chinese Academy of Sciences and Editing Group of Ming-Qing Archives Department of State Archives Administration, Shanghai People's Publishing House, 1961, p.234.
1 Wang Jiajian, Li Hungchang and Beiyang Fleet: What Can Be Learnt from the Failure of the Establishment of Modern Chinese Navy, Joint Publishing, 2008, p.216.
2 Ibid., p.216.
1 Ibid., pp.217-220.
2 Zhang Zuoxing, main editor, Study of Marine Culture: Collated Marine Memorials to Emperors, Haichao Photography Art Publishing House, 2006, p.472.
1 Compiled by Shanghai Commercial Press:The Punctuated Version of New Laws of Qing Dynasty (1901-1911) vol. 1. The Commercial Press, 2010, p.17.
2 Li Tao, Chief Editor, A Historical Memoir of the Education of Studying Abroad in China(1840-1949),Higher Education Press, 2005,p. 67.
1 Complete Works of Zhang Zhidong, Hebei People's Publishing House, 1998, p.2007.
2 Wang Wei, editor and proof-reader. (A Memoir of Qing Dynasty) The Compilation of Historical Material on Imperial Examinations. Wuhan University Press, 2009, p.1104.
3 Zhang Xia, Yang Zhiben, etc., Historical Materials of Navy in the Late Qing Dynasty, Vol.1, China Ocean Press, 1982,p.416.
4 The editorial team modern of history data of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences and Institute of Modern History, No.61 of Modern History Data, China Social Science Press, 1986,p.111.
5 Negotiation Abstract in Bing Wu (the 32nd) Year, Guang Xu Reign [z], Chapter of Overseas Study, Vol. 3,Gravure,Taibei:Wen Hai Press,1976.
1 The editorial team modern of history data of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences and Institute of Modern History. No. 61 of Modern History Data, China Social Science Press, 1986.p.111.
2 Ibid., p.115.
3 Ibid., p.117.
4 Xu Bingxian, The Whole History of Yantai Naval College, Historical Records of the Navy of Republic of China, Ocean Press, 1987, p. 917.
1 Xue Fucheng: Journals as an Envoy in the Four Countries, Social Sciences Academic Press, 2007, pp. 155-156.
2 Kuo Sung-t'ao, Diary of Kuo Sung-t'ao, Vol.3 (Guangxu Reign, Vol. 1), Hunan People's Publishing House, 1982, p.406.
1 Ibid., pp.406-407.
2 Li Hongzhang, Complete Works of Li Wenzhong · Letters and Documents of Navy (Vol.1),The Commercial Press,192], p.1.
1 Kuo Sung-t'ao,Diary ofKuo Sung-t'ao, Vol.3 (Guangxu reign:Vol. 1), Hunan People's Publishing House. 1982,pp.721-722.
2 Xue Fucheng, Journals as an Envoy in the Four Countries, Social Sciences Academic Press, 2007,pp. 156-157.
1 Complete Works of Sir Li Wenzhong · Reports,Taipei:Taiwan Wenhai Press,Vol.24, 1974, p.26.
1 Ibid., p.15.
2 Ibid., p.17.
1 Report from Shen Shoukun, Selected Works of Sheng Xuanhuai's Archive(ii), Vol.Ⅲ, Shanghai People's Publishing House. 1982. p.403.
2 Xiting, The Sketch Book of Navy in the Late Qing Dynasty(extract). the Continuation of Chinese Modern History Materials · the Chinese-Japanese War of 1894-1895, Vol.Ⅵ,Zhonghua Book Company, 1993,p.22.
3 R.L. Powell, The Rise of Chinese Military Strength 1895-1912, translated by Chen Zexian. Chen Xiafei, China Social Science Press, 1979, p. 42.
1 Zhu Youhuan, China's Modern Schooling Historical Materials, Book One I, East China Normal University Press, 1983, p.390.
2 Edited by Wu Jiezhang, Su Xiaodong, Cheng Zhifa. Naval History of Modern China, Chinese People's Liberation Army Publishing House, 1989, p.47.
1 Edited by the History Materials Edit Office of Modern History Institution of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Westernization Movement (series of books),Volume V, Shanghai People's Publishing House, 1961, p.138.
2 Ibid.,p.110.
1 A successful candidate in the imperial examinations at the provincial level in the Ming and Oing dynasties
2 Yan Tingyun, The Life of My Grandfather Yen Fu, Edited by Yen Fu Research Collection in Fujian province, Collected Papers of Yen Fu International Academic Seminars of 1993, Hai Xia Literature and Art Press, 1995, p.5.
