美国新闻署对苏文化冷战行为研究(1953-1961)
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摘要
最近几年,国际学术界兴起了一股“文化冷战史”研究热潮。有别于以往偏重于研究政治、经济等因素对冷战的影响,文化冷战史特别关注信息文化因素对冷战发展演变的影响。仔细探究美苏文化冷战的相关历史,不难发现,仅就美国而言,为了赢得“人心之战”,它通过多个不同机构和部门来负责开展此方面的具体工作。这其中,1953年成立的美国新闻署就曾经发挥过重大作用。
     为了更好地考察美苏文化冷战的具体内容及实质内涵,本论文特别选取艾森豪威尔任期(1953—1961)的美国新闻署作为主要研究对象,运用历史学、国际政治学等多学科的研究方法,深入解读与此相关的原始档案资料,依此探究该机构如何推行美国对苏联的文化冷战战略。除引言及结语外,本论文将艾森豪威尔任期美国新闻署对苏文化冷战划分为肇始、扩大、调整和升级四个阶段予以论述,具体来讲:
     第一章是背景介绍,重点梳理美苏文化冷战的缘起,同时亦考察了战后初期美国对外信息文化交流机构的演变历程。
     第二章论述美国新闻署的成立过程。通过重新整合多家原本隶属于不同部门的对外宣传机构,新成立的美国新闻署成为负责公开对外宣传的专属机构。即便如此,对成立初期的美国新闻署进行考察,不难发现在起始阶段面对苏联发起的文化攻势它却怀有深深的恐惧。此外,受制于当时美苏隔绝的状态,美国新闻署并没有太多的渠道来扩大对苏文化冷战,美国之音基本成了它开展这项工作的唯一武器。
     第三章分析美国冷战战略由“解放”转为“演变”之后,美国新闻署重新调整其对苏文化冷战策略的过程。为了扩大对苏联的无形影响和实现对苏联的渗透,美国新闻署尝试采用一些新措施以便更好地接触苏联民众。具体而言,一方面,通过与苏联达成协议,它得以在苏联发行《美国画报》;另一方面,在对苏文化交流特别是直接人员交流等方面亦取得了一些突破。不过,需要引起注意的是,1956年匈牙利事件的发生却对其扩大对苏文化冷战的努力造成了严重干扰。
     第四章首先讨论匈牙利事件之后美国之音改革的内容。鉴于国际社会特别是苏联指责美国之音煽动了匈牙利事件爆发,白宫高层对美国之音在匈牙利事件中的表现进行了仔细考察。尽管他们不认同苏联的指责,但却认为美国之音报道内容包含过多的宣传色彩。有鉴于此,行政高层提出应该对美国之音的播音腔调和节目设置作出必要的改变和调整。与此同时,美国新闻署领导层在对此问题进行讨论时,结合变化了的国际形势,普遍认为应该从整体对该问题进行思考。最终,经过重新定位,美国新闻署决定给予“软渗透”更多的实施空间,同时辅之以“硬宣传”来更好地实现对苏联进行文化渗透。令其高兴的是,1958年《美苏文化交流协定》的签署为其“软渗透”策略的推行提供了重大保障。
     第五章重点论述美国新闻署筹划与举办美国莫斯科国家展览的过程,同时阐明在此次展览培育的良好氛围下,美苏两国高层开展戴维营会谈并且美国新闻署以此为契机进一步推动其对苏文化冷战升级。
     结语部分笔者简单分析了美国新闻署在对苏文化冷战中逐渐占据上风的原因,同时部分论及了美国新闻署对苏文化冷战的缺点和局限。
In recent years, research of “Cultural Cold War” has increased greatly in theinternational academic field. Unlike the previous studies which focus on the impact ofpolitical, economic factors on the Cold War, the Cultural Cold War pay particular attention tothe impact of information and cultural factors on the evolution of Cold War. To explore thehistory of US-Soviet Cultural Cold War,it is easy to find that the US has adopted a numberof different agencies and departments to carry out the specific work to win the hearts andminds of men. Among these agencies, the USIA which was established in1953, has onceplayed a major role.
     In order to examine the specific content and nature of the US-Soviet Cultural Cold Warbetter, this paper specifically selects the USIA during the Eisenhower term (1953-1961) as themain subject. Meantime, by using historical, international political, etc. multi-disciplinaryresearch method, and also deeply interpretated the documents, this paper then explores howthe USIA implement the strategy against Soviet Union. In addation to the introduction andconclusion part, this paper divides the USIA during the Eisenhower term against Soviet UnionCultural Cold War into four parts to dicuss. They are setting, expanding, adjusting, andenlarging phases.
     The first chapter is the background introduction which focuses on the origins of the US-Soviet cultural Cold War, and also examines the evolution of the American foreigninformation and exchange agencies in the early postwar.
     On these basis, the following chapter discusses the process of establishing the USIA.Based on the re-integration of the different sectors originally belong to American foreigninformation, the newly formed USIA became the exclusive agency which is responsible forall American information activities overseas. However, it is found that the USIA has deepfears towards the worldwide cultural offensive which launched by Soviet Union in the earlydays. In addition, subjected to the US-Soviet isolated state then, the USIA did not have manychannels to expand the Cultural Cold War against Soviet Union. Therefore, VOA basicallybecame the only weapon to carry out the work.
     The third chapter analyzes the course of the strategy re-adjustment made by the USIAagainst Soviet Union Cultural Cold War after the US Cold War strategy changed from“liberation” to “evolution”. In order to expand the invisible influence and achieve penetrationto the Soviet Union, the USIA attempts to adopt new measures to better contact with theSoviet people. Specifically, on the one hand, through the agreement with the Soviet Union,the US is able to re-issue American Illustrated in the Soviet Union. On the other hand, the UShas also made some breakthrough in the cultural exchanges particularly in the direct personalexchanges. However, it should be stressed that the occurrence of the Hungary events in1956created a serious interference to the efforts of US Cultural Cold War expansion against SovietUnion.
     The fourth chapter firstly discusses the reform of VOA after the Incident of Hungary. Inview of the fact that the international community, especially the Soviet Union, accused theVOA of inciting the Hungarian outbreak, the White House senior carefully inspected theperformance of VOA in the events. Though they denied the Soviet accusations, they believethat VOA broadcast contains too much propaganda tone. In view of this, the senioradministration proposed that the tone and programs of VOA should be changed and adjusted.Apparently, this move is more for VOA. However, after discussion on this issue andcombined with the international situation, the leadership of the USA generally believe that theissue should be considered as a whole. Eventually, after repositioning, the USIA decided togive “soft sell” more space and complement it with “hard sell”to better achieve the subversionof the Soviet regime. What pleases the US now is that the Agreement on US-Soviet culturalexchange signed in1958provides significant protection to the implementation of the “softsell”.
     The fifth chapter mainly explores how the USIA helped plan and staff the AmericanNational Exhibiton in Moscow during1959, as well as clarify the fact that in the goodatmosphere nurtured in the exhibition, the US and Soviet Union carried out high-level talks atCamp David and the USIA take this as an opportunity to further promote the Cultural ColdWar upgrade.
     In the conclusion part, the reasons why the USIA gradually got the upper hand in theCultural Cold War against Soviet Union has been analyzed. Meantime, the shortcomings andlimitations of the USIA-Soviet Union Culture Cold War are also discussed.
引文
①Walter L. Hixson, Parting the Curtain: Propaganda, Culture and the Cold War1945—1961,Basingstoke: Macmillan Press Ltd,1997,p.x.
    ②翟强:“西方冷战史研究近况”,樊百玉整理,available at:http://history.ecnu.edu.cn/kyxx/xshd/000360.html,2012—03—11。该文是翟强教授2008年4月29日在华东师范大学历史系所做“西方冷战史研究近况”报告的整理稿。
    ③Lowell H.Schwartz,Political Warfare against the Kremlin,US and British Propaganda Policy at theBeginning of the Cold War,New York:Palgrave Macmillan,2009,p.1.
    ①Giles Scott-Smith,Hans Krabbendam,The Cultural Cold War in Western Europe,1945—1960,London:Frank Cass,2003,p.3.
    ③佩吕斯(R.I. Perusse):《心理战的重估》,转引自[法]阿芒·马特拉:《世界传播与文化霸权:思想与战略的历史》,陈卫星译,北京:中央编译出版社2001年版,第90页。,1950,Collection: Presidential Directives,Item Number:PD00200.
    ⑤Kenneth A. Osgood, Total Cold War: Eisenhower’s Secret Propaganda Battle at Home and Abroad,Lawrence,KS.:University Press of Kansas,2006,pp.33—35.
    ①惠特菲尔德教授是美国知名的文化史研究专家,曾撰写过多部有关美国文化史的著作。例如:Stephen J.Whitfield,The Culture of the Cold War,Baltimore:Johns Hopkins University Press,1991;Stephen J.Whitfield,In Search of American Jewish Culture,Hanover,N. H.:University Press of New England,1999.
    ②Stephen J.Whitfield,“The Cultural Cold War as History”,The Virginia Quarterly Review,Summer1993, pp.377—392, available at http://www.vqronline.org/articles/1993/summer/whitfield-cultural-cold/,2012—07—15.
    ③Reinhold Wagnleitner: Coca-Colonization and the Cold War: The Cultural Mission of the UnitedStates in Austria after the Second World War,Chapel Hill&London:University of North CarolinaPress,1994.
    ④Reinhold Wagnleitner: Coca-Colonization and the Cold War: The Cultural Mission of the UnitedStates in Austria after the Second World War,Chapel Hill&London:University of North CarolinaPress,1994,pp.ix—xiv.
    ⑤Frances Stonor Saunders,Who Paid the Piper? The CIA and the Cultural Cold War,London: Granta,1999.
    ⑥最近几年,在研究冷战期间美苏在信息文化交流领域的斗争时,国内也有一些研究人员开始使用文化冷战这一术语。相关作品如:胡惠林:《论文化冷战与大国文化战略博弈》,《毛泽东邓小平理论研究》,2007年第3期;申小翠:《好的宣传就是做得不像宣传——西方国家的文化冷战策略研究》,《郑州大学学报》(哲学社会科学版),2007年第5期;赵丽杰:《文化冷战、《苏维埃生活》和《美国画报》》,《读书》,2008年第6期;张敢:《神话的制造者——美国抽象表现主义与文化冷战》,《文艺研究》,2009年第6期;王誉晔:《艾森豪威尔时期美国在欧洲的文化冷战研究》,华中师范大学硕士学位论文,2012年;赵玉明:《文化冷战与冷战初期的苏联反美宣传——以中央宣传鼓动部解密档案为切入点》,《俄罗斯研究》,2013年第1期;杨茂:《文化冷战——艾森豪威尔政府对第三世界国家的体育外交》,《体育科学》,2013年第6期。
    ①相关评介文章如:Russell H. Bartley:“The Piper Played to Us All:Orchestrating the Cultural ColdWar in the USA, Europe, and Latin America”, International Journal of Politics, Culture, andSociety,Vol.14, No.3,Spring,2001,pp.571-619;Jeffrey C.Isaac,“Rethinking the cultural coldwar”,Dissent,Vol.49,No.3,Summer2002,pp.29—38;Dean Bakopoulos,“Book review:The CulturalCold War:The CIA and the World of Arts and Letters”,The Progressive,Vol.64,No.7,July2000,p.44;James Petras,“The CIA and the cultural cold war revisited”,Monthly Review,Vol.51,No.6,November1999,pp.47—56;王绍光:《中央情报局与文化冷战》,《读书》(北京),2002年第5期,第96—103页。
    ②在译成中文时,译者将书名简化为《文化冷战与中央情报局》。参见:[英]弗朗西斯·桑德斯:《文化冷战与中央情报局》,曹大鹏译,北京:国际文化出版公司2002年版。
    ③Charles K.Armstrong,“The Cultural Cold War in Korea,1945-1950”,The Journal of Asian Studies,Vol.62,No.1,Feberary2003,p.71.
    ④在对美国国家档案馆馆藏的有关美国新闻署的档案资料进行整理时,该馆档案员也选择把其中的部分档案资料归为文化冷战的行列,并且专门单列了一个名为“文化冷战”的档案子集来予以保存。美国国家档案馆有关文化冷战的档案保存情况,可参见:The Cultural Cold War,Entry Number(s):P191,available at http://research.archives.gov/description/6015945,2014—04—01.
    ⑤翟强:“西方冷战史研究近况”,樊百玉整理,available at http://history.ecnu.edu.cn/kyxx/xshd/000360.html,2012—03—11。
    ①沈志华:《一个新的学术增长点——“冷战国际史”海外研究状况简介》,《中国社会科学辑刊》春季卷,2010年3月,总第30期,上海:复旦大学出版社。
    ②例如,贾尔斯·斯科特-史密斯(Giles Scott-Smith)等编著的《西欧的文化冷战,1945—1961》重点梳理了在西欧进行文化冷战的相关情况;美国杜肯大学(Duquesne University)研究学者格雷格·巴恩海西尔(GregBarnhisel)同样对美国在西欧进行的文化冷战进行了研究,并重点就现代主义如何服务于美国冷战需要进行了阐释。 Giles Scott-Smith, Hans Krabbendam, The Cultural Cold War in Western Europe,1945—1960,London:Frank Cass,2003;Greg Barnhisel:“Perspectives USA and the Cultural Cold War:Modernism inService of the State”,Modernism/Modernity,Vol.14,Number4,pp.729—754;
    ③例如,学者阿姆斯特朗就特别对冷战初期美苏在朝鲜进行文化冷战的相关情况进行了介绍。参见:CharlesK.Armstrong,“The Cultural Cold War in Korea,1945-1950”,The Journal of Asian Studies,Vol.62,No.1,Feberary2003.
    ④Kristin Roth-ey,Moscow Prime Time: How the Soviet Union Built the Media Empire That Lost theCultural Cold War,Ithaca,N.Y.:Cornell University Press,2011.
    ⑤Kenneth A.Osgood,“Hearts and Minds:The Unconventional Cold War”,Journal of Cold War Studies,Vol.4,No.2,Spring2002,pp.85—107.
    ⑥Gary D. Rawnsley,Cold-War Propaganda in the1950s,New York: St. Martin’s Press,Inc.,1999,p.17.
