小额信贷对孟加拉国农村居民民生和自主权的影响
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摘要
孟加拉国在国际上率先创新实施了小额信贷项目,在其他发展中国家小额信贷项目处于先行地位。小额信贷正成为通过创造就业以解决贫困问题的日益重要的工具。本文基于作者对300个小额信贷受访者的半结构化面对面访谈所获取的数据,采用描述性统计、逐步回归和共性分析等方法,首先实证分析了影响孟加拉国农村居民有效参与小额信贷项目的主要因素。成为小额信贷受助者的条件是通常是灵活的,且针对每个人的状况,实行个性化服务。最常见的前提条件包括：定期偿还能力,当地永久居住身份,土地拥有量少于1.5英亩。当小额信贷受访者满足这些条件,他们的信息就不会被公开。几乎所有的信贷机构更青睐女性小额信贷者,原因主要有三个：她们常年在家,方便跟她们会面交流；相较于男性,女性也更值得信任,同时女性也被认为更能够负责任地定期还款。在孟加拉国,政府(GO)和非政府(NGO)的小额信贷机构均对农村弱势的、文化水平低的贫人给予优先考虑。管控小额信贷的团组方式似乎更容易最小化违约风险。在过去的十年中,小额信贷项目的参与率从最初的低水平增长开始,在前5-6年出现了快速增长,此后又出现了下降趋势。一部分信贷接受者已经开始用拿到的贷款,部分甚至全部用于其他用途。这种资金利用方式也有一定的原因,比如满足个人消费,偿还先前的贷款,还有的将钱转用于其他更能赚钱的行业。但小额贷款受助者对政府小额信贷机构的还款状况令人失望,定期还款率仅为55%,而对非政府机构的还款率却达到85%。由政府组织和非政府组织提供信贷的多数受访者都知道利息多少,但并不知道实际利率,这一问题尤其在政府信贷的受助人中更加凸显。超过90%的来自政府或非政府组织信贷的受访者了解他们的储蓄。约有70%的享受这两种机构小额信贷的受访者表示,每次分期付款为强制性的储蓄支付,遵从信贷机构要求进行储蓄是有用的,要么按时分期付款或偿还全部,要么就会被取消会员身份。存款的数量决定于收到的小额贷款的数量,AID-Comilla从被访者吸纳的存款就要比BRDB要多。关于存款利率,来自不同组织的被访者中有超过80%都表示知道存款有利息,但遗憾的是,他们不清楚利率具体是多少。群组方式作为小额信贷的操控手法显然更容易减少违约,机构控制处理违约使用的方法不止一种。受访者表示,组内任何成员违约还款时,他们的融资权往往受到压制。受访者接受融资机构提供的所选设施,如提高认识培训、成人扫盲计划、技术技能培训、领导力和人权培训。政府和非政府组织的小额信贷项目是的成果是不同的,非政府组织比政府组织能更好地操控受访信贷者。在某些方面,小额信贷受助人特别是政府信贷受助者,由于缺乏强有力的监督,其融资权被剥夺。农场规模、还款行为、每周储蓄额和家庭年收入等因素都对借款人有效参与小额信贷项目具有显著的影响。小额信贷组织在为那些没有资格获得正规银行资金的社会弱势群体的融资起重要的作用。
人们越来越认识到小额信贷项目在促进公平和农村生计可持续发展中有较大的潜力。本文第二个实证研究,分析了不同小额信贷供给者对小额贷款受助者基本权利和生活质量的影响问题。研究的数据采用了作者2010-2012年调研收集的300个小额贷款受益者样本,以及200个未参与小额信贷农户的访谈数据,后者为控制组样本。本研究利用描述性统计、因子分析、多元回归、倾向得分匹配和处理效果模型,来估计小额信贷供给对受访者民生状况的影响。结果显示,小额信贷增加了受访者的基本权利,并显著地提高了他们的生活质量,减轻粮食消费短缺,改善营养、食物与健康、衣着、住房、卫生、医疗和教育设施等方面的状况。然而,政府与非政府组织小额信贷接受者的日均卡路里摄入量仍然低于他们所需的水平。数据显示,尽管改变并没那么明显,但小额信贷确实提高了人们储备食物的能力,人们的健康意识也在这段时间内有了一定程度的提升,只不过小额信贷在这方面的作用依然不显著。所有组别的衣着水平有所提升,控制组中的受访者的住房条件有着较大改善。在接受小额贷款后,几乎没有受访者仍居住在不安全不卫生的房屋内,显然,在这些方面,小额信贷确实起到了重要作用。受访者对已有卫生间设施进行了改善,更多地使用了更清洁的卫生设施。由于先前就已引入了良好的饮用水设施,所以在这方面小额信贷并没有显示出较大的影响。小额信贷受助者中从目不识丁到拥有签名能力,展现了显著的积极变化。同时,人们越来越关心医疗服务的质量。小额信贷项目改善了信贷者的生活条件,同时也消减了贫困水平。受访者年龄、参与小额信贷项目的持续时间、小额信贷供给的利率以及家庭年收入都对小额信贷对基本权利的改变有着显著影响。其中,小额贷款利率是最重要的影响因素。受访者的性别、所受小额贷款使用方式、接受小额信贷的次数以及他们的农场规模也对其生活质量的改变有着显著贡献,其中,受访者的性别是最重要的影响因素。小额信贷的利率、每周储蓄额对受访者的基本权利有着负向影响,即融资机构对较高信贷额收取的高利率以及较高的每周储蓄额要求,使得基本权的获得收到了严格的受限。所受小额信贷的次数对受访者的生活质量有着负向作用。相对于政府小额信贷受益者,这种改善效果在非政府小额信贷者中表现出更加明显。这一分析结果将有助于政府小额信贷部门建立一个推动与改善农村可持续发展的政策框架。