3 Wang Quchang, AChronicle of Yen Jidao, Commercial Press. 1936, p.3.
1 Luo Yaojiu, The New Writing of Yen Fu Chronicle, LuJiang Press, 2004, p.14.
2 Westernization Movement Volume 5. chiefly edited by Association of Chinese Historians; edited by Historical Material Editorial Office of Modem History Institute of Chinese Academy of Sciences and Editing Group of Ming-Qing Archives Department of State Archives Administration, Shanghai People's Publishing House, 1961, p.24.
3 Ibid., p.449.
1 Ibid.,p.25.
2 Ibid.,p.55.
1 Yen Fu, Navy Memorabilia, From China's Modern History Review (Book one, Vol.6)The first Sino-Japanese War, Compiled by Bao Zunpeng and WuXiangxiang,ZhengZhong Press, 1957, p.1.
1 Kuo Sung-t'ao, Journal in London and Paris, Yuelu Press. 1984, p.535.
2 In the Chronicle of Yen Fu's Life (Fuzhou: Fujian People's Publishing House. 2003). which is newly published. Sun Yingxiang deemed that Yen Fu started to serve as the chief teaching director of Tianjin Beiyang Naval College on August 27th. 1880, when he reported for duty. Yan's position referred between 1881 and 1888 was called as "chief teaching director of Tianjin Beiyang Naval College'. See also Biography of YenFu, written by Pi Houfeng, Fuzhou: Fujian People's Publishing House, 2003, p.67.
3 Jiang Ming, The fleet with Dragon Flags waving- the Rise and Fall of the Modern Chinese Navy (revised edition), Beijing: Sanlian Press, 2002, pp.148&162.
1 Ma Zivi, "Chief Teaching Director" or "Foreign Language Teacher in Charge"-Several Textual Research on the Historical Facts about Yen Fu's Position in Tianjin Beivang Naval College", Historical Research. No.2. 2004. p.73.
2 Jiang Ming. The Reproof of the Historical Facts of Yen Fu Taking Office in Tianjin Navy Academy,Historical Research. No.3,2008, p.164.
3 Report to Li Hungchang by Pan Junde et al. from Machine Department. Beiyang Chronicle,Vol.X:Naval College.
4 Port to Minister Li of Beiyang by Wu Zhongxiang from Beiyang Naval College on March 23,8th Year of Guangxu Reign,Beiyang Chronicle, Vol.Ⅹ: Naval College.
1 Detailed Report to Minister Li of Beigang by Wu Zhongxiang and Luo Fenglu from Beiyang Naval College on Sep. 22, 10th Year of Guangxu Reign, Beiyang Chronicle, Vol.Ⅹ:Naval College.
2 Li Hungchang,Complete Works of Li Wenzhong·Letters and Documents, The Commercial Press, 1921, Vol.52, p.7.
3 Detailed Report to Minister Li of Beiyang by Lu Yaodou, Shen Baojing and Luo Fenglu of the Beiyang Naval College on Oct. 29 of the 13th Year of Guangxu Reign, Beiyang Chronicles, Volume X:the Naval College.
1 Complete Records of Curriculum Vitae Documents of Officers in Qing Dynasty, Guangdong Normal University Publishing! House. Vol.6. 1997. p.486.
2 Wang Shi, Yen Fu Anthology, Vol.5, Zhonghua Book Company,1986, p.1547.
3 Complete Records of Curriculum Vitae Documents of Officers in Oing Dynasty; Guangdong Normal University Publishing House, 1997. Vol.6, p.486.
4 Yan Xiaoqian, A Newly Found Letter of Yen Fu, Today's Evening News, Apr. 25th, 2005. p.21.
1 Complete Records of Curriculum Vitae Documents of Officers in Qing Dynasty, Guangdong Normal University Publishing House. 1997. p.486.
2 Li Hungchang, Complete Works of Li Wenzhong · Letters and Documents (Vol.52), The Commercial Press.1921, p.7.
3 Quoted from:Jiang Ming: Reproof of the Historical Facts that Yen Fu Taking Office of the Tianjin Navy Academy. Historical Research. No.3,2008, pp.164-179.
4 Ibid.
1 Quote from a secondary source: Jiangming. Reconfirm of the Historical Facts of Yen Fu's Position in Tianjin Navy School, History Research. No. 3.2008.