    ①白建才:《“第三种选择”:冷战期间美国对外隐蔽行动战略研究》,北京:人民出版社2012年版,第57页。
    ②李慎明主编:《历史在这里沉思,苏联解体20周年祭》,北京:社会科学文献出版社2011年版。
    ③胡惠林:《论文化冷战与大国文化战略博弈》,《毛泽东邓小平理论研究》,2007年第3期,第25页。
    ④需要说明的是,虽然本文倾向于使用文化冷战这一术语来描述冷战期间美苏在信息文化交流领域的斗争情况,但在后文论述过程中,特别是在直接引用已有学者的著作时,诸如宣传战、心理战以及信息和交流项目等概念仍将会在本文中不断出现。
    ①Nancy Snow,Propaganda Inc.: Selling America's Culture to the World,2nd Edition,New York:SevenStories Press,2002,p.31.
    ②H-Diplo Roundtable Review,Laura Belmonte,Selling the American Way: U.S. Propaganda and the ColdWar,June12,2012,p.13,available at http://www.h-net.org/~diplo/roundtables/PDF/Roundtable-XIII-3.pdf,2013—03—19.
    ③[美]拉斯韦尔:《世界大战中的宣传技巧》,张洁、田青译,北京:中国人民大学出版社2003年版,第Ⅻ页。
    ①John Boardman Whitton,Propaganda and the Cold War,Washington D.C.: Public Affairs Press,1963,p.iii.
    ②Thomas C. Sorensen,The Word War: The Story of American Propaganda,New York: Harper&Row,1968,p.47.
    ③Hans N.Tuch,G.Lewis Schmidt,Ike and USIA, A Commemorative Symposium,U.S.Information AgencyAlumni Association and the Public Diplomacy Foundation of Washington,D.C.,1991.
    ④Kenneth A.Osgood, Total Cold War: Eisenhower's Secret Propaganda Battle at Home and Abroad,Lawrence: University Press of Kansas,2006.
    ⑤Nicholas J. Cull,The Cold War and the United States Information Agency: American Propaganda andPublic Diplomacy,1945–1989,New York: Cambridge University Press,2008,p.494.
    ①Walter L. Hixson, Parting the Curtain: Propaganda, Culture, and the Cold War,1945-1961,Basingstoke: Macmillan,1997,p.xv.
    ②2011年年底,笔者曾在美国国家档案馆特别查找过该研究报告,并最终在《特别报告》档案集(Special Reports)中找到了其原件。见:U.S. National Archives,College Park,MD,Record Group306,Records of The U.S.Information Agency(以下简称NA,RG306),A Study of USIA Operating Assumptions,December1954,Special Reports(S),1953—1997,Box5-6.
    ③NA,RG306,Special Reports(S),1953—1997,Box5,A Study of USIA Operating Assumptions,Vol.I,December1954.
    ④Leo Bogart, Cool Words, Cold War: A New Look at USIA’s Premises for Propaganda (RevisedEdition),Washington,D.C.: The American University Press,1995,p. viii.
    ①美国首任署长就这些话题所做演讲的原始记录,可以在美国国家档案馆中找到。见:NA,RG306,BiographicFiles Relating to USIA Directors and Other Senior Officials,1953—2000,Box29.
    ②Abbott Washburn,“U. S. Information Agency”, World Affairs,Vol.119,No.4,Winter1956,pp.101-103.
    ③Wilson P. Dizard Jr., The Strategy of Truth: The Story of the U.S. Information Service,Washington,D.C.: Public Affairs Press,1961.
    ④John B.Adams,“Review”,Social Forces,Vol.40,No.4,May1962,p.394.
    ⑤John Boardman Whitton,Propaganda and the Cold War,Washington,D.C.: Public Affairs Press,1963.
    ①Ronald I.Rubin, The Objectives of the United States Information Agency: Controversies andAnalysis,New York,Washington and London: Frederick A. Praeger,1968.
    ②Leo Bogart,Premises for Propaganda:The United States Information Agency's Operating Assumptionsin the Cold War, New York:Free Press,1976.
    ③Leo Bogart, Cool Words, Cold War: A New Look at USIA’s Premises for Propaganda (RevisedEdition),Washington,D.C.: The American University Press,1995,p. viii.
    ④Lowell H.Schwartz,Political Warfare against the Kremlin,US and British Propaganda Policy at theBeginning of the Cold War,New York:Palgrave Macmillan,2009.
    ①Lowell H.Schwartz,Political Warfare against the Kremlin,US and British Propaganda Policy at theBeginning of the Cold War,New York:Palgrave Macmillan,2009,p.6.
    ②Holly Cowan Shulman,Voice of America: Propaganda and Democracy,1941-1945,Madison: University ofWisconsin Press,1990,p.77.
    ③Ludmilla Alexeyeva,U.S. Broadcasting to the Soviet Union,Helsinki Watch Committee,1986.
    ①Michael Nelson,War of the Black Heavens: The Battles of Western Broadcasting in the Cold War,NewYork: Syracuse University Press,1997.
    ②Alan L. Heil,Jr.,Voice of America:a history,New York: Columbia University Press,2003.
    ③Alan L. Heil,Jr.,Voice of America:a history,New York: Columbia University Press,2003,p.4.
    ④Bernard Rubin,“International Film and Television Propaganda: Campaigns of Assistance”,Annalsof the American Academy of Political and Social Science,Vol.398,November1971,p.83.
    ①Richard Alan Nelson,“Sources for Archival Research on Film and Television Propaganda in theUnited States”,Film History, Vol.3,No.4,1989,pp.333-340.
    ②Philip H. Coombs,The Fourth Dimension of Foreign Policy: Educational and Cultural Affairs,NewYork: Council on Foreign Relations and Harper&Row,1964.
    ③Charles Frankel,The Neglected Aspect of Foreign Affairs: American Educational and Cultural PolicyAbroad,Washington,D.C.: The Brookings Institution,1965.
    ④Leonard R. Sussman,The culture of freedom: the small world of Fulbright scholars,Lanham,Md.:Rowman&Littlefield,1992,pp.147,89.
    ①Arthur Power Dudden and Russel R. Dynes, The Fulbright Experience,1946-1986: Encounters andTransformations,New Brunswick,N.J.: Transaction Books,1987,p.ix.
    ②Yale Richmond,U.S.-Soviet Culutral Exchanges,1958—1986,Who Wins?Boulder:Westview Press,Inc.,1987.
    ③David Caute,The Dancer Defects:The Struggle for Cultural Supremacy during the Cold War,NewYork:Oxford University Press,2003.
    ④例如: Penny M. Von Eschen,Satchmo Blows Up the World: Jazz Ambassadors Play the Cold War,Cambridge,Massachusetts:Harvard University Press,2004;Toby Charles Rider,The Olympic Games andthe Secret Cold War: The U.S. Government and the Propaganda Campaign Against Communist Sport,1950-1960,available at http://www.uwo.ca/olympic/dissertations/toby_rider_phd.pdf,2013—06—21;TonyBennett,Rock and Popular Music:Politics,Policies,Institutions,New York:Routledge,1993.
    ①Allen C.Hansen,USIA,Public Diplomacy in the Computer Age,2nd ed,New York:Praeger Publishers,1989,p.xiii.
    ②Michael Nelson,War of the Black Heavens: The Battles of Western Broadcasting in the Cold War,NewYork: Syracuse University Press,1997,p.193.
    ③丛英民主编:《国际广播发展趋势研究》,北京:中国国际广播出版社1996年版,第4页。
    ④Yale Richmond,U.S.—Soviet Cultural Exchange,1958—1986,Who Wins? Boulder,Colo.,and London:Westview Press,Inc.,1987,p.1.
    ⑤Yale Richmond,U.S.—Soviet Cultural Exchange,1958—1986,Who Wins? Boulder,Colo.,and London:Westview Press,Inc.,1987,pp.8,32.
    ⑥探究意识形态同苏联解体关系的相关著作,可参见: Christian Thorun,Explaining Change in RussianForeign Policy:The Role of Ideas in Post-Soviet Russia’s Conduct towards the West,New York:Palgrave Macmillan,2009; Walter Laqueur,The Dream that Failed:Reflections on the Soviet Union,New York:Oxford University Press,Inc.,1994;Robert D. English,Russia and the Idea of the West:Gorbachev, Intellectuals, and the End of the Cold War,New York: Columbia University Press,2000;David Arbel and Ran Edelist,Western Intelligence and the Collapse of the Soviet Union:1980–1990——Ten Years that did not Shake the World,Oregon:Frank Cass Publishers,2003.
    ①Nicholas J. Cull,“USIA: Gone but not Forgotten”,Perspectives,Vol.I,Issue6,October2009,p.1.
    ②Wilson P. Dizard Jr., Inventing Public Diplomacy: The Story of the U.S. Information Agency,Boulder,Colorado: Lynne Rienner Publishers,Inc.,2004,p.xiv.
    ③Michael J.Zwiebel,“Why We Need to Reestablish the USIA”,Military Review,Vol.86,November-December2006,p.35.
    ①Yale Richmond,Culture Exchange and the Cold War: Raising the Iron Curtain,Pennsylvania:ThePennsylvania State University,2003,p.229.
    ②韩召颖:《输出美国:美国新闻署与美国公众外交》,天津:天津人民出版社2000年版。
    ③郭又新:《穿越“铁幕”:美国对“苏东国家”的冷战宣传(1945—1963)》,东北师范大学博士学位论文,2003年。
    ①于群主编:《新冷战史研究:美国的心理宣传战和情报战》,上海:三联书店2009年版。
    ②彭凤玲:《杜鲁门、艾森豪威尔政府对西欧心理战略研究》,陕西师范大学博士学位论文,2010。
    ③刘鸣筝:《美国公共外交研究(1917—2009)》,吉林大学博士学位论文,2011年。
    ④例如:胡文涛:《解读文化外交:一种学理分析》,《外交评论》,2007年第3期;胡文涛:《冷战期间美国文化外交的演变》,《史学集刊》,2007年第1期;胡文涛:《冷战结束前私人基金会与美国文化外交》,《太平洋学报》,2008年第3期。
    ⑤不可否认,与中国学者所作研究相比,美国学者对美国新闻署的研究从各方面来讲都更加具体和深入。但即便如此,考虑到美国新闻署机构设置复杂、宣传方式多样,并且不少学者的身份特殊,现有研究成果并不能真正展示该
    ①Nancy Snow,“The Smith-Mundt Act of1948”,Peace Review, Vol.10,No.4,December1998,p.621.
    ②Walter L. Hixson, Parting the Curtain,Propaganda,Culture,and the Cold War,1945—1961,Basingstoke: Macmillan Press Ltd,1997,p.X.
    ①王家福,徐萍:《国际战略学》,北京:高等教育出版社2005年版,第33页。
    ①NA,RG306,Director's subject Files,1957—58,Administration—Private Enterprise Cooperation,Box1,U.S.I.A. Basic Guidance Paper,1957.
    ②NA,RG306,1949-1970General Subject Files,UD-WW372,box606,Suggested Approaches to theOutput Study,December4,1956.
    ⑥[美]约瑟夫·奈:《美国霸权的困惑:为什么美国不能独断专行》,郑志国等译,北京:世界知识出版社2002年版,第76页。
    ①Michael J.Zwiebel,“Why We Need to Reestablish the USIA”,Military Review,Vol.86,November-December2006.
    ②Gary D. Rawnsley,Cold-War Propaganda in the1950s,New York: St. Martin’s Press,Inc.,1999,p.1.
    ③Kenneth A.Osgood,“Hearts and Minds:The Unconventional Cold War”,Journal of Cold War Studies,Vol.4, No.2,Spring2002,p.107.
    ④Kenneth A.Osgood,“Hearts and Minds:The Unconventional Cold War”,Journal of Cold War Studies,Vol.4, No.2,Spring2002,p.86.
    ①John Hughes, Islamic Extremism and the War of Ideas——Lessons from Indonesia, Stanford,California: Hoover Institution Press,2010,pp.8—11.
    ②Gary D. Rawnsley,Cold-War Propaganda in the1950s,New York: St. Martin’s Press,Inc.,1999,p.19.
    ①林克编译:《伍德罗·威尔逊文件集》,第53卷,1986年版,第576页。转引自王晓德:《美国文化与外交》,天津:天津教育出版社2008年版,第225页。
    ②[美]理查德·尼克松:《1999:不战而胜》,社会文化开发研究所组织翻译,北京:中国人民公安大学出版社1988年版,第114页。
    ③Thomas M.Hunt,“American Sport Policy and the Cultural Cold War: The Lyndon B.JohnsonPresidential Years”,Journal of Sport History,Vol.33,No.3,Fall2006,p.273.
    ④Kenneth A.Osgood,Total Cold War: Eisenhower’s Secret Propaganda Battle at Home and Abroad,Lawrence, KS.:University Press of Kansas,2006, p.33.
    ⑤Frances Stonor Saunders,Who Paid the Piper? The CIA and the Cultural Cold War,London: Granta,1999,pp.17—18.
    ①Gary D. Rawnsley,Cold-War Propaganda in the1950s,New York: St. Martin’s Press, Inc.,1999,pp.31—32.
    ①Gerald K. Haines,“Under the Eagle's Wing: The Franklin Roosevelt Administration Forges anAmerican Hemisphere”,Diplomatic History,Vol.1,Issue4,October1977,pp.373—388.
    ③Robert T. Davis,US Army and the media in the20th century,Fort Leavenworth,Kan.: Combat StudiesInstitute Press,2009,p.95;Franklin D. Roosevelt:"Executive Order9182: Establishing the Officeof War Information", June13,1942,Online by Gerhard Peters and John T. Woolley,The AmericanPresidency Project,available at http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=16273,2011-12-6.
    ④Declassified Documents Reference System(东北师范大学图书馆数据库:解密文献参考系统,以下简称DDRS),History of the Psychological Strategy Board,p.8,Item number:CK3100280463.
    ⑤Franklin D. Roosevelt:"Executive Order9312on the Office of War Information", March9,1943,Online by Gerhard Peters and John T. Woolley, The American Presidency Project, available athttp://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=16372,2011-12-8.
    ①NA,RG306,Radio and Television Appearances Files,1957—1963,Box2,A New Dimension in AmericanDiplomacy,p.3.