减贫可以影响农村自主权。小额信贷在全球减贫问题的争论中已成为一个非常重要的关键因素。本文的第三个实证部分,研究了小额信贷对受助人的经济、家庭、社会及政治自主权的影响问题。为此,本文基于上述面谈数据,采用描述性统计、因子分析、多元回归、倾向得分匹配和处理效果模型,实证分析了小额信贷供给对受助人经济、家庭、社会及政治状况的影响。实证结果发现,在大部分地区,小额信贷增加了受助人的自主权。政府小额信贷的受助人的家庭、社会和政治状况受到影响最大,同时非政府小额信贷受助人的经济能力也有较大改善。可见,小额信贷对提高农村自主权是一种有效的工具。政府信贷对家庭、社会和政治的影响更大,而非政府组织对经济的影响更深,且非政府组织信贷所改善的领域更广
在接受为期两年的小额贷款后,所有组别的工资和收入水平均有了提高；相对于未接受信贷者,信贷者的收入水平有着显著提高。小额信贷似乎可以提高受访者家庭权力与家庭活动的决策能力,提高的幅度则取决于他们现有的水平和之前的能力。非政府组织服务提供者的动机行为受到更多规制、更有条理。在多数情况下,接受不同组织小额信贷的人,似乎丧失了自由或自由状况并未得到改善。小额信贷对抗议社会暴力行为有影响,未信贷者的抗议力相对较低。相较于控制组,小额贷款接受者在领导力、社会福利上有明显的进步,但是控制组受访者的社会责任感更强。受访者的年龄、性别、他们的农场规模和所受小额贷款的使用方式对通过利用小额信贷改变自己的经济能力方面有着显著的影响。其中,农场规模是最重要的因素。受访者的年龄、性别、他们的还款行为和小额信贷的数额对改变其家庭和社会权力方面有着显著的影响；受访者的年龄是最重要的影响因素。受访者的年龄、农场规模、他们的家庭年收入、所受小额信贷的利率,以及每周储蓄额对改变他们的政治权力有着显著影响。其中,他们的年龄、家庭年收入和所获小额贷款的利率是最重要的影响因素。小额贷款金额、利率和每周的储蓄额,对受访者的家庭、社会和政治权力产生负向作用。这表明,金融机构收取的高利率和每周较高的储蓄要求,严重制约了政治权的获得。基于皮尔逊相关矩阵的实证分析结果显示：受助人和非受助人生活质量和自主权指标之间存在显著的正相关关系,但研究对象组和控制组的生活和自主权指标之间具有不同的相关度。
最后,在受助人面临的有关小额信贷项目问题方面,50%以上的来自非政府组织信贷的受访者和1/4的从政府组织信贷的受访者提出在整个周期中没有遇到任何问题。其他人则声称,比如出现缺乏适当监控、不容易取回存款支付、给定承诺无法维持、贷款金额不足和定期还款压力大等问题；少数受访者建议,应该加强经常性的监督,提供足够的小额信贷数额,建立储金还款系统,以适应需要,以应对意料之外的不正常支付,信贷组织应提高项目的灵活性。大部分非成员认为,该项目对穷人有利,尽管他们不能享受。他们中的一部分人对这个项目不了解,其他一些人对这个项目有一定的负面评价。有一半以上的受访者对参与这个项目不感兴趣。经济上较弱的受访者相对来说更有兴趣参与小额信贷项目,其次是条件较好的受访者,但因为他们太贫穷,而无法获取融资权。以上现象表明,非成员受访者对小额信贷项目的积极作用的评价有着很大的差距。
为加快农村经济发展,政府需要制定新的政策。公办信贷机构也需要得到专门的引导,以全面改善对小额信贷的支持服务。另外,信贷机构尤其是非政府组织有必要增加额外信贷计划,以提升对家庭、社会、政治层面的影响程度；政府组织需要更加规范化、有序化,在选拔信贷人员时避免误差,以确保专业性。小额信贷机构在增加贷款数额或提供房屋建设贷款时,应予以特别的关注。为了提高接受者在农村的生活水平和自主力,政府部门需考虑调低贷款利率以减少同等利率的每周存款额。信贷机构应区分贷款人员性别优先次序,并且在确定信贷前应考虑申请者的年龄、收入来源、农场规模和参与项目的持久性等因素。不应该给那些已经从其他组织获得支持的人提供新的贷款。这些受助者应努力在几个周期或几年内达到自给自足,从而依靠自己的收入而非小额信贷来对未来进行投资。小额贷款机构,尤其是非政府机构,应注重通过自觉性培训来激励受助者对他人和社会的责任感和同情心。政府机构的项目实施经营应该更具制度化,尤其是要增强定期技能培训,提升个人创收能力和经营效益。信贷发放之后,机构需要确保受助者所得贷款能合理地用于多产高效的项目,以保证定期还款。小额贷款的成功,取决于政府和非政府组织以及非盈利机构的能力并能适应低收入群体进行生产活动的融资需求。政府应主动保护在耕或在垦土地。此外,计划生育措施也要加紧实施。信贷机构有必要重新制定项目战略,优先考虑目前大部分客户的需求。他们应先关注现行项目出现的问题；在任何项目执行之前,需要经过可行性研究进行评估。通过考虑小额信贷项目的主要成本和收益来评估这个项目的外在影响,需要得到进一步的研究。
本文的研究发现与结论可为政策决策者、管理者和发展工作人员提供重要的决策参考。