2 Successive Graduate List of Navy Schools. Zhang Xia et al. Navy Historical at the End of the Oing Dynasty, pp 440-442, Beijing:Ocean Press, 1982. By: according to Successive Graduate List of Navy Schools, the number of the announced successive graduates from Tianjin Navy Academy was 120. while the book also wrote that the number of all the six terms of graduates was 125.
1 Zhang Xia, ed., Documentary to All School Staff and Students about Provincial Examination from Li Hungchang. A History of Navy of the Late Qing Dynasty, Oceanic Publishing House, pp.397-398.
1 Wang Shi, Yen Fu Anthology, Zhonghua Book Company, Vol.1,1986, p.2.
1 Kuo Sung-t'ao's Letter to ZengGuofan, Letters of Famous People in Taofeng Mansion, Book 5. Quoted from:Sang Bing, School Students and Social Changes in Late Qing Dynasty, Guangxi Normal University Press, 2007, p.31.
2 GuoSongtao, GuoSongtao's Diaries, Volume Ⅲ, Changsha: Hunan People's Publishing House, 1982, p.814.
3 Ibid., p.137.
4Ibid., p.548.
1 Report Essays of Kuo Sung-t'ao, Kuo Sung-t'ao, Yuelu Press, 1983. pp.346-347.
2 Ibid., p.345.
3 Kuo Sung-t'ao, The Diary of Kuo Sung-t'ao, Volume Ⅲ, Hunan People's Publishing House, 1982,p.137.
4 Poetry of Kuo Sung-t'ao, Kuo Sung-t'ao, Yuelu Press, 1984, p.553.
1 Wang Shi, ed., Yen Fu Anthology,Book I, Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1986, p.1.
2 Ibid., p.117.
3 Wang Shi, ed., Yen Fu Anthology, Book Ⅰ, Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1986,p.3.
2 Liu Mengxi, Chinese Modern Academic Classics, Volume Yen Fu.Preface, Hebei Education Press, 1996,p.55.
1 Wang Shi, ed.. Yen Fu Anthology, Book Ⅰ, Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company. 1986, p.780.
2 Ibid., p.525.
3 Ibid., pp.525-526.
1 Revised Draft of The Original Strength from Yen Fu Anthology, Vol.1, Zhonghua Book Company, 1986. p.16.
2 Ibid., p.16.
1 Liang Qichao, Collected Works of Liang Qichao. Beijing Yanshan Press, 1997, p.689.
2 Ibid., p693.
3Kang Youwei, Anthology ofKang Youwei, Vol.5, Renmin University Publishing House, 2007, p.314.
1 Lu Xun,Dawn Blossoms Plucked at Duskfrom Anthology of LuXun,Vol.1,People's Literature Publishing House,1959, pp.285-286.
2 Hu Shih,Narrative at Forty, In Shanghai(first edition), Taipei Far East Books, 1962, pp.59-60.
1 Ibid., p.567.
2 [Ame]Barrington Moore,Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy, translated by Tuo Fu etc., Huaxia Publishing House, 1987, p.26.
1 Wang Quchang, The Chronicle of Yan Jidao's Life, Commercial Printing House, 1936, pp.7-8.
2 Written by Montesquieu (France), translated by Yen Fu, Montesquieu Law (Vol. Ⅰ), Commercial Press, 1981, p.224.
1 Wang Shi, ed., Yen Fu Anthology, Volume IV, Zhonghua Book Company, 1986, p.985.
2 Dictated by XieQinggao, written by Yang Bingnan, noted by Feng Chengjun, Notes for Sea Record, Vol.2, Zhonghua Book Company, 1955, pp.73-74.
1 Jiang Wenhan, What Kind of Institutions is The Christian Literature Society for China, The One-Volume Edition of History Data and Selected Volume,Book 15 of the 43rd album. The Literature and History Research Committee of CPPCC, Chinese Literature Press, 1982, p.7.
1 Zhang Xia et al editors, Historical Materials of Navy in the Late Qing Dynasty, Beijing, Ocean Press, 1982, p.397.
2 Wang Shi, Yen Fu Anthology, Vol.1, Zhonghua Book Company, 1986. p.97.
1 Song Yuanfang, Chief Editor, Historical Publishing Material of China: Contemporary China, Shandong Educational Publishing House, 2004, p.226.
2 Thomas Henry Huxley, Evolution and Ethics, translated by Yen Fu, the Commercial Press, 1981, p.6.
3Ibid., p. 52.