    ②Philip Hall Coombs,The fourth dimension of foreign policy: Educational and cultural affairs,NewYork: Harper&Row,1964,pp.28—29.
    ③对解散战时信息署之后究竟应该由谁来承担美国的对外宣传重担,学者南希·伯恩哈德(Nancy E. Bernhard)认为,“在1945年其答案看上去特别清楚,那就是在国务院的帮助下由私人媒体承担起对外宣传美国的工作”。在其看来,该观点一直持续到超级大国开始冷战之后,直到此时,国务院和国会才开始认识到因为政治交流较少,由这些商业媒体承担此重任几无可能。Nancy E.Bernhard,U.S. Television News and Cold War Propaganda,1947-1960,New York: Cambridge University Press,1999,p.34.
    ④Nicholas J. Cull,The Cold War and the United States Information Agency: American Propaganda andPublic Diplomacy,1945–1989,New York: Cambridge University Press,2008,p.21.
    ⑤“Address on Foreign Policy at a Luncheon of the American Society of Newspaper Editors”,April20,1950,Public Papers of the Presidents:Harry S.Truman,1945-1953, available at http://www.trumanlibrary.org/publicpapers/,2012-05-06.
    ⑥NA,RG306,History of the USIA,Box7,Vol.1,Administration History,p.1.
    ①Executive Order9608-Providing for the Termination of the Office of War Information,and for theDisposition of Its Functions and of Certain Functions of the Office of Inter-American Affairs,August31,1945,available at http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=60671,2011-12-02.
    ①Yale Richmond, Culture Exchange and the Cold War——Raising the Cold War, Pennsylvania: ThePennsylvania State University,2003,p.10.
    ②FRUS,1946,Vol. VI,Eastern Europe,the Soviet Union,Washington,D.C.: U.S. Government PrintingOffice,1969,pp.696-709.
    ③Melvyn P.Leffler,Odd Arne Westad,The Cambridge History of the Cold War,Vol.I,Origins,New York:Cambridge University Press,2010,pp.90-91.
    ④Nicholas J. Cull,The Cold War and the United States Information Agency: American Propaganda andPublic Diplomacy,1945–1989,New York: Cambridge University Press,2008,p.33.
    ①Laura A. Belmonte,Selling the American Way,U.S. Propaganda and the Cold War,Philadelphia:University of Pennsylvania Press,2008,p.17.
    ②NA,RG306,Records relating to Soviet Affairs(1953—1960),UD WW368,Box577,Address byGeorge V. Allen,Director,U.S. Information Agency,January17,1958.
    ③[美]沃尔特·拉弗贝:《美苏冷战史话》,游燮庭等译,北京:商务印书馆1980年版,第59页。
    ④NA,RG306,History of the USIA,Box7,Vol.1,Administration History,p.3.
    ⑤NA,RG306,Radio and Television Appearances Files,1957—1963,Box2,A New Dimension in AmericanDiplomacy,p.4.
    ②Nicholas J. Cull,The Cold War and the United States Information Agency: American Propaganda andPublic Diplomacy,1945–1989,New York: Cambridge University Press,2008,p.36.
    ③Laura A. Belmonte,Selling the American Way,U.S. Propaganda and the Cold War,Philadelphia:University of Pennsylvania Press,2008,p.26.
    ④NA,RG306,1949-1970General Subject Files,UD-WW372,box605,Organization of U.S. OverseasInformation Program1945—1958(Policy,Plays,and Program),July16,1958.
    ⑤“Foreign Relations: The American Twang”,Time Magazine,Vol.XLIX,No.21,May26,1947;NicholasJ. Cull, The Cold War and the United States Information Agency: American Propaganda and PublicDiplomacy,1945–1989,New York: Cambridge University Press,2008,p.36.
    ②Jackson to Maryland State Teachers Association,October31,1947,C.D.Jackson,box102,file2.转引自John Allen Stern,Propaganda in the Employ of Democracy:Fighting the Cold War with Words,ProQuest Digital Dissertations(简称:PQDD),UMI Number:3067565,p.5.
    ③United States Information and Educational Exchange Act of1948,available at http://www.ourstory.info/library/5-AFSIS/laws/Congress1.html,2011-12-08.
    ④The Center for Strategic and International Studies, International Information, Education andCultural Relations: Recommendations for the Future,Library of Congress Catalog Card Number:75—10696,1975,p.13;NA,RG306,1949-1970General Subject Files,UD-WW372,box605,Organization ofU.S. Overseas Information Program1945—1958(Policy,Plays,and Program),July16,1958.
    ①Robert E. Elder, The Information Machine: The United States Information Agency and AmericanForeign Policy,Syracuse: Syracuse University Press,1968,p.36.
    ②Wilson P.Dizard,The Strategy of Truth,the Story of the U.S. Information Service,Washington,D.C.:Public Affairs Press,1961,p.37.
    ③Kenneth A.Osgood, Total Cold War: Eisenhower’s Secret Propaganda Battle at Home and Abroad,Lawrence,KS.:University Press of Kansas,2006,p.37.
    ④John McCormick,“The United Snopes Information Service”,The Kenyon Review,Vol.24,No.2(Spring,1962),p.337.
    ⑤Kenneth A.Osgood,Total Cold War: Eisenhower’s Secret Propaganda Battle at Home and Abroad,Lawrence, KS.:University Press of Kansas,2006,p.37.
    ①NA,RG306,History of the USIA,Box7,Vol.1,Administration History, p.3.
    ②FRUS,Special Volume,Emergence of the Intelligence Establishment,1945–1950,Document252,available at http://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945-50Intel/d252,2011-12-11;Nicholas J. Cull,The Cold War and the United States Information Agency: American Propaganda andPublic Diplomacy,1945–1989,New York: Cambridge University Press,2008,p.39.
    ③DDRS,History of the Psychological Strategy Board,p.36,Item number: CK3100280463.
    ④Wilson P. Dizard Jr., Inventing Public Diplomacy: The Story of the U.S. Information Agency,Boulder,Colorado: Lynne Rienner Publishers,Inc.,2004,p.50.
    ⑤FRUS,1950-1955,The Intelligence Community,Document2,available at http://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950-55Intel/d2,2011-12-18.
    ①NA, RG306,1949—1970General Subject Files, UD-WW372, box604, U.S. Views on CapturingInitiative in Psychological Fields,April10,1950.
    ②FRUS,1950,Vol.I,National security affairs;Foreign Economic Policy,Washington,D.C.: U.S.Government Printing Office,1977,p.285.
    ③Ernest R.May,American Cold War Strategy:Interpreting NSC68,New York:St.Martin's Press,1993,p.163.
    ④Lorilyn Bogre,The Pentagon's Battle for the American Mind,Texas A﹠M University Press,2004,p.90.
    ①Address on Foreign Policy at a Luncheon of the American Society of Newspaper Editors,April20,1950,Public Papers of the Presidents Harry S.Truman,1945-1953, available at http://www.trumanlibrary.org/publicpapers/index.php?pid=715&st=address+on+foreign+policy&st1=,2011-08-08.
    ②Nancy E.Bernhard,U.S. Television News and Cold War Propaganda,1947-1960,Cambridge UniversityPress,1999,p.115.
    ③John Henderson,The United States Information Agency,New York: Praeger,1969,pp.44-45.
    ④Michael Nelson,War of the Black Heavens: The Battles of Western Broadcasting in the Cold War,NewYork: Syracuse University Press,1997,p.58.
    ⑤DDRS,Role of PSB under4/4/51Presidential directive detailed,April4,1951, Item number:CK3100310384.
    ⑥Kenneth A.Osgood,Total Cold War: Eisenhower’s Secret Propaganda Battle at Home and Abroad,Lawrence, KS.:University Press of Kansas,2006,p.44.
    ①Laura A. Belmonte,Selling the American Way,U.S. Propaganda and the Cold War,Philadelphia:University of Pennsylvania Press,2008,p.46;FRUS,1952-1954,Vol.II,National Security Affairs,part2,Washington,D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office,1984,pp.1591—1592.
    ②Wilson P. Dizard Jr, Inventing Public Diplomacy: The Story of the U.S. Information Agency,Boulder, Colorado:Lynne Rienner Publishers,Inc.,2004,p.52.
    ③[美]威廉·富布莱特:《帝国的代价》,简新芽译,北京:世界知识出版社1991年版,第116页。
    ④Gary D. Rawnsley,Cold-War Propaganda in the1950s,New York: St. Martin’s Press,Inc.,1999,p.241.
    ⑤Gary D. Rawnsley,Cold-War Propaganda in the1950s,New York: St. Martin’s Press,Inc.,1999,p.32.
    ①有关美国在冷战初期对苏推行文化冷战战略及其具体原因,可参见:John Fousek,To Lead the Free World:American Nationalism and the Cultural Roots of the Cold War, Chapel Hill: University of NorthCarolina Press,2000,pp.187—189.
    ②邓峰:《冷战初期美国对外宣传战略的缘起》,《北方论丛》,2012年第6期,第79页。
    ①Nicholas J. Cull,The Cold War and the United States Information Agency: American Propaganda andPublic Diplomacy,1945—1989,New York: Cambridge University Press,2008,p.79.
    ②Thomas C.Sorensen,The Word War:The Story of American Propaganda,New York:Harper&Row,Publishers,1968,p.31.
    ③该委员会全称为“国际信息活动总统委员会”(The President's Committee on International InformationActivities),或称为“杰克逊委员会”(The Jackson Committee)。其成员包括艾森豪威尔总统的国家安全顾问罗伯特·考特(Robert Cutler)、副国务卿罗杰·凯斯(Roger M.Keys)、心理战略委员会前主席戈登·格雷(Gordon Gray)等重要官员,而其主席威廉·杰克逊则曾担任过中央情报局副局长。
    ④FRUS,1955—1957,Vol.IX,Foreign Economic Policy;Foreign Information Program,Washington,D.C.:U.S. Government Printing Office,1987,pp.510—511.
    ⑤英文全称为“The President's Advisory Committee on Government Organization”,由于洛克菲勒担任该委员会主席,所以该委员会又被称作“洛克菲勒委员会”。
    ①U.S.Congress,Senate Committee on Foreign Relations,Hearings on the Overseas Information Programsof the United States,83rdCong.,1stsess.,26March1953,pp.772—793,723.转引自Melinda M. Schwenk-Borrell,Selling democracy: The United States Information Agency's portrayal of American racerelations,1953—1976,PQDD,AAI3125895,pp.36—37.
    ②Thomas C.Sorensen,The Word War:The Story of American Propaganda,New York:Harper&Row,Publishers,1968,p.45.
    ③John W.Henderson,The United States Information Agency,New York: Frederick A. Praeger,Inc.,Publishers,1969,p.51.此外,在后来担任美国新闻署署长特别助理的亨利·卢米斯(Henry Loomis)看来,除国务卿外,国务院内部还有很多人对国务院进行信息和教育活动没有好感。“许多人认为信息人员,特别是播音员,有强硬的特质(strong types),难以管控,有外国口音,并且可能是共产党员。”正因为此,卢米斯猜测考虑到国务院在麦卡锡调查中还发现其他自有问题,这导致它们不会反对将国际信息署从国务院分离出来。有关卢米斯对国务院就信息文化交流活动看法的更多描述,可参见:Interview with Henry Loomis,Interviewed by: G.Lewis Schmidt, Initial interview date: February25,1989, Copyright1998, The Association forDiplomatic Studies and Training (简称:ADST).
    ④The Center for Strategic and International Studies, International Information, Education andCultural Relations: Recommendations for the Future,Library of Congress Catalog Card Number:75—10696,1975,p.69.
    ⑤FRUS,1952—1954,Vol.II,National Security Affairs,Part2,Washington,D.C.: U.S. GovernmentPrinting Office,1984,pp.1692—1693.有关洛克菲勒委员会所提交报告的更多内容,可参见:FRUS,1952—1954,Vol.II,National Security Affairs,Part2,Washington,D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office,1984,pp.1691—1697.
    ①NA,RG306,Office of Administration,1952—55,Box1,Dwight D. Eisenhower to the Congress of theUnited States,June1,1953.
    ②早在艾森豪威尔总统就任之前,1952年美国参议院外交关系委员会负责海外信息项目的附属委员会(The SenateForeign Relations Committee's Subcommittee on Overseas Information Programs of the United States)就已经开始对美国的对外信息文化交流项目展开了相关的调查工作。由于该委员会由参议员博克·希肯卢珀(BourkeHickenlooper)领衔,所以它又被简称为希肯卢珀委员会(Hickenlooper Committee)。
    ③FRUS,1952—1954,Vol.II,National Security Affairs,Part2,Washington,D.C.: U.S. GovernmentPrinting Office,1984,p.1870.
    ④The Center for Strategic and International Studies, International Information, Education andCultural Relations: Recommendations for the Future,Library of Congress Catalog Card Number:75—10696,1975,p.68.
    ⑤The Center for Strategic and International Studies, International Information, Education andCultural Relations: Recommendations for the Future,Library of Congress Catalog Card Number:75—10696,1975,p.73.
    ⑥NA,RG306,Office of Administration,1952—55,Box1,Reorganization Plan No.8of1953,June1,1953.
    ⑦NA,RG306,Office of Administration,1952—55,Box1,Dwight D. Eisenhower to the Congress of theUnited States,June1,1953.
    ①Melinda M. Schwenk-Borrell,Selling democracy: The United States Information Agency's portrayal ofAmerican race relations,1953—1976,PQDD,AAI3125895,pp.37—38.有关希肯卢珀委员会报告的更多介绍,还可参见:FRUS,1952—1954,Vol.II,National Security Affairs,Part2,Washington,D.C.: U.S.Government Printing Office,1984, p.1754; NA, RG306, Records Relating to the Senate ForeignRelations Committee's Subcommittee on Overseas Information Programs of the United States(Hickenlooper Committee),02/1953—1954.
    ②The Center for Strategic and International Studies, International Information, Education andCultural Relations: Recommendations for the Future,Library of Congress Catalog Card Number:75—10696,1975,p.67.
    ③王绳祖主编:《国际关系史》(第八卷)(1949—1959),北京:世界知识出版社1995年版,第434—435页。
    ①John Boardman Whitton,Propaganda and the Cold War,Washington D.C.: Public Affairs Press,1963,p.8.