Bangladesh has pioneered the implementation of an innovative microfinance program, placing it at the forefront of microfinance initiatives in developing countries. Microfinance is becoming an increasingly important tool to combat poverty through employment generation. Here analyzed the factors related to effective participation in the microfinance program in Bangladesh as the first exercise of the study. Data were collected from300microfinance recipient-respondents using face-to-face semi-structured interview schedule. Descriptive statistics, stepwise regression, and commonality analysis were employed to estimate the factors related to effective participation in the microfinance program. Both the governmental organization (GO) and the non-governmental organization (NGO) gave preference to rural, powerless, illiterate, and poor people in this venture. GO administration of repayment was disappointing (55%regularly repaying), compared to85%for NGOs. Farm size, repayment behavior, savings amount per week, and annual household income, were significant factors for recipients'effective participation in the microfinance program, whereas the NGO handling their respondents better than the GO. The success of the microfinance program depends on related factors in both the financing authorities and the recipients.
There is growing recognition that microfinance programs have the potential to provide equitable and sustainable rural livelihood development. In the second exercise, analyzed the impact of different microfinance providers on basic rights and quality of life. Data were collected in two phases (June2010and2012) from300microfinance beneficiaries and200respondents of control groups using the same procedure. Descriptive statistics, factor analysis, multiple regression, propensity score matching, and treatment effect models were employed to ascertain the impact of microfinance provision on livelihood conditions. Microfinance increased the basic rights of the respondents and helped them improve their quality of life, as indicated by reduced food insecurity and improved nutrition, food and health, clothing, housing, sanitation, medicare, and education facilities. The positive changes were consistently more impressive in the non-governmental microfinance recipients than the governmental microfinance recipients. These data may help the governmental microfinance sector in particular to formulate a policy framework that drives improvements in sustainable rural development.