1 Wang Shi, Collected Works of Yen Fu, Vol.1, Zhonghua Book Company,1986, p.4.
2 Annotated by Zhou Zhengfu, Selected Works of Yen Fu, People's Literature Publishing House, 2004, pp.31-32.
3Xu Shoukai, Shi Peiyi, Complete Works of Wu Rulun, Huangshan Press,2002, p.229.
1 Wang Shi, Collected Works of Yen Fu, Vol. 1, Zhonghua Book Company, 1986.p.31.
1 Ibid.,25.
2 Annotated by Zhou Zhengfu, Selected Works of Yen Fu, People's Literature Publishing House, 2004, p.118.
3 Ibid., p.11.
4 Ibid., p.156.
1 Ibid., pp.6-7.
1 Wang Qisheng, Historical Traces of Chinese Students Studying Abroad, Hubei Education Press, 1992, p.52.
1 Edited by Ming Qing Archives of National Archives. Historical Files on Hundred Days'Reform, Zhonghua Book Company, 1958, p.13.
1 Wang Tieya, Compiles of Old Governs at Home and Abroad, Joint Publishing, 1957, Book Ⅰ,p.263.
2 Zuo Zongtang, Art Theory, Collected Works by Zuo Zongtang, Book 14,Yuelu Publishing House, 1986, p.605.
3Chen Xuexun, Tian Zhengping, Compilation of Modern Chinese Education History, Shanghai Educational Publishing House, 1991, p.225.
1 Luo Xianglin, Liang Cheng's visit to United States, Taipei: Wenhai Publishing House. 1979, p.200.
1 Hui-ch'ing Yen,East-West Kaleidoscope, 1877-1946: An Autobiography, translated by Wu Jianyong, Li Baochen, Ye Fengmei, etc., Commercial Press, 2003, p.75.
1 Edited by Tsinghua University History Research Office. Selected Historical Data of Tsinghua University. Vol.1. Tsinghua University Press, 1991, pp. 106-108.
2 Ibid.,p.116.
1 Li Hungchang, Complete Works of Li Wenzhong · Letters and Documents of Navy (Vol.1), The Commercial Press, 1921, p.1.
1 Tang Zhijun, Collection of Kang Youwei's Political Comments, Vol.1, Zhonghua Book Company, 1981. p.250.
2 Zhu Youhuan, Chinese Modern Academic Historical the second series (Vol.1). East China Normal University Press, 1987, p.17.
3 Wang Qisheng, Historical Traces of Chinese Overseas Students, Hubei Education Press, 1992, p.137.
4Zheng Dengyun, ed., Chinese Modern History of Education, East China Normal University Press, 1994, p.105.
1 Wang Qisheng, Historical Traces of Chinese Overseas Students, Hubei Education Press, 1992, p.134.
1 Wang Huanchen, Education for Studying Abroad, Taipei National Institute for Compilation and Translation in 1980. p.295.
2 Ibid., p. 296.
1 Yang Shu, Prospectus for Studying Abroad, from the book compiled by Chen Xuexun and Tian Zhengping, Material Collection of Educational History in Modern China'Education for Studying Abroad. Shanghai Educational Publishing House, 1991,p.37O.
2 Li Xisuo and Liu Jilin,Education for Studying Abroad in Modem China, Tianjin Ancient Books Press, 2000, p.102.
3 Wang Qisheng, Historical Traces of Chinese Overseas Students, Hubei Education Press, 1992, p.86.
1 Yung Wing, My Life in China and America, Transcribed by Cassandra Bates, 2006, Originally Published by New York Henry Holt Company, 1901,p.1.
1 Liu Yihui, The History of Chinese Culture, Vol.2, Encyclopedia of China Publishing House, 1988, p.803.
1 Wang Qisheng, Historical Traces of Chinese Overseas Students, Hubei Education Press, 1992, pp. 125-126.
2 Ibid., p.54.
1 Ibid., p.22.
2 Zhang Nan, Wang Renzhi, Theory Anthology of Prior Decade in Xinhai Revolution, Vol. 1 (B), Joint Publishing Company, 1960,p.685.