    ②由于沃里斯担任该委员会主席,所以该委员会被称作沃里斯委员会。斯特莱伯特参与了该委员会调查的全程,这就使得该委员会所做的调查报告在斯特莱伯特就任美国新闻署署长之后,对其就美国新闻署管理问题的改革产生了重大的影响。这是后话,此处不做进一步论述。有关该委员会所作报告的更多内容,可参见:NA,RG306,Reviewof Operations Reports:8/1953—12/1971, Container2, U.S.Information Agency First Review ofOperations,August—December,1953,p.4.
    ③韩召颖:《输出美国:美国新闻署与美国公众外交》,天津:天津人民出版社2000年版,第75页。
    ④The Center for Strategic and International Studies, International Information, Education andCultural Relations: Recommendations for the Future,Library of Congress Catalog Card Number:75—10696,1975,p.13.
    ①Walter L. Hixson, Parting the Curtain,Propaganda,Culture,and the Cold War,1945—1961,Basingstoke: Macmillan Press Ltd,1997,p.26.
    ②John Allen Stern,Propaganda in the Employ of Democracy:Fighting the Cold War with Words,PQDD,UMI Number:3067565,pp.153—154.
    ③NA,RG306,Office of Administration,1952—55,Box1,Dwight D. Eisenhower to the Congress of theUnited States,June1,1953.
    ④NA,RG306,Office of Administration,1952—55,Box1,To the Heads of All Executive Department,June1,1953.
    ⑤NA,RG306,Records relating to Soviet Affairs(1953-60),UD WW368,Box577,Transcript of theDirector's first press conference,October29,1953.
    ⑥NA,RG306,Office of Administration,1952—55,Box1,Reorganization Plan No.8of1953,June1,1953.
    ①Chizuru Saeki, U.S. Culture Propaganda in Cold War Japan: Promoting Democracy1948-1960, NewYork:The Edwin Mellen Press,pp.31—32.
    ②NA,RG306,Review of Operations Reports:8/1953—12/1971,Container2,U.S.Information AgencyFirst Review of Operations,August—December,1953,p.3.
    ③NA,RG306,Review of Operations Reports:8/1953—12/1971,Container2,U.S.Information AgencyFirst Review of Operations,August—December,1953,p.4.
    ④NA,RG306,Review of Operations Reports:8/1953—12/1971,Container2,U.S.Information AgencyFirst Review of Operations,August—December,1953,p.4.
    ⑤Thomas C. Sorensen,The Word War: The Story of American Propaganda,New York:Harper&Row,Publishers,1968,p.57;United States Information Agency,Office of Public Liaison,“USIA:AnOverview,” August1998,available at http://dosfan.lib.uic.edu/usia/usiahome/oldoview.htm#overview,2013—08—13.
    ①Robert E. Elder, The Information Machine: the United States Information Agency and AmericanForeign Policy,New York: Syracuse University Press,1968,p.255.
    ②Robert E. Elder, The Information Machine: the United States Information Agency and AmericanForeign Policy,New York: Syracuse University Press,1968,pp.257—258.
    ③Department of the State Bulletin,August24,1953,pp.239—240.
    ④NA,RG306,Review of Operations Reports:8/1953—12/1971,Container2,U.S.Information AgencyFirst Review of Operations,August—December,1953,pp.4—5.
    ⑤Leo Bogart,Cool Words, Cold War: A New Look at USIA’s Premises for Propaganda,Washington, D.C.:the American University Press,1995,pp.195—196.
    ①Leo Bogart,Cool Words, Cold War: A New Look at USIA’s Premises for Propaganda,Washington, D.C.:the American University Press,1995,p.206.
    ②Abbott Washburn,“U. S. Information Agency”,World Affairs,Vol.119,No.4,Winter,1956,p.102.
    ③努尼曾就职于联邦调查局(Federal Bureau of Investigation,简称FBI),美国新闻署成立后,在联邦调查局局长埃德加·胡佛(J.Edgar Hoover)的强力推荐下,他被任命为美国新闻署安全办公室主任。
    ④NA,RG306,Review of Operations Reports:8/1953—12/1971,Container2,U.S.Information AgencyFirst Review of Operations,August—December,1953,p.5;NA,RG306,Biographic Files Relating toUSIA Directors and Other Senior Officials,1953—2000,Box29,Propaganda Bureau's Director Says AllSubversives Removed,January16,1954.
    ⑤Thomas C. Sorensen,The Word War: The Story of American Propaganda,New York:Harper&Row,Publishers,1968,p.52.
    ⑥Thomas C. Sorensen,The Word War: The Story of American Propaganda,New York:Harper&Row,Publishers,1968,p.56.
    ⑦Richard T. Arndt,The First Resort of King: American Cultural Diplomacy in Twentieth Century,Washington,D.C.:Potomac Books,Inc.,2005,p.275.
    ①NA,RG306,Issues of “The Agency in Brief”;1/1959—1973,Container1,USIA The Agency inBrief January1959Thru USIA The Agency in Brief February1965,The Agency in Brief,January1959,p.c-1.
    ②Interview with Henry Loomis,Interviewed by G. Lewis Schmidt,Initial interview date: February25,1989,Copyright1998,ADST.
    ③Interview with Henry Loomis,Interviewed by: G. Lewis Schmidt,Initial interview date: February25,1989,Copyright1998,ADST.
    ①Interview with Henry Loomis,Interviewed by G. Lewis Schmidt,Initial interview date: February25,1989,Copyright1998,ADST.
    ②Interview with Henry Loomis,Interviewed by G. Lewis Schmidt,Initial interview date: February25,1989,Copyright1998,ADST.
    ③Interview with Henry Loomis,Interviewed by G. Lewis Schmidt,Initial interview date: February25,1989,Copyright1998,ADST.
    ④Brief for U.S.Information Agency Membership in the IAC,Jun4,1956,CIA-RDP61-00549R000100230002-8,CIA-CREST.
    ⑥United States Information Agency Office of Research and Intelligence,June4,1956,CIA-RDP61-00549R000100230003-7,CIA-CREST.
    ⑦NA,RG306,Review of Operations Reports:8/1953—12/1971,Container2,U.S. Information AgencyForth Review of Operations,January—June,1955,pp.6—7.
    ①Brief for U.S.Information Agency Membership in the IAC,June4,1956,CIA-RDP61-00549R000100230002-8,CIA-CREST.
    ②Permission for USIA Intelligence Officers to Take CIA's Basic Intelligence Course,October27,1954,CIA-RDP80R01731R002600300011-3,CIA-CREST.
    ③NA,RG306,Speeches and Manuscripts,1952—1956,Box2,Communist Propaganda in the Cold War,July1,1955.
    ④Gary D. Rawnsley, Cold-War Propaganda in the1950s,New York: St. Martin’s Press,Inc.,1999,p.86.
    ①NA,RG306,Speeches and Manuscripts,1952—1956,Box2,Communist Propaganda in the Cold War,July1,1955.
    ②NA,RG306,Speeches and Manuscripts,1952—1956,Box2,Communist Propaganda in the Cold War,July1,1955.
    ③“The Scope and Nature of Communist Propaganda,”February23,1953,Box2,Miscellaneous Reportsand Studies,1952—1953,DDEL.转引自Walter L. Hixson, Parting the Curtain: Propaganda,Culture,andthe Cold War,1945-1961,Basingstoke: Macmillan Press Ltd,1997,p.25.
    ④NA,RG306,Press Release;1953—1956,For the Press,No.92,May14,1956.
    ①Gary D. Rawnsley,Cold-War Propaganda in the1950s,New York: St. Martin’s Press,Inc.,1999,p.86.
    ②[美]托马斯·帕特森等著:《美国外交政策》(下),李庆余译,北京:中国社会科学出版社1989年版,第688页。
    ③转引自[美]托马斯·帕特森等著:《美国外交政策》(下),李庆余译,北京:中国社会科学出版社1989年版,第686页。
    ④FRUS,1955—1957,Vol.XXIV,Soviet Union;Eastern Mediterranean,Washington,D.C.: U.S. GovernmentPrinting Office,1989,p.
    ⑤Raymond L. Garthoff,Assessing the Adversary:Estimates by the Eisenhower Administration of SovietIntention and Capabilities,Washington,D.C.: Brookings Institute,1991,p.9.
    ⑥DNSA,NSC5611;Status of National Security Programs on June30,1956,June30,1956,Part6,Collection: Presidential Directives,Item Number: PD00480.
    ⑦FRUS,1952—1954,Vol.II,National Security Affairs,Part2,Washington,D.C.: U.S. GovernmentPrinting Office,1984,p.1774.
    ⑧NA,RG306,Speeches and Manuscripts,1952—1956,Box6,Communist Propaganda in the Cold War,July1,1955.
    ①NA,RG306,Biographic Files Relating to USIA Directors and Other Senior Officials,1953—2000,Box1,“How to Win the Cold War”,Propaganda will never win the hearts and minds of men,May2,1958.
    ②Nicholas J. Cull,The Cold War and the United States Information Agency: American Propaganda andPublic Diplomacy,1945–1989,New York: Cambridge University Press,2008,p.100.
    ③Laura A. Belmonte,Selling the American Way,U.S. Propaganda and the Cold War,Philadelphia:University of Pennsylvania Press,2008,pp.58—59.
    ④NA,RG306,Review of Operations Reports:8/1953—12/1971,Container2,U.S.Information AgencyFirst Review of Operations,August—December,1953,p.1.
    ①George McGovern,A Time of War,A Time of Peace,1968,pp.179—180.转引自王晓德:《美国文化与外交》,天津:天津教育出版社2008年版,第225页。
    ②转引自Walter L. Hixson,Parting the Curtain: Propaganda, Culture, and the Cold War,1945-1961,Basingstoke: Macmillan Press Ltd,1997,p.89.
    ③转引自张杨:《冷战与美国的外层空间政策(1945—1969)》,东北师范大学博士学位论文,2005年,第156页。
    ④Nancy E.Bernhard,U.S. Television News and Cold War Propaganda,1947-1960,New York: CambridgeUniversity Press,1999,p.70.
    ⑤USIA Memorandum on Communist Propaganda Expenditures,October9,1958,CIA-RDP80-01446R000100080008-1,CIA-CREST.
    ⑦NA,RG306,Director's subject Files,1957—58,Administration—Private Enterprise Cooperation,Box1,The American Factory of Slander and Subversion,March9,1957.
    ①Nancy Snow,Propaganda Inc.: Selling America's Culture to the World,2nd Edition,New York:SevenStories Press,2002,p.39.
    ②NA,RG306,Review of Operations Reports:8/1953—12/1971,Container2,U.S.Information AgencySecond Review of Operations,January—June,1954.
    ③DNSA,NSC165/1,A Report to the National Security Council by the NSC Planning Board on Mission ofthe United States Information Agency,October24,1953,Collection: Presidential Directives,ItemNumber: PD00359.
    ①NA,RG306,Biographic Files Relating to USIA Directors and Other Senior Officials,1953—2000,Box29,Our New Overseas Information Program by Theodore C. Streibert,November24,1953.
    ②FRUS,1952—1954,Vol.II,National Security Affairs,Part2,Washington,D.C.: U.S. GovernmentPrinting Office,1984,p.1763.
    ③FRUS,1952—1954,Vol.VIII,Eastern Europe;Soviet Union;Eastern Mediterranean,Washington,D.C.:U.S. Government Printing Office,1988,p.113.
    ④Wilson P.Dizard Jr., Inventing Public Diplomacy: The Story of the U.S. Information Agency,Boulder,Colorado: Lynne Rienner Publishers,Inc.,2004,p.32.
    ⑤FRUS,1952—1954,Vol.II,National Security Affairs,Part2,Washington,D.C.: U.S. GovernmentPrinting Office,1984,p.1699.
    ⑥NA,RG306,Biographic Files Relating to USIA Directors and Other Senior Officials,1953—2000,Box29,Soviet Expansionism Called the Enemy,February7,1954.
    ①FRUS,1952—1954,Vol.II,National Security Affairs,Part2,Washington,D.C.: U.S. GovernmentPrinting Office,1984,p.1772.
    ②FRUS,1952—1954,Vol.II,National Security Affairs,Part2,Washington,D.C.: U.S. GovernmentPrinting Office,1984,p.1778.
    ③FRUS,1952—1954,Vol.II,National Security Affairs,Part2,Washington,D.C.: U.S. GovernmentPrinting Office,1984,p.1772.
    ④Kathy R Fitzpatrick,“U.S. Public Diplomacy”,Vital Speeches of the Day,April15,2004,Vol.70,No.13,p.413.
    ⑤Leo Bogart, Cool Words, Cold War: A New Look at USIA’s Premises for Propaganda, Washington, D.C.:the American University Press,1995,p.165.
    ⑥NA,RG306,Director's subject Files,1957—58,Correspondence,Box7,The Forth Area of theNational Effort in Foreign Affairs,1958.
    ①NA,RG306,1949-1970General Subject Files,UD-WW372,Box606,USIA and the Soviet Satellites inEurope,January19,1954.
    ②NA,RG306,Review of Operations Reports:8/1953—12/1971,Container2,U.S.Information AgencyFirst Review of Operations,Aug—Dec,1953,p.8.
    ③当然,除直接管辖美国之音外,美国新闻署还负责美国阵线电台(Radio in the American Sector,简称RIAS)的运作。该电台于1946年在柏林西占区设立,1948年柏林封锁时期它开始对东占区进行广播。由于它更多是针对东欧国家特别是东德播音,这使其在国际影响力方面,同美国之音不可同日而语。鉴于此,本文重点对美国之音进行研究,对美国阵线电台不做过多论述。读者如果试图对该电台有更多了解,可参见:Martin Manning,Historical Dictionary of American Propaganda,Westport:Greenwood Press,2004,p.240.
    ④Michael Nelson,War of the Black Heavens: The Battles of Western Broadcasting in the Cold War,NewYork: Syracuse University Press,1997,p.xiii.
    ⑤NA,RG306,Records relating to Soviet Affairs(1953-60),UD WW368,Box577,A Resume ofCommunist Jamming,June9,1955.