Poverty alleviation is known to influence rural empowerment. Microfinance has become very important in global poverty reduction debates. Here investigated the impact of microfinance on recipients'economic, family and social, and political empowerment as the third exercise. Data were collected using the same techniques of previous exercise. Descriptive statistics, factor analysis, multiple regression, propensity score matching, and treatment effect models were employed to assess the impact of microfinance provision on recipients' empowerment. In the majority of areas microfinance increases recipients' empowerment. The effect is largest for family and social and political empowerment of recipients of governmental organization microfinance, while non-governmental microfinance recipients' saw more improvements in their economic empowerment. A Pearson's correlation matrix is used to analyze the associate relationship among the recipients' and non-recipients' livelihood and empowerment indicators and found that there had been positive and significant association. The degree of association varied based on the level of livelihood and empowerment conditions of both study and control group. Microfinance is an effective tool for rural empowerment.
Finally, In respect to problems faced by the recipients in microfinance program, the majority of them did not face any problem in their membership period, while some of them claimed organization (GO) has lack of proper monitoring system and cannot get back the savings payment easily, do not maintain the given commitment, etc. A group of them were subject to unable to suggest for the betterment of the microfinance program because of their extreme laggardness. Non-members opined that the program is beneficial for the poor people, although a part of them had negative impression. There was a big gap among the non-members respondents about the positive role of microfinance program.
人们越来越认识到小额信贷项目在促进公平和农村生计可持续发展中有较大的潜力。本文第二个实证研究,分析了不同小额信贷供给者对小额贷款受助者基本权利和生活质量的影响问题。研究的数据采用了作者2010-2012年调研收集的300个小额贷款受益者样本,以及200个未参与小额信贷农户的访谈数据,后者为控制组样本。本研究利用描述性统计、因子分析、多元回归、倾向得分匹配和处理效果模型,来估计小额信贷供给对受访者民生状况的影响。结果显示,小额信贷增加了受访者的基本权利,并显著地提高了他们的生活质量,减轻粮食消费短缺,改善营养、食物与健康、衣着、住房、卫生、医疗和教育设施等方面的状况。然而,政府与非政府组织小额信贷接受者的日均卡路里摄入量仍然低于他们所需的水平。数据显示,尽管改变并没那么明显,但小额信贷确实提高了人们储备食物的能力,人们的健康意识也在这段时间内有了一定程度的提升,只不过小额信贷在这方面的作用依然不显著。所有组别的衣着水平有所提升,控制组中的受访者的住房条件有着较大改善。在接受小额贷款后,几乎没有受访者仍居住在不安全不卫生的房屋内,显然,在这些方面,小额信贷确实起到了重要作用。受访者对已有卫生间设施进行了改善,更多地使用了更清洁的卫生设施。由于先前就已引入了良好的饮用水设施,所以在这方面小额信贷并没有显示出较大的影响。小额信贷受助者中从目不识丁到拥有签名能力,展现了显著的积极变化。同时,人们越来越关心医疗服务的质量。小额信贷项目改善了信贷者的生活条件,同时也消减了贫困水平。受访者年龄、参与小额信贷项目的持续时间、小额信贷供给的利率以及家庭年收入都对小额信贷对基本权利的改变有着显著影响。其中,小额贷款利率是最重要的影响因素。受访者的性别、所受小额贷款使用方式、接受小额信贷的次数以及他们的农场规模也对其生活质量的改变有着显著贡献,其中,受访者的性别是最重要的影响因素。小额信贷的利率、每周储蓄额对受访者的基本权利有着负向影响,即融资机构对较高信贷额收取的高利率以及较高的每周储蓄额要求,使得基本权的获得收到了严格的受限。所受小额信贷的次数对受访者的生活质量有着负向作用。相对于政府小额信贷受益者,这种改善效果在非政府小额信贷者中表现出更加明显。这一分析结果将有助于政府小额信贷部门建立一个推动与改善农村可持续发展的政策框架。
减贫可以影响农村自主权。小额信贷在全球减贫问题的争论中已成为一个非常重要的关键因素。本文的第三个实证部分,研究了小额信贷对受助人的经济、家庭、社会及政治自主权的影响问题。为此,本文基于上述面谈数据,采用描述性统计、因子分析、多元回归、倾向得分匹配和处理效果模型,实证分析了小额信贷供给对受助人经济、家庭、社会及政治状况的影响。实证结果发现,在大部分地区,小额信贷增加了受助人的自主权。政府小额信贷的受助人的家庭、社会和政治状况受到影响最大,同时非政府小额信贷受助人的经济能力也有较大改善。可见,小额信贷对提高农村自主权是一种有效的工具。政府信贷对家庭、社会和政治的影响更大,而非政府组织对经济的影响更深,且非政府组织信贷所改善的领域更广