3 Shun Tian Times, August, 11th of the 31st year of Guangxu.
1 Wang Qisheng, Historical Traces of Chinese Overseas Students, Hubei Education Press, 1992, p.108.
1 Zhang Xia. Navy Historyof the Late Oing Dynasty. Navy Press, 1982. p.378.
2 A shogun (literally, "military commander") was often one of the hereditary military governors of Japan from 1192 to 1867. In this period, the shoguns, or their shikken regents (1203-1333). were the de facto rulers of Japan though they were nominally appointed by the emperor. When Portuguese explorers first came into contact with the Japanese (see Nanban trade), they described Japanese conditions in analogy, likening the emperor, with great symbolic authority but little political power, to the Pope, and the shogun to secular European rulers, e.g. the King of Portugal. In keeping with the analogy, they even used the term "emperor" in reference to the shogun/regent, e.g. in the case of Toyotomi Hideyoshi, whom missionaries called "Emperor Taicosama" (from Taiko and the honorific sama): http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shogun, last accessed on 22 March 2014.
1 Westernization Movement, Vol.2, Shanghai People's Publishing House, 1973, p.30.
1 Hiroyasu Ogata. Research of Japanese Education History, Waseda University Press, 1980.
2 Wu Shiying, Yan Guohua, Comparative History of Foreign Education (Modern Volume), Shandong Education Press, 1997, p.201.
1 Shu hsinch'eng, History of Modern Chinese Students, Zhonghua Book, 1928, p.219.
2 Lin Ziyun, Educational History of Chinese Overseas Students, Taipei Huagang Publishing Co. Ltd.,1976, p.589.
1 Wang Gui, History of Japanese Education, Jilin Educational Publisher in 1987, p.108.
1 Chen Yuanhui, Compilation of Data on Modern Chinese Educational History · Overseas Education, Shanghai Educational Publishing House, 1991,p.72.
1 Lin Ziyun, Educational History of Chinese Overseas Students, Taipei Huagang Publishing Co. Ltd.,1976, p.590.
Wu Shiying, Yan Guohuay,An Outline History of Educational Comparison between China and Foreign Countries (Modern volume), Shandong Educational Publishing House, 1997, p.195.
1 Zhong Shuhe, From The East to The West-Going Global Series of Books, Yuelu Publishing House, 2002, p.263.
2 Li Xisuo and Liu Jilin,Education for Studying Abroad in Modern China, Tianjin Ancient Books Press, 2000, p.12.
3 Yi Wencheng, translated by Ma Jiajun,History of Meiji Restoration, Liaoning Education Press, 1987, p.367
1 Zhu Shoupeng, ed., & collated by Zhang Jinglu, et al., Guangxu Dynasty Donghua Record. Zhonghua Book Company. 1958, p.3824.
2 Masa Suzuki et al, Ten philosophers in Modern Japan, Shanghai People's Publishing House, 1989, p.23.
1 Guan Haiting, History of China's Modern Political Development, Peking University Press, 2005, p.68.
1 Huang Renyu, My Understanding towards Capitalism, Recognition on Chinese Traditional Culture.p.43O.
1 Xu Ruoqi. "A Comparison of China's and Japan's Thoughts on Opening to the Outside World", Jianghuai Tribune, No.4, 1994, p.43.
2 Liang Qichao, Bibliography of Li Hung-chang, China Three Gorges Press, 2009, p.112.
1 Li Wenying, Imitation, Independence and Innovation: Research on Japan's study from the European and American Education. Hebei Education Press, 2001. p.10.
1 Yuan Weishi, Dogfight: Newly born and Not Dead, Thread-Binding Books Publishing House, 2013, p.320.
1 Sun Youzhong, "On Cultural Communicationism", Journal of Renmin University of China, No.6, 2007, p.13.
1 Li Xisuo, Overseas Students in Modern Age and Culture at Home and Abroad, Tianjin People Press, 1997, p.133.
1 Zhang Qing, Academic Significance of Modern Chinese Students Speaking Position Shifting,Historical Research, No.4, 1996, p.60.
1 According to anthropologists of 19th century, Culture is earlier and Civilization is later. Everything created by man is culture, civilization is an advanced state of cultural development. http://dilipchandral2.hubpages.com/hub/Difference-between-Culture-and-Civilization, last accessed on 29 March 2014
2 http://www.kouyi.org/field/media/1749.html, last accessed on 19 April 2014.
1 Wang Xuezhen and Zhang Wancang, ed., Selection of Beijing Higher Education Literature Information (1861-1948), Capital Normal University Press, 2004, p.34.
1 Cai Lu, The Story of Peking Translation Institute, please refer to:Collection of Literature and History Archives, Volume 24, Education Part. Complied by the Committee of Literature of History of National Committee of CPPCC, Issue of August, 2002, p.808.
1 Cited from:Liu Xiaoqin, Education History of Studying in Britain of Modern China, Nankai University Press,2005, p.108.
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