    ⑥[法]阿芒·马特拉:《世界传播与文化霸权:思想与战略的历史》,陈卫星译,北京:中央编译出版社2001年版,第180—181页。
    ①“美国之音建台70周年”,available at http://www.voanews.com/chinese/news/special-reports/usa/VOA-
    70-Years-141915573.html,2012—03—12.
    ②Michael Nelson,War of the Black Heavens: The Battles of Western Broadcasting in the Cold War,NewYork: Syracuse University Press,1997,pp.20—22.
    ③NA,RG306,Biographic Files Relating to USIA Directors and Other Senior Officials,1953—2000,Box29,“Jamming” Costs Money,July30,1954.
    ④NA,RG306,Records relating to Soviet Affairs(1953-60),UD WW368,Box577,A Resume ofCommunist Jamming,June9,1955.
    ⑤Thomas C.Sorensen,The Word War:The Story of American Propaganda,New York:Harper&Row,Publishers,1968,p.234.
    ①Hans N. Tuch and G. Lewis Schmidt,Ike and USIA: A Commemorative Symposium,Washington,D.C.:TheU.S. Information Agency Alumni Association and the Public Diplomacy Foundation,1991,p.18.
    ②NA,RG306,Review of Operations Reports:8/1953—12/1971,Container2,U.S.Information AgencyFirst Review of Operations,August—December,1953,p.10.
    ④NA,RG306,Press Releases,1953—1956,Container1,U.S.Information Agency for the Press,No.6,September24,1953.
    ①DNSA,NSC142,A Report to the National Security Council by the Executive Secretary on Status ofUnited States Programs for National Security as of December31,1952,February10,1953,Collection:Presidential Directives,Item Number: PD00315.
    ②Progress Report on NSC174,United States Policy Toward the Soviet Satellites in Eastern Europe,July7,1954,CIA-RDP80R003000100006-6,CIA-CREST.
    ③NA,RG306,Press Release;1953—1956,For the Press,No.87,May30,1954.
    ④NA,RG306,Review of Operations Reports:8/1953—12/1971,Container2,U.S.Information AgencyThird Review of Operations,August—December,1954,p.9.
    ⑤Michael Nelson,War of the Black Heavens: The Battles of Western Broadcasting in the Cold War,NewYork: Syracuse University Press,1997,p.23.
    ①Nancy E.Bernhard,U.S. Television News and Cold War Propaganda,1947-1960,New York: CambridgeUniversity Press,1999,p.92.
    ②Brief for U.S.Information Agency Membership in the IAC,June4,1956,CIA-RDP61-00549R000100230002-8,CIA-CREST.
    ③Shawn J.Parry-Giles,“The Eisenhower Administration's Conceptualization of the USIA: TheDevelopment of Overt and Covert Propaganda Strategies”,Presidential Studies Quarterly,Vol.24,No.2,Spring1994,p.263.
    ④英克尔斯:《美国之音的苏维埃特征》,《国际事务》,1951年第5期,第44页。转引自[法]阿芒·马特拉:《世界传播与文化霸权:思想与战略的历史》,陈卫星译,北京:中央编译出版社2001年版,第92页。
    ①NA,RG306,Press Release;1953—1956,For the Press,No.107,July30,1954.
    ②Dulles,“Policy for Security and Peace”,Foreign Affairs,Vol.XXXII,April1954,p.364.转引自石斌:《杜勒斯与美国对苏战略(1952—1959)》,北京:中国社会科学出版社2004年版,第87页。
    ③Gary D. Rawnsley,Cold-War Propaganda in the1950s,New York: St. Martin’s Press, Inc.,1999,p.87.
    ④王绳祖主编:《国际关系史》(1949—1959)(第八卷),北京:世界知识出版社1995年版,第436页。
    ①FRUS,1955—1957,Vol.XXIV,Soviet Union,Eastern Mediterranean,Washington,D.C.: U.S. GovernmentPrinting Office,1989,pp.20—22.
    ②刘同舜、姚椿龄主编:《战后世界历史长编,1955》,第10册,上海:上海人民出版社1997年版,第269页。
    ③Yale Richmond,Culture Exchange and the Cold War: Raising the Iron Curtain,Pennsylvania:ThePennsylvania State University,2003,p.14.
    ①FRUS,1955—1957,Vol.XXIV,Soviet Union,Eastern Mediterranean,Washington,D.C.: U.S. GovernmentPrinting Office,1989,pp.211—212.
    ②[苏]A.C.阿尼金等编:《外交史》(第五卷,下),大连外国语学院俄语系翻译组译,北京:生活·读书·新知三联书店1983年版,第566—567页。
    ①FRUS,1955—1957,Vol.XXIV,Soviet Union,Eastern Mediterranean,Washington,D.C.: U.S. GovernmentPrinting Office,1989,p.201.
    ②FRUS,1955—1957,Vol.XXIV,Soviet Union,Eastern Mediterranean,Washington,D.C.: U.S. GovernmentPrinting Office,1989,pp.200—201.
    ③FRUS,1955—1957,Vol.XXIV,Soviet Union;Eastern Mediterranean,Washington,D.C.: U.S. GovernmentPrinting Office,1989,p.203.
    ④FRUS,1955—1957,Vol.XXIV,Soviet Union;Eastern Mediterranean,Washington,D.C.: U.S. GovernmentPrinting Office,1989,pp.202—203.
    ①FRUS,1955—1957,Vol.XXIV,Soviet Union;Eastern Mediterranean,Washington,D.C.: U.S. GovernmentPrinting Office,1989,pp.202—203.
    ②Laura A.Belmonte,Selling the American Way,U.S. Propaganda and the Cold War, Philadelphia:University of Pennsylvania Press,2008,pp.67—68.
    ③FRUS,1955—1957,Vol.XXIV,Soviet Union,Eastern Mediterranean,Washington,D.C.: U.S. GovernmentPrinting Office,1989,p.212.
    ⑤NA,RG306,1951-1958Program Files,Box179,USIS Research Officer F. Bowen Evans's Letter toHenry,October28,1955.
    ⑥转引自时殷弘:《美国与苏共二十大》,《南京大学学报(哲学·人文·社会科学)》,1996年第3期,第111页。
    ①Dulles,Draft of “East-West Exchange”,May12,1956,Dulles Herter Series(1952—1959),Box7,pp.1—8,Ann Whitman File,Eisenhower Library.转引自石斌:《杜勒斯与美国对苏战略(1952—1959)》,北京:中国社会科学出版社2004年版,第184—185页。
    ②FRUS,1955—1957,Vol.XXIV,Soviet Union,Eastern Mediterranean,Washington,D.C.: U.S. GovernmentPrinting Office,1989,pp.220—223.
    ③FRUS,1955—1957,Vol.XXIV,Soviet Union,Eastern Mediterranean,Washington,D.C.: U.S. GovernmentPrinting Office,1989,p.220.
    ④FRUS,1955—1957,Vol.XXIV, Soviet Union;Eastern Mediterranean,Washington,D.C.: U.S. GovernmentPrinting Office,1989,pp.243—246.
    ②FRUS,1955—1957,Vol.XXIV,Soviet Union;Eastern Mediterranean,Washington,D.C.: U.S. GovernmentPrinting Office,1989,pp.243—246.
    ③FRUS,1955—1957,Vol.XXIV,Soviet Union,Eastern Mediterranean,Washington,D.C.: U.S. GovernmentPrinting Office,1989,p.220.
    ①FRUS,1955—1957,Vol.IX,Foreign Economic Policy;Foreign Information Program,Washington,D.C.:U.S. Government Printing Office,1987,pp.556—557.
    ②John W.Henderson,The United States Information Agency,New York: Praeger,1969,P.308.
    ③DNSA,NSC5509,Status of United States Programs for National Security as of December31,1954,Part6,Collection: Presidential Directives,Item Number: PD00446.
    ④Leo Bogart, Cool Words, Cold War: A New Look at USIA’s Premises for Propaganda, Washington, D.C.:The American University Press,1995,p.108.
    ⑤毕波:《美国之音透视》,山东:青岛出版社1991年版,第64页。
    ⑥NA,RG306,Records relating to Soviet Affairs(1953—1960),UD WW368,Box577,OutgoingMessage,December13,1954;Nicholas J. Cull,The Cold War and the United States Information Agency:American Propaganda and Public Diplomacy,1945–1989,New York: Cambridge University Press,2008,p.107.
    ①Michael Nelson,War of the Black Heavens: The Battles of Western Broadcasting in the Cold War,NewYork: Syracuse University Press,1997,p.177.
    ②DNSA,NSC5509,Status of United States Programs for National Security as of December31,1954,Part6,Collection: Presidential Directives,Item Number: PD00446.
    ③NA,RG306,Records relating to Soviet Affairs(1953—1960),UD WW368,Box577,OutgoingMessage,December13,1954.
    ④Nicholas J. Cull,The Cold War and the United States Information Agency: American Propaganda andPublic Diplomacy,1945–1989,New York: Cambridge University Press,2008,p.108.
    ⑤NA,RG306,Press Release,1953—1956,For the Press,No.114,August1,1956.
    ④NA,RG306,Records relating to Soviet Affairs(1953-60),UD WW368,Box577,United StatesInformation Agency,Proposed Approach to Soviets Re Cessation of Jamming of VOA Russian—LanguageBroadcasts,June20,1956.
    ⑤NA,RG306,Records relating to Soviet Affairs(1953-60),UD WW368,Box577,Memorandum for theOCB,Proposed Approach to Soviets re Cessation of Jamming of VOA Russian-language Broadcasts,July13,1956;NA,RG306,Records relating to Soviet Affairs(1953-60),UD WW368,Box577,OperationsCoordinating Board,Proposed Approach to Soviets Re Cessation of Jamming of VOA Russian—LanguageBroadcasts,July13,1956.
    ①NA,RG306,Records relating to Soviet Affairs(1953-60),UD WW368,Box577,Proposed InformalContacts with Soviets Concerning Jamming,October8,1956.
    ②1956年11月14日,英国驻美大使尤德(Mr. Youde)来到美国新闻署,并向美国新闻署政策研究办公室(IOP)官员加勒特(J.M. Gerrety)递交了一份有关苏联重新开始干扰英国广播公司对苏广播的外交官员信件。尤德称,苏联重启干扰活动之后,英国“进一步加大了用于对苏广播的频率,并且重新开播两个深夜进行的转播节目。”为了进一步打破苏联的干扰,尤德认为美英两国应该重新考虑就信息领域合作召开每周常规会议(regular weeklymeetings)。对该提议,加勒特表示,“我认为召开常规会议对解决问题非常有用,但考虑到这些常规会议的安排工作都由国务院负责,因此建议尤德同国务院官员进行联系”。有关两人就广播合作进行会谈的更多内容,可参见:NA,RG306,Records relating to Soviet Affairs(1953-60),UD WW368,Box577,USIA/IOP/PE-J.M.Gerrety to State/P-Mr. Burris,November15,1956.
    ③NA,RG306,1949-1970General Subject Files,UD-WW372,box606,Requests to BBC for inclusion ofcertain news items in Russian-language Broadcasting,September13,1956.
    ④Leo Bogart,Cool Words,Cold War: A New Look at USIA’s Premises for Propaganda,Washington,D.C.:the American University Press,1995,p.159.
    ①NA,RG306,Review of Operations Reports:8/1953—12/1971,Container2,U.S.Information AgencyFirst Review of Operations,August—December,1953,pp.1—3.
    ②DDRS,Paper regarding a United States Information Agency (USIA) program designed to develop andutilize means of reaching Soviet citizens through international broadcasts, magazine articles, andmotion pictures, November12,1954,Item Number: CK3100480655.
    ③NA,RG306,Biographic Files Relating to USIA Directors and Other Senior Officials,1953—2000,Box29,Address of Streibert,Magazines in the Ideological Struggle,May15,1956.
    ①NA,RG306,Director's subject Files,1957—58,Correspondence,Box7,Revival of Russian LanguageMagazine Amerika,Note of September9,1955.
    ②NA,RG306,Director's subject Files,1957—58,Correspondence,Box7,Revival of Russian LanguageMagazine Amerika,Note of December16,1955.
    ③根据互惠原则,美国同意苏联在美国发行一份英文版的苏联杂志,这份杂志最初被命名为《苏联》,后于1965年1月改名为《苏维埃生活》(Soviet Life),《美国画报》和《苏维埃生活》一直到1994年才停止发行。参见:Martin Manning,Historical Dictionary of American Propaganda,Westport:Greenwood Press,2004,p.13.
    ④NA,RG306,Press Release;1953—1956,For the Press,No.113,July28,1956.
    ⑤NA,RG306,Biographic Files Relating to USIA Directors and Other Senior Officials,1953—2000,Box29,Address of Streibert,Magazines in the Ideological Struggle,May15,1956.
    ⑥NA,RG306,Biographic Files Relating to USIA Directors and Other Senior Officials,1953—2000,Box29,Address of Streibert,Magazines in the Ideological Struggle,May15,1956.
    ⑦NA,RG306,Press Release;1953—1956,For the Press,No.39,November19,1956.
    ②NA,RG306,General Files,UD-WW237,Box9,Proposed Modernization of IPS Photo Laboratory,September11,1956.
    ③NA,RG306,Director's subject Files,1957—58,Administration—Private Enterprise Cooperation,Box1,Attached News Item,July11,1957.
    ①NA,RG306,Review of Operations Reports:8/1953—12/1971,Container2,U.S.Information AgencySecond Review of Operations,January—June,1954,p.3.
    ③Yale Richmond,U.S.—Soviet Cultural Exchange,1958—1986,Who Wins? Boulder, Colo.,and London:Westview Press,Inc.,1987,p.116.
    ④NA,RG306,1949-1970General Subject Files,UD-WW372,Box604,Memorandum of Agreement BetweenUSIA and the Department of State for Operations in Countries Behind the Curtain,November19,1953.
    ⑤NA,RG306,Biographic Files Relating to USIA Directors and Other Senior Officials,1953—2000,Box29,U.S. Information Policy after Geneva,September28,1955.
    ①FRUS,1955—1957,Vol.IX,Foreign Economic Policy; Foreign Information Program,Washington,D.C.:U.S. Government Printing Office,1987,pp.583—584.
    ②Kenneth A.Osgood,Total Cold War: Eisenhower’s Secret Propaganda Battle at Home and Abroad,Lawrence, KS.:University Press of Kansas,2006, p.216.
    ③J.D.Parks,Culture, Conflict, and Coexistence:American-Soviet Cultural Relations,1917-1958,Jefferson,N.C.:Mcfarland,1983,pp.153—157.
    ④Kenneth A.Osgood,Total Cold War: Eisenhower’s Secret Propaganda Battle at Home and Abroad,Lawrence, KS.:University Press of Kansas,2006,pp.216—217.
    ⑤NA,RG306,Director's subject Files,1957—58,Deputy Director Correspondence—Exhibits,Box4,John J. Slocum's Letter to Mr. Howard,December19,1958.
    ①NA, RG306,OPER COOR Board Records1955-1961,Box49,Executive Order10716,Administration ofthe International Cultural Exchange and Trade Fair Participation Act of1956,June18,1957.
    ②NA,RG306,1951-1959General Subject Files,UD-WW367,Box574,USIA Three Years Projection,July16,1956.
    ③NA,RG306,Director's subject Files,1957—58,Administration—Private Enterprise Cooperation,Box1,February8Meeting on American Participation at Brussels World's Fair1958,February6,1957.
    ①Yale Richmond,U.S.—Soviet Cultural Exchange,1958—1986,Who Wins? Boulder,Colo.,and London:Westview Press,Inc.,1987,p.8.
    ②[俄]II·布尼亚柯夫、B·科莫洛夫:《帝国主义的“心理战”》,何宁译,北京:群众出版社1961年版,第36—37页。
    ③鉴于1956年6月发生的波兹南事件和1956年10月发生的匈牙利事件之间的密切联系,很多著作选择将之合称为波匈事件。
    ④FRUS,1952—1954,Vol.VIII,Eastern Europe;Soviet Union;Eastern Mediterranean,Washington,D.C.:U.S. Government Printing Office,1988,p.113.
    ⑤DNSA,NSC5509,Status of United States Programs for National Security as of December31,1954,Part6,1955-3-2,Collection: Presidential Directives,Item Number: PD00446.
    ①DNSA,NSC5609;Trends in National Security Programs and the Fiscal and Budgetary Outlook ThroughFY1959,Section H,1956-8-6,Part II,Collection: Presidential Directives,Item Number:PR00007.
    ②[苏]A.C.阿尼金等编:《外交史》(第五卷,下),大连外国语学院俄语系翻译组译,北京:生活·读书·新知三联书店1983年版,第888页。
    ③DNSA,NSC5609;Trends in National Security Programs and the Fiscal and Budgetary Outlook ThroughFY1959,Section H,1956-8-6,Part II,Collection: Presidential Directives,Item Number:PR00007.
    ④NA,RG306,Director's subject Files,1957—58,Correspondence,Box7,A Study of Fact OutputDuring the Hungarian and Suez Crises,Oren Stephens,June1957,p.31.
    ⑤NA,RG306,Director's Subject Files,1957—58,Administration—Private Enterprise Cooperation,Box1,Voice of America Broadcasts to Hungary,November19,1956.
    ⑥NA,RG306,Director's subject Files,1957—58,Administration—Private Enterprise Cooperation,Box1,Voice of America Broadcasts to Hungary,November19,1956;NA,RG306,Review of OperationsReports:8/1953—12/1971,Container2,U.S. Information Agency's8th Review of Operations,July1—December31,1956,p.2;NA,RG306,Director's subject Files,1957—58,Correspondence,Box7,Voiceof America Hungarian Programming,November1954—November1956.
    ①NA,RG306,Review of Operations Reports:8/1953—12/1971,Container2,U.S.Information Agency's8th Review of Operations,July1—December31,1956,p.2.
    ②FRUS,1955—1957,Vol.IX,Foreign Economic Policy;Foreign Information Program,Washington,D.C.:U.S. Government Printing Office,1987,p.586.
    ③NA,RG306,Review of Operations Reports:8/1953—12/1971,Container2,U.S.Information Agency's8th Review of Operations,July1—December31,1956,p.2.
    ④NA,RG306,1951-1959General Subject Files,UD-WW367,Box574,Abbott Washburn's Letter toMr.George,November27,1956.
    ⑤有关这份资料的详细内容,可参见:NA,RG306,1951-1959General Subject Files,UD-WW367,Box574,The Hungarian Revolt,Hunagary radio stations report the event of October23—November4,1956.
    ⑥NA,RG306,1951-1959General Subject Files,UD-WW367,Box574,To all Public Affairs Officers,Reference IPS/EP-Pamphlets,November30,1956.
    ①NA,RG306,Daily Summaries;1/1954—6/1962,Container3,U.S.Information Agency Daily Summary,No.215,November15,1956.
    ②NA,RG306,Subject Files, compiled1957-1961,UD-WW97,Box45,Classified Effectiveness on theVoice of America,February,1957.
    ③Thomas C.Sorensen,The Word War:The Story of American Propaganda,New York:Harper&Row,Publishers,1968,p.91.
    ④Thomas C.Sorensen,The Word War:The Story of American Propaganda,New York:Harper&Row,Publishers,1968,p.91.
    ⑤NA,RG306,Director's Subject Files,1957—58,Administration—Private Enterprise Cooperation,Box1,Voice of America Broadcasts to Hungary,November19,1956.
    ⑥NA,RG306,1951-1959General Subject Files(IOP),Box574,General Assembly-Emergency SpecialSession,November9,1956.
    ①NA,RG306,Review of Operations Reports:8/1953—12/1971,Container2,U.S.Information Agency's8th Review of Operations,July1—December31,1956,p.3.
    ②NA,RG306,1951-1959General Subject Files(IOP),Box574,Broadcasts to Hungary,November9,1956.
    ④NA,RG306,1951-1959General Subject Files(IOP),Box574,Andrew Berding's Letter to Mr.Streibert,November13,1956.
    ⑤NA, RG306,1949-1970General Subject Files, UD-WW372, box606, Preliminary Report on VOABroadcasting to Hungary,February8,1957.
    ①NA,RG306,Biographic Files relating to USIA Directors and other Senior Officials,1953—2000,Box10,‘Voice’ Doesn't Incite Revolt,February25,1957.
    ②NA,RG306,Director's subject Files,1957—58,Administration—Private Enterprise Cooperation,Box1,Voice of America Broadcasts to Hungary,November19,1956.
    ④NA,RG306,1949-1970General Subject Files,Box606,Preliminary Report on VOA Broadcasting toHungary, February8,1957,pp.30—31.
    ⑤NA,RG306,Director's subject Files,1957—58,Administration—Private Enterprise Cooperation,Box1,Voice of America Broadcasts to Hungary,November19,1956.
    ①NA,RG306,1949-1970General Subject Files,UD-WW372,box603,Policy on VOA Broadcasts toEastern Europe,May25,1959.
    ③NA, RG306,1949-1970General Subject Files, UD-WW372, box606, Preliminary Report on VOABroadcasting to Hungary,February8,1957.
    ①[美]梅尔文·莱弗勒,《人心之争:美国、苏联与冷战》,孙闵欣等译,上海:华东师范大学出版社2012年版,第117页;NA,RG306,1949-1970General Subject Files,UD-WW372,box605,USIA——Its Task inWorld Affairs,January18,1956.
    ②Laura A. Belmonte,Selling the American Way,U.S. Propaganda and the Cold War,Philadelphia:University of Pennsylvania Press,2008,p.58.
    ③NA, RG306,1949-1970General Subject Files, UD-WW372, box605, USIA——Its Task in WorldAffairs,January18,1956.
    ④Gary D. Rawnsley,Cold-War Propaganda in the1950s,New York: St. Martin’s Press, Inc.,1999,p.4.
    ⑤[法]阿芒·马特拉:《世界传播与文化霸权:思想与战略的历史》,陈卫星译,北京:中央编译出版社2001年版,第2页。
    ①Yale Richmond,U.S.—Soviet Cultural Exchange,1958—1986,Who Wins? Boulder,Colo.,and London:Westview Press,Inc.,1987,pp.3—6.
    ②FRUS,1955—1957,Vol.XXIV,Soviet Union,Eastern Mediterranean,Washington,D.C.: U.S. GovernmentPrinting Office,1989,pp.255—256.
    ③[俄]II·布尼亚柯夫、B·科莫洛夫:《帝国主义的“心理战”》,何宁译,北京:群众出版社1961年版,第7页。
    ④NA,RG306,Review of Operations Reports:8/1953—12/1971,Container2,U.S.Information Agency's8th Review of Operations,July1—December31,1956,p.3.
    ⑤Hans N. Tuch and G. Lewis Schmidt,Ike and USIA: A Commemorative Symposium,Washington,D.C.:TheU.S. Information Agency Alumni Association and the Public Diplomacy Foundation,1991,p.19.
    ⑥NA,RG306,1949-1970General Subject Files,UD-WW372,box603,Policy on VOA Broadcasts toEastern Europe,May25,1959.
    ①FRUS,1955—1957,Vol.IX,Foreign Economic Policy;Foreign Information Program, Washington,D.C.:U.S. Government Printing Office,1987,pp.594—595.
    ②NA,RG306,1949-1970General Subject Files,UD-WW372,box606,Greater Coordination between VOABroadcasts and Field Operations,May28,1957.
    ①NA,RG306,Director's Subject Files,1957—58,Administration—Private Enterprise Cooperation,Box1,John Foster Dulles's Letter to Mr. Arthur,June27,1957.
    ②FRUS,1955—1957,Vol.IX,Foreign Economic Policy;Foreign Information Program,1987. Letter Fromthe Secretary of State to the Director of the United States Information Agency(Larson),June27,1957;Dated June3,Eisenhower Library, Whitman File,Dulles-Herter Series.
    ③NA,RG306,Director's Subject Files,1957—58,Administration—Private Enterprise Cooperation,Box1,John Foster Dulles's Letter to Mr. Arthur,June27,1957.
    ④Nicholas J. Cull,The Cold War and the United States Information Agency: American Propaganda andPublic Diplomacy,1945–1989,New York: Cambridge University Press,2008,p.108.
    ①H.W. Brands,Jr.,Cold Warrior:Eisenhower's Generation and American Foreign Policy,New York,1988,p.124.
    ②James Chisem,U.S. Propaganda and the Cultural Cold War,August2012,available at http://www.e-ir.info/2012/08/16/u-s-propaganda-and-the-cultural-cold-war/,2012—09—02.
    ③Leo Bogart,Cool Words, Cold War: A New Look at USIA’s Premises for Propaganda,Washington,D.C.:the American University Press,1995,p.73.
    ④NA,RG306,Director's Subject Files,1957—58,Administration—Private Enterprise Cooperation,Box1,Letter of the Secretary of State of June27,quoting a letter from the President on VOA,July8,1957.
    ⑤NA,RG306,Director's Subject Files,1957—58,Administration—Private Enterprise Cooperation,Box1,Letter of the Secretary of State of June27,quoting a letter from the President on VOA,July8,1957.
    ⑥Nicholas J. Cull,The Cold War and the United States Information Agency: American Propaganda andPublic Diplomacy,1945–1989,New York: Cambridge University Press,2008,p.143.
    ①NA,RG306,Director's Subject Files,1957—58,Administration—Private Enterprise Cooperation,Box1,Memorandum to Mr. Bradford from Mr. Larson,July10,1957.
    ②NA,RG306,Director's Subject Files,1957—58,Administration—Private Enterprise Cooperation,Box1,Progress Report on Operation Credibility,July2,1957.
    ③NA,RG306,Director's Subject Files,1957—58,Administration—Private Enterprise Cooperation,Box1,Comments on Your VOA Memo of July10,point by point,July11,1957.
    ④NA,RG306,Director's Subject Files,1957—58,Administration—Private Enterprise Cooperation,Box1,Guidelines on VOA Objective,Content and Tone,July22,1957.
    ⑤NA,RG306,Director's Subject Files,1957—58,Administration—Private Enterprise Cooperation,Box1,VOA Objective,Content and Tone,August2,1957.
    ⑥NA,RG306,Director's Subject Files,1957—58,Administration—Private Enterprise Cooperation,Box1, Progress Report on Measures Taken to Comply with Your Directive on Content of Voice ofAmerica Broadcasts,August29,1957.
    ①FRUS,1955—1957,Vol.IX,Foreign Economic Policy;Foreign Information Program,Washington,D.C.:U.S. Government Printing Office,1987,p.593.
    ②NA,RG306,Director's Subject Files,1957—58,Administration—Private Enterprise Cooperation,Box1,John Foster Dulles's Letter to Arthur,August9,1957.
    ③FRUS,1955—1957,Vol.IX,Foreign Economic Policy;Foreign Information Program,Washington,D.C.:U.S. Government Printing Office,1987,pp.592—593.
    ④NA,RG306,Records relating to Soviet Affairs(1953—1960),UD WW368,Box577,Munich RadioCenter;Programming Function,March1,1957.
    ⑤NA,RG306,Records relating to Soviet Affairs(1953—1960),UD WW368,Box577,Munich RadioCenter;Programming Function,March1,1957.
    ⑥NA,RG306,Director's Subject Files,1957—58,Administration—Private Enterprise Cooperation,Box1,Progress Report on Operation Credibility,July2,1957.
    ①NA,RG306,Director's Subject Files,1957—58,Administration—Private Enterprise Cooperation,Box1,Munich Radio Center,July8,1957.
    ②NA,RG306,Director's Subject Files,1957—58,Administration—Private Enterprise Cooperation,Box1,Memorandum to Mr.Bradford from Mr.Larson,July10,1957.
    ③NA,RG306,Director's Subject Files,1957—58,Administration—Private Enterprise Cooperation,Box1,Comments on Your VOA Memo of July10,point by point,July11,1957.
    ④NA,RG306,Director's Subject Files,1957—58,Administration—Private Enterprise Cooperation,Box1,Arthur Larson's Letter to Mr. Secretary,July23,1957.
    ①NA,RG306,Director's Subject Files,1957—58,Administration—Private Enterprise Cooperation,Box1,Delineation of Broadcasting Roles and its Relation to MRC,August29,1957.
    ②NA,RG306,Director's Subject Files,1957—58,Administration—Private Enterprise Cooperation,Box1,Decision on Munich Radio Center,September23,1957;FRUS,1955—1957,Vol.IX,ForeignEconomic Policy;Foreign Information Program,Washington,D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office,1987,p.591.
    ③NA RG306,Records relating to Soviet Affairs(1953—1960),UD WW368,Box577,Munich RadioCenter,November19,1957.
    ①NA RG306,Records relating to Soviet Affairs(1953—1960),UD WW368,Box577,Mission Paper forthe Munich Radio Center/IBS,December6,1957.
    ②NA,RG306,Director's Subject Files,1957—58,Administration—Private Enterprise Cooperation,Box1,Arthur Larson's Letter to Mr. Secretary,July23,1957.
    ③NA,RG306,Director's Subject Files,1957—58,Administration—Private Enterprise Cooperation,Box1,Progress Report on Operation Credibility,July2,1957.
    ④NA,RG306,Biographic Files Relating to USIA Directors and Other Senior Officials,1953—2000,Box10,Ike Praises Larson for USIA Work,October18,1957.
    ⑤Laura A. Belmonte,Selling the American Way,U.S. Propaganda and the Cold War,Philadelphia:University of Pennsylvania Press,2008,p.77.
    ⑥Fitzhugh Green,American Propaganda Abroad,New York:Hippocrene Books,1988,p.32;Laura A.Belmonte,Selling the American Way,U.S. Propaganda and the Cold War,Philadelphia:University ofPennsylvania Press,2008,p.78;Thomas C. Sorensen,The Word War:The Story of American Propaganda,New York:Harper&Row,Publishers,1968,pp.93—99.
    ①Laura A. Belmonte,Selling the American Way,U.S. Propaganda and the Cold War,Philadelphia:University of Pennsylvania Press,2008,p.78.
    ②[美]托马斯·帕特森等著:《美国外交政策》(下),李庆余译,北京:中国社会科学出版社1989年版,第676—677页。
    ③NA,RG306,Biographic Files Relating to USIA Directors and Other Senior Officials,1953—2000,Box1,New USIA Head is Blunt Diplomat,October17,1957.
    ④Richard T. Arndt,The First Resort of King: American Cultural Diplomacy in Twentieth Century,Washington,D.C.:Potomac Books,Inc.,2005, p.275.
    ⑤Thomas C. Sorensen,The Word War: The Story of American Propaganda,New York:Harper&Row,Publishers,1968,p.105.
    ⑥NA,RG306,1949-1970General Subject Files,UD-WW372,box606,VOA University of Air to SovietOrbit,April28,1958.
    ①NA,RG306,Biographic Files Relating to USIA Directors and Other Senior Officials,1953—2000,Box1,Allen,a Modest Man From Durham Gets Committee Okay for USIA Job,January22,1958.
    ②NA,RG306,Biographic Files Relating to USIA Directors and Other Senior Officials,1953—2000,Box1,Wallace Carroll,U.S. Propaganda Post Called Thankless Job,Public,Press and Congress TakeSuspicious View of USIA,New York Times,October20,1957.
    ①NA,RG306,Biographic Files Relating to USIA Directors and Other Senior Officials,1953—2000,Box1,“How to Win the Cold War”,Propaganda will never win the hearts and minds of men,May2,1958.
    ②Thomas C. Sorensen,The Word War: The Story of American Propaganda,New York:Harper&Row,Publishers,1968,p.105;Fitzhugh Green,American Propaganda Abroad,New York:Hippocrene Books,1988,p.32.
    ③[美]拉斯韦尔:《世界大战中的宣传技巧》,张洁、田青译,北京:中国人民大学出版社2003年版,第21—22页。
    ④NA,RG306, Biographic Files Relating to USIA Directors and Other Senior Officials,1953—2000,Box1,Understanding,Not Propaganda,Should Be USIA Aim,Allen Feels,February19,1961.
    ⑤United States Information Agency,The United States Information Agency,A Commemoration,1999,p.21,available at http://dosfan.lib.uic.edu/usia/abtusia/commins.pdf,2013—08—13.
    ①NA,RG306, Biographic Files Relating to USIA Directors and Other Senior Officials,1953—2000,Box1,Understanding,Not Propaganda,Should Be USIA Aim,Allen Feels,February19,1961.
    ②Leo Bogart, Cool Words, Cold War: A New Look at USIA’s Premises for Propaganda,Washington, D.C.:the American University Press,1995,p.136.
    ③NA,RG306,Director's subject Files,1957—58,Administration—Private Enterprise Cooperation,Box1,Attached News Item,July11,1957.
    ①FRUS,1955—1957,Vol.XXIV,Soviet Union,Eastern Mediterranean,Washington,D.C.: U.S. GovernmentPrinting Office,1989,p.253.
    ②FRUS,1955—1957,Vol.XXIV,Soviet Union,Eastern Mediterranean,Washington,D.C.: U.S. GovernmentPrinting Office,1989,p.255.
    ③NA,RG306,Director's subject Files,1957—58,Administration—Private Enterprise Cooperation,Box1,USIA Basic Guidance Paper,1957.
    ④FRUS,1955—1957,Vol.IX,Foreign Economic Policy;Foreign Information Program,Washington,D.C.:U.S. Government Printing Office,1987,p.614.
    ①Hans N. Tuch and G. Lewis Schmidt,Ike and USIA: A Commemorative Symposium,Washington,D.C.:TheU.S. Information Agency Alumni Association and the Public Diplomacy Foundation,1991,pp.12—13.
    ②NA,RG306,U.S.Information Agency10th Review of Operations,January1—June30,1958,p.3.
    ③DNSA, NSC5819, Status of National Security Programs on June30,1958, September9,1958,Collection: Presidential Directives,Item Number: PR00011;NA,RG306,1949-1970General SubjectFiles,UD-WW372,box606,VOA University of the Air,April25,1958.
    ④John Hughes, Islamic Extremism and the War of Ideas——Lessons from Indonesia, Stanford,California: Hoover Institution Press,2010,p.6.
    ⑤Larry A. Williamson,The last three feet: An action plan for public diplomacy in the InformationAge,PQDD,AAI1435482,p.82.
    ①FRUS,1955—1957,Vol.XXIV,Soviet Union,Eastern Mediterranean,Washington,D.C.: U.S. GovernmentPrinting Office,1989,p.256.
    ②FRUS,1955—1957,Vol.XXIV,Soviet Union,Eastern Mediterranean,Washington,D.C.: U.S. GovernmentPrinting Office,1989,pp.258—259.
    ③Walter L. Hixson, Parting the Curtain: Propaganda, Culture, and the Cold War,1945-1961,Basingstoke: Macmillan Press Ltd,1997,p.151.
    ④NA,RG306,Director's subject Files,1957—58,Administration—Private Enterprise Cooperation,Box1,Suggested Items for Discussion with the Secretary,June14,1957.
    ⑤NA,RG306,Director's subject Files,1957—58,Administration—Private Enterprise Cooperation,Box1,Suggested Items for Discussion with the Secretary,June14,1957;NA,RG306,Director'ssubject Files,1957—58,Administration—Private Enterprise Cooperation,Box1,Suggested Items forDiscussion with the Secretary,June14,1957.
    ⑥NA,RG306,Director's subject Files,1957—58,Administration—Private Enterprise Cooperation,Box1,Suggested Items for Discussion with the Secretary,June14,1957.
    ①NA,RG306,Director's subject Files,1957—58,Administration—Private Enterprise Cooperation,Box1,Suggested Items for Discussion with the Secretary,June14,1957.
    ②Department of State Bulletin,July15,1957,p.119.
    ③NA,RG306,Director's subject Files,1957—58,Administration—Private Enterprise Cooperation,Box1,A Letter to Mr. Larson from American Embassy of Moscow,August15,1957.
    ④NA,RG306,Director's subject Files,1957—58,Administration—Private Enterprise Cooperation,Box1,Aide-Minoire,September12,1957.
    ⑤NA,RG306,Director's subject Files,1957—58,Administration—Private Enterprise Cooperation,Box1,Abbott Washburn's letter to Arthur,August6,1957.
    ①FRUS,1955—1957,Vol.XXIV,Soviet Union,Eastern Mediterranean,Washington,D.C.: U.S. GovernmentPrinting Office,1989,p.259;NA,RG306,Records relating to Soviet Affairs(1953-60),UD WW368,Box577,Fingerprinting exemptions,November26,1957.
    ②王绳祖主编:《国际关系史》(第八卷)(1949—1959),北京:世界知识出版社1995年版,第430—431页。
    ③NA,RG306,Director's subject Files,1957—58,Administration—Private Enterprise Cooperation,Box1,Current Talks on US-USSR Exchanges,November5,1957.
    ④有关美苏两国代表团就此次会谈立场声明的更多描述,可参见:Department of State Bulletin,November18,1957,pp.800—803.
    ⑤NA,RG306,Director's subject Files,1957—58,Administration—Private Enterprise Cooperation,Box1,Current Talks on US-USSR Exchanges,November5,1957.
    ①FRUS,1955—1957,Vol.XXIV,Soviet Union,Eastern Mediterranean,Washington,D.C.: U.S. GovernmentPrinting Office,1989,pp.267—268;NA,RG306,Director's subject Files,1957—58,Administration—Private Enterprise Cooperation,Box1,Current Talks on US-USSR Exchanges,November5,1957.
    ②FRUS,1958—1960,Vol.X,Part2,Eastern Europe;Finland;Greece;Turkey,Washington,D.C.: U.S.Government Printing Office,1993,p.2.
    ③FRUS,1955—1957,Vol.XXIV,Soviet Union,Eastern Mediterranean,Washington,D.C.: U.S. GovernmentPrinting Office,1989,pp.267—268.
    ④以下简称1958年《美苏文化交流协定》。
    ⑤NA,RG306,Director's subject Files,1957—58,Deputy Director Correspondence—Exhibits,Box4,The Letter to Mr. George,March3,1958;NA,RG306,Director's subject Files,1957—58,DeputyDirector Correspondence—Exhibits,Box4,The Letter to Mr.Secretary,March6,1958.
    ①NA,RG306,Director's subject Files,1957—58,Administration—Private Enterprise Cooperation,Box1,Current Talks on US-USSR Exchanges,November5,1957.
    ②Department of State Bulletin,February17,1958,pp.243—247.
    ③Department of State Bulletin,February17,1958,p.243.
    ④Robert F.Byrnes,Soviet-American Academic Exchange,1958—1975,Bloomington,1976,p.42.
    ⑤Walter L. Hixson, Parting the Curtain: Propaganda, Culture, and the Cold War,1945-1961,Basingstoke: Macmillan Press Ltd,1997,p.xiv.
    ①DNSA, NSC5819, Status of National Security Programs on June30,1958, September9,1958,Collection: Presidential Directives,Item Number: PR00011.
    ②Laura A. Belmonte,Selling the American Way,U.S. Propaganda and the Cold War,Philadelphia:University of Pennsylvania Press,2008,p.84.
    ③NA,RG306,Director's subject Files,1957—58,Administration—Private Enterprise Coopration,Box1,Current Talks on US-USSR Exchanges,November5,1957.
    ⑤NA,RG306,1949-1970General Subject Files,UD-WW372,box606,Icoming Telegram to Secretary ofState,September29,1958.
    ⑥FRUS,1958—1960,Vol.X,Part2,Eastern Europe;Finland;Greece;Turkey,Washington,D.C.: U.S.Government Printing Office,1993,p.14.
    ①FRUS,1958—1960,Vol.X,Part2,Eastern Europe;Finland;Greece;Turkey,Washington,D.C.: U.S.Government Printing Office,1993,pp.51—52.
    ②韩召颖:《输出美国:美国新闻署与美国公众外交》,天津:天津人民出版社2000年版,第236页。
    ③FRUS,1958—1960,Vol.X,Part2,Eastern Europe;Finland;Greece;Turkey,Washington,D.C.: U.S.Government Printing Office,1993,pp.9—10.
    ④FRUS,1958—1960,Vol.X,Part2,Eastern Europe;Finland;Greece;Turkey,Washington,D.C.: U.S.Government Printing Office,1993,pp.11—13.
    ①NA,RG306,1949-1970General Subject Files,UD-WW372,box606,Forthcoming Negotiations on US-USSR Cultural Exchange Agreement for1960-1961,May22,1959.
    ②Nicholas J. Cull,The Cold War and the United States Information Agency: American Propaganda andPublic Diplomacy,1945–1989,New York: Cambridge University Press,2008,p.161.
    ①该展览英文名称为American National Exhibition in Moscow,简称ANEM,为了论述的简洁方便,本文将其简称为美国国家展览。
    ②NA,RG306,Review of Operations Reports:8/1953—12/1971,Container2,U.S. Information Agency,13th Review of Operations,July1—December31,1959.
    ③NA,RG306,Director's subject Files,1957—58,Administration—Private Enterprise Cooperation,Box1,USIA Making Significant Progress in Placing Exhibits in Poland,October4,1957.
    ④NA,RG306,Director's subject Files,1957—58,Administration—Private Enterprise Cooperation,Box1,USIA Making Significant Progress in Placing Exhibits in Poland,October4,1957.
    ①NA,RG306,Director's subject Files,1957—58,Administration—Private Enterprise Cooperation,Box1,Rumanians Accept USIA Exhibit for the First Time,October4,1957.
    ②Department of State Bulletin,February17,1958,p.246.
    ③NA,RG306,SUBJ Files,1953-1959,UD-WW364,Box514,Department of State for the Press,No.538,September15,1958.
    ④NA,RG306,Director's subject Files,1957—58,Deputy Director Correspondence—Exhibits,Box4,Memorandum to Abbott Washburn about “Exhibits Division”,August5,1958.
    ⑤L.A. Minnich,Cabinet Minutes,January23,1956,Box12,Cabinet Series,DDEL;Abbott Washburn,Oral History Interview,Washington,D.C,January5,1968,by ED Edwin,DDEL.转引自Walter L. Hixson,Parting the Curtain: Propaganda, Culture, and the Cold War,1945-1961,Basingstoke: Macmillan PressLtd,1997,p.161.
    ①Department of State Bulletin,November3,1958,p.696.
    ②NA,RG306,SUBJ Files,1953-1959,UD-WW364,Box514,Allen's letter to Mr. McClellan,October19,1958.
    ③Walter L. Hixson, Parting the Curtain: Propaganda, Culture, and the Cold War,1945-1961,Basingstoke: Macmillan Press Ltd,1997,p.165.
    ④NA,RG306,SUBJ Files,1953-1959,UD-WW364,Box514,Basic Policy Guidance for the U.S. Exhibitin Moscow in1959,undated.
    ⑤NA,RG306,Records Relating to the American National Exhibition, Moscow,1957-1959,Box7,Transcript of Tape Recording White House Conference Moscow Fair,January1959,p.28.
    ①NA,RG306,Records Relating to the American National Exhibition,Moscow,1957—59,Airgrams andCables though Radio and TV Coverage, Box1, Memorandum of Agreement between U.S.—U.S.S.RRepresentatives Pertinent to the Staging of A U.S. Exhibit in Moscow,November10,1958.
    ③NA,RG306,Records Relating to the American National Exhibition,Moscow,1957—59,Box1,Memorandum of Agreement between U.S.—U.S.S.R Representatives Pertinent to the Staging of A U.S.Exhibit in Moscow,November10,1958.
    ④有关这些会谈的详细记录,可参见:NA,RG306,Records Relating to the American National Exhibition,Moscow,1957—59, Box1, First Meeting, Russian and American Negotiators for Exchange ofExhibition,December15,1958——Ninth Meeting,Soviet-American Conference on Moscow New York TradeFairs,December27,1958.
    ①受准备时间限制,经美苏双方协商,最终确定美国国家展览的时间为1959年7月25日到9月4日。有关协商美国国家展览开闭幕时间的更多介绍,可参见:NA,RG306,Records Relating to the American NationalExhibition,Moscow,1957—59,Box5,Facts about the American National Exhibition in Moscow July25—Sept.4,1959,Revised June22,1959.
    ②NA,RG306,Records Relating to the American National Exhibition,Moscow,1957—59,Box7,Agreement Between the United States and the All-Union Chamber of Commerce of the Union of SovietSocialist Republics,Relating to a Reciprocal Exchange of Exhibitions of Science,Technology,andCulture during the summer of1959,December29,1958.
    ③NA,RG306,Records Relating to the American National Exhibition,Moscow,1957—59,Box4,Factsabout the American National Exhibition in Moscow1959,January1959,p.5.
    ④NA,RG306,Records Relating to the American National Exhibition,Moscow,1957—59,Box1,Mr. H.C.McClellan accompanied by Abbott Washburn arrived at Vnukovo airport,April20,1959.
    ⑤转引自Nicholas J. Cull,The Cold War and the United States Information Agency: American Propagandaand Public Diplomacy,1945–1989,New York: Cambridge University Press,2008,pp.164—165.其实,早在1958年12月5日,苏联对外文化关系委员会主席(The Soviet State Committee for Cultural Relations withForeign Countries)尤里·朱可夫(Yuri Zhukov)在同美国副总统尼克松会谈时,就曾经谈及邀请尼克松参加索科尔尼基博览会的事宜。会谈时朱可夫提及明年7月在莫斯科开幕的索科尔尼基博览会将会提供一个机会正式访问苏联,这可能会提供另一个机会进行观点的交流,他希望美国副总统可以参加。参见FRUS,1958—1960,Vol.X,Part2,Eastern Europe;Finland;Greece;Turkey,Washington,D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office,1993,p.21.
    ⑥[美]理查德·尼克松:《尼克松回忆录》(上册),伍任译,北京:世界知识出版社2000年版,第246页。
    ①NA,RG306,1956—1964Moscow Exhibits,UD-UP10,Box1,Greeting from President Eisenhower,undated.
    ②NA,RG306,Records Relating to the American National Exhibition,Moscow,1957—59,Box1,TheAmerican National Exhibition in Moscow Sokolniki Park,July19,1959.
    ③NA,RG306,Records Relating to the American National Exhibition,Moscow,1957—59,Box7,Exchange of National Exhibitions with the U.S.S.R. in the summer of1959,undated.
    ④NA,RG306,Review of Operations Reports:8/1953—12/1971,Container2,U.S. Information Agency,13th Review of Operations,July1—December31,1959,p.9;FRUS,1958—1960,Vol.X,Part2,EasternEurope;Finland;Greece;Turkey,Washington,D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office,1993,pp.39—40.
    ⑤NA,RG306,Records Relating to the American National Exhibition, Moscow,1957-1959,Box7,Report on American Exhibition in Moscow Visitors' Reactions to the American Exhibit in Moscow aPreliminary Report,September28,1959,p.23;NA,RG306,1956—1964Moscow Exhibits,UD-UP10,Box
    1,Visitors' Comments on American National Exhibition in Moscow July25-September5,1959.
    ①NA,RG306,Review of Operations Reports:8/1953—12/1971,Container2,U.S. Information Agency,13th Review of Operations,July1—December31,1959,p.9;Records Relating to the American NationalExhibition, Moscow,1957-1959, Box7, President's Special International Program, Semi-AnnualReport,American National Exhibition in Moscow,June30,1959.
    ②FRUS,1958—1960,Vol.X,Part2,Eastern Europe;Finland;Greece;Turkey,Washington,D.C.: U.S.Government Printing Office,1993,p.40.
    ③NA,RG306,Records Relating to the American National Exhibition,Moscow,1957—59,Box5,Kitchens of Today and Tomorrow Slated for Moscow Exhibition,February9,1959.
    ④NA,RG306,Records Relating to the American National Exhibition,Moscow,1957—59,Box5,Kitchens of Today and Tomorrow Slated for Moscow Exhibition,February9,1959.
    ⑤[美]理查德·尼克松:《尼克松回忆录》(上册),伍任译,北京:世界知识出版社2000年版,第252页。
    ①[美]理查德·尼克松:《尼克松回忆录》(上册),伍任译,北京:世界知识出版社2000年版,第252—253页。
    ②NA,RG306,Review of Operations Reports:8/1953—12/1971,Container2,U.S. Information Agency,13th Review of Operations,July1—December31,1959,p.9.
    ③Richard L.Wilson,“Eisnehower in the U.S.S.R.”,Look Magazine,September15,1959.转引自Jay P.Whitefield,Early Cold War Summits:Eisenhower, Nixon, Kennedy,and Khrushchev,1959and1961,2007,p.1,available at http://www.creatinggreatplaces.org/resources/1/pdf/Khrushchev/Whitefield_Jay_Thesis_Early_Cold_War_Summits_with_Khrushchev_1959_and_1961.pdf,2014—01—17.
    ④由于科兹洛夫是赫鲁晓夫信任的副手,并且当时的人们普遍认为他将会成为赫鲁晓夫的“貌似接班人”(heirapparent),美国方面认为考虑到以后可能会同他进行更多的交流,因此最好利用他的此次访问尽可能向其呈现一个有关美国基本国家目标的清楚图景。有关美国欢迎科兹洛夫的更多描述,可参见:FRUS,1958—1960,Vol.X,Part1,Eastern Europe Region;Soviet Union;Cyprus,Washington,D.C.: U.S. Government PrintingOffice,1993,p.288.
    ⑤FRUS,1958—1960,Vol.X,Part2,Eastern Europe;Finland;Greece;Turkey,Washington,D.C.: U.S.Government Printing Office,1993,pp.37—38.
    ①FRUS,1958—1960,Vol.X,Part2,Eastern Europe;Finland;Greece;Turkey,Washington,D.C.: U.S.Government Printing Office,1993,p.38.
    ②“Dokladniaia zapiska Orlova i Shokova o khode podgotovki k otkritiiu sovetskoi vystavki v N'iuIorke i amerkanskoi vystavki v Moskve.”(“On the Progress of Preparation for the Opening of theSoviet Exhibition in New York and of the American Exhibition in Moscow”),Report to the CentralCommittee of the CPSU,May23,1959,Tsentr Khraneniia Sovremennoi Dokumentatsii, Moskva(Center forthe Storage of Contemporary Documents,Moscow, hereinafter TSKHSD);“Postanovlenie TsK KPSS,‘Okontrmeropriatiiakh v sviazi s amerikanskoi vysavkoi v Moskve’”(“Decree of the CPSU,‘OnCountermeasures in Connection with the Forthcoming United States National Exhibition inMoscow’”),Central Committee[undated],TSKHSD.转引自Walter L. Hixson,Parting the Curtain:Propaganda, Culture, and the Cold War,1945-1961,Basingstoke: Macmillan Press Ltd,1997,pp.186—187.
    ③NA,RG306,Special Reports(S);1953—1997,S-26-59Thru S-50-59,Container14,S-47-59,Comparative Summary of Soviet Coverage of the Vice President's Visit,September8,1959.
    ④“Postanovlenie TsK KPSS,‘O kontrmeropriatiiakh v sviazi s amerikanskoi vysavkoi v Moskve’”(“Decree of the CPSU,‘On Countermeasures in Connection with the Forthcoming United StatesNational Exhibition in Moscow’”),Central Committee[undated],TSKHSD.转引自Walter L. Hixson,Parting the Curtain: Propaganda, Culture, and the Cold War,1945-1961, Basingstoke: Macmillan PressLtd,1997,p.187.
    ①“Postanovlenie TsK KPSS,‘O kontrmeropriatiiakh v sviazi s amerikanskoi vysavkoi v Moskve’”(“Decree of the CPSU,‘On Countermeasures in Connection with the Forthcoming United StatesNational Exhibition in Moscow’”),Central Committee[undated],TSKHSD.转引自Walter L. Hixson,Parting the Curtain: Propaganda, Culture, and the Cold War,1945-1961,Basingstoke: Macmillan PressLtd,1997,p.187.
    ②NA,RG306,Records Relating to the American National Exhibition,Moscow,1957—59,Box7,SovietCounter Moves to American Exhibition in Moscow,May15,1959.
    ③FRUS,1958—1960,Vol.X,Part2,Eastern Europe;Finland;Greece;Turkey,Washington,D.C.: U.S.Government Printing Office,1993,p.39.
    ④美国在莫斯科的国家展览,门票售价1卢布,儿童和军人50戈比。NA,RG306,Records Relating to theAmerican National Exhibition,Moscow,1957—59,Box1,American National Exhibition in Moscow openfrom the25th to4th September.
    ⑤[美]理查德·尼克松:《尼克松回忆录》(上册),伍任译,北京:世界知识出版社2000年版,第249页。
    ⑥Yale Richmond,Culture Exchange and the Cold War: Raising the Iron Curtain,Pennsylvania:ThePennsylvania State University,2003,p.133.
    ①Yale Richmond,U.S.—Soviet Cultural Exchange,1958—1986,Who Wins? Boulder,Colo.,and London:Westview Press,Inc.,1987,p.26.
    ②Walter L. Hixson, Parting the Curtain: Propaganda, Culture, and the Cold War,1945-1961,Basingstoke: Macmillan Press Ltd,1997,p.xiv.
    ③NA,RG306,Records Relating to the American National Exhibition, Moscow,1957-1959,Box7,Transcript of Tape Recording White House Conference Moscow Fair,January1959,pp.5—6.
    ④NA,RG306,Records Relating to the American National Exhibition, Moscow,1957-1959,Box6,Summary of the Soviet Press, September5,1959; Records Relating to the American NationalExhibition, Moscow,1957-1959,Box7,Report on American Exhibition in Moscow Visitors' Reactionsto the American Exhibit in Moscow a Preliminary Report,September,28,1959,p.i.
    ⑤NA,RG306,Records Relating to the American National Exhibition, Moscow,1957-1959,Box7,Report on American Exhibition in Moscow Visitors' Reactions to the American Exhibit in Moscow aPreliminary Report,September28,1959,p.2.
    ①NA,RG306,Records Relating to the American National Exhibition, Moscow,1957-1959,Box7,Report on American Exhibition in Moscow Visitors' Reactions to the American Exhibit in Moscow aPreliminary Report,September28,1959,p.23.
    ②NA,RG306,Review of Operations Reports:8/1953—12/1971,Container2,U.S. Information Agency,13th Review of Operations,July1—December31,1959.
    ③Walter L. Hixson, Parting the Curtain: Propaganda, Culture, and the Cold War,1945-1961,Basingstoke: Macmillan Press Ltd,1997,p.218.
    ④NA,RG306,Records Relating to the American National Exhibition, Moscow,1957-1959,Box7,Report on American Exhibition in Moscow Visitors' Reactions to the American Exhibit in Moscow aPreliminary Report,September28,1959,p.24.
    ①NA,RG306,Records Relating to the American National Exhibition, Moscow,1957-1959,Box7,Report on American Exhibition in Moscow Visitors' Reactions to the American Exhibit in Moscow aPreliminary Report,September28,1959,p.12.
    ②NA,RG306,1949-1970General Subject Files,UD-WW372,box604,The Vice-President's Visit to theU.S.S.R.,July—August1959,July20,1959.
    ③科兹洛夫美国之行的具体时间是1959年6月28日—7月13日。
    ④FRUS,1958—1960,Vol.X,Part1,Eastern Europe Region;Soviet Union;Cyprus,Washington,D.C.:U.S. Government Printing Office,1993,p.288;[美]德怀特·艾森豪威尔:《艾森豪威尔回忆录——白宫岁月:缔造和平(1956—1961)》,静海译,北京:生活、读书、新知三联书店1977年版,第455一456页。
    ⑤NA,RG306,Records Relating to the American National Exhibition,Moscow,1957—59,Box5,BriefBiographical Backgrounds of certain visitors to the American National Exhibition in Moscow,including members of the President's Advisory Committee, Special Invited Guests, and some of therepresentatives of firms making important contributions to the Exhibition,July6,1959.
    ①NA,RG306,Records Relating to the American National Exhibition,Moscow,1957—59,Box7,SovietCitizens Indict Their Government,September30,1959,pp.1—4.
    ②NA,RG306,Records Relating to the American National Exhibition,Moscow,1957-1959,Box7,Transcript of Tape Recording White House Conference Moscow Fair,January1959,p.23.
    ③NA,RG306,Records Relating to the American National Exhibition,Moscow,1957—59,Box1,TheAmerican National Exhibition in Moscow Sokolniki Park,July19,1959.
    ④FRUS,1958—1960,Vol.X,Part2,Eastern Europe;Finland;Greece;Turkey,Washington,D.C.: U.S.Government Printing Office,1993,p.40.
    ⑤