在接受为期两年的小额贷款后,所有组别的工资和收入水平均有了提高；相对于未接受信贷者,信贷者的收入水平有着显著提高。小额信贷似乎可以提高受访者家庭权力与家庭活动的决策能力,提高的幅度则取决于他们现有的水平和之前的能力。非政府组织服务提供者的动机行为受到更多规制、更有条理。在多数情况下,接受不同组织小额信贷的人,似乎丧失了自由或自由状况并未得到改善。小额信贷对抗议社会暴力行为有影响,未信贷者的抗议力相对较低。相较于控制组,小额贷款接受者在领导力、社会福利上有明显的进步,但是控制组受访者的社会责任感更强。受访者的年龄、性别、他们的农场规模和所受小额贷款的使用方式对通过利用小额信贷改变自己的经济能力方面有着显著的影响。其中,农场规模是最重要的因素。受访者的年龄、性别、他们的还款行为和小额信贷的数额对改变其家庭和社会权力方面有着显著的影响；受访者的年龄是最重要的影响因素。受访者的年龄、农场规模、他们的家庭年收入、所受小额信贷的利率,以及每周储蓄额对改变他们的政治权力有着显著影响。其中,他们的年龄、家庭年收入和所获小额贷款的利率是最重要的影响因素。小额贷款金额、利率和每周的储蓄额,对受访者的家庭、社会和政治权力产生负向作用。这表明,金融机构收取的高利率和每周较高的储蓄要求,严重制约了政治权的获得。基于皮尔逊相关矩阵的实证分析结果显示：受助人和非受助人生活质量和自主权指标之间存在显著的正相关关系,但研究对象组和控制组的生活和自主权指标之间具有不同的相关度。
最后,在受助人面临的有关小额信贷项目问题方面,50%以上的来自非政府组织信贷的受访者和1/4的从政府组织信贷的受访者提出在整个周期中没有遇到任何问题。其他人则声称,比如出现缺乏适当监控、不容易取回存款支付、给定承诺无法维持、贷款金额不足和定期还款压力大等问题；少数受访者建议,应该加强经常性的监督,提供足够的小额信贷数额,建立储金还款系统,以适应需要,以应对意料之外的不正常支付,信贷组织应提高项目的灵活性。大部分非成员认为,该项目对穷人有利,尽管他们不能享受。他们中的一部分人对这个项目不了解,其他一些人对这个项目有一定的负面评价。有一半以上的受访者对参与这个项目不感兴趣。经济上较弱的受访者相对来说更有兴趣参与小额信贷项目,其次是条件较好的受访者,但因为他们太贫穷,而无法获取融资权。以上现象表明,非成员受访者对小额信贷项目的积极作用的评价有着很大的差距。
为加快农村经济发展,政府需要制定新的政策。公办信贷机构也需要得到专门的引导,以全面改善对小额信贷的支持服务。另外,信贷机构尤其是非政府组织有必要增加额外信贷计划,以提升对家庭、社会、政治层面的影响程度；政府组织需要更加规范化、有序化,在选拔信贷人员时避免误差,以确保专业性。小额信贷机构在增加贷款数额或提供房屋建设贷款时,应予以特别的关注。为了提高接受者在农村的生活水平和自主力,政府部门需考虑调低贷款利率以减少同等利率的每周存款额。信贷机构应区分贷款人员性别优先次序,并且在确定信贷前应考虑申请者的年龄、收入来源、农场规模和参与项目的持久性等因素。不应该给那些已经从其他组织获得支持的人提供新的贷款。这些受助者应努力在几个周期或几年内达到自给自足,从而依靠自己的收入而非小额信贷来对未来进行投资。小额贷款机构,尤其是非政府机构,应注重通过自觉性培训来激励受助者对他人和社会的责任感和同情心。政府机构的项目实施经营应该更具制度化,尤其是要增强定期技能培训,提升个人创收能力和经营效益。信贷发放之后,机构需要确保受助者所得贷款能合理地用于多产高效的项目,以保证定期还款。小额贷款的成功,取决于政府和非政府组织以及非盈利机构的能力并能适应低收入群体进行生产活动的融资需求。政府应主动保护在耕或在垦土地。此外,计划生育措施也要加紧实施。信贷机构有必要重新制定项目战略,优先考虑目前大部分客户的需求。他们应先关注现行项目出现的问题；在任何项目执行之前,需要经过可行性研究进行评估。通过考虑小额信贷项目的主要成本和收益来评估这个项目的外在影响,需要得到进一步的研究。
本文的研究发现与结论可为政策决策者、管理者和发展工作人员提供重要的决策参考。
Bangladesh has pioneered the implementation of an innovative microfinance program, placing it at the forefront of microfinance initiatives in developing countries. Microfinance is becoming an increasingly important tool to combat poverty through employment generation. Here analyzed the factors related to effective participation in the microfinance program in Bangladesh as the first exercise of the study. Data were collected from300microfinance recipient-respondents using face-to-face semi-structured interview schedule. Descriptive statistics, stepwise regression, and commonality analysis were employed to estimate the factors related to effective participation in the microfinance program. Both the governmental organization (GO) and the non-governmental organization (NGO) gave preference to rural, powerless, illiterate, and poor people in this venture. GO administration of repayment was disappointing (55%regularly repaying), compared to85%for NGOs. Farm size, repayment behavior, savings amount per week, and annual household income, were significant factors for recipients'effective participation in the microfinance program, whereas the NGO handling their respondents better than the GO. The success of the microfinance program depends on related factors in both the financing authorities and the recipients.
There is growing recognition that microfinance programs have the potential to provide equitable and sustainable rural livelihood development. In the second exercise, analyzed the impact of different microfinance providers on basic rights and quality of life. Data were collected in two phases (June2010and2012) from300microfinance beneficiaries and200respondents of control groups using the same procedure. Descriptive statistics, factor analysis, multiple regression, propensity score matching, and treatment effect models were employed to ascertain the impact of microfinance provision on livelihood conditions. Microfinance increased the basic rights of the respondents and helped them improve their quality of life, as indicated by reduced food insecurity and improved nutrition, food and health, clothing, housing, sanitation, medicare, and education facilities. The positive changes were consistently more impressive in the non-governmental microfinance recipients than the governmental microfinance recipients. These data may help the governmental microfinance sector in particular to formulate a policy framework that drives improvements in sustainable rural development.
Poverty alleviation is known to influence rural empowerment. Microfinance has become very important in global poverty reduction debates. Here investigated the impact of microfinance on recipients'economic, family and social, and political empowerment as the third exercise. Data were collected using the same techniques of previous exercise. Descriptive statistics, factor analysis, multiple regression, propensity score matching, and treatment effect models were employed to assess the impact of microfinance provision on recipients' empowerment. In the majority of areas microfinance increases recipients' empowerment. The effect is largest for family and social and political empowerment of recipients of governmental organization microfinance, while non-governmental microfinance recipients' saw more improvements in their economic empowerment. A Pearson's correlation matrix is used to analyze the associate relationship among the recipients' and non-recipients' livelihood and empowerment indicators and found that there had been positive and significant association. The degree of association varied based on the level of livelihood and empowerment conditions of both study and control group. Microfinance is an effective tool for rural empowerment.
Finally, In respect to problems faced by the recipients in microfinance program, the majority of them did not face any problem in their membership period, while some of them claimed organization (GO) has lack of proper monitoring system and cannot get back the savings payment easily, do not maintain the given commitment, etc. A group of them were subject to unable to suggest for the betterment of the microfinance program because of their extreme laggardness. Non-members opined that the program is beneficial for the poor people, although a part of them had negative impression. There was a big gap among the non-members respondents about the positive role of microfinance program.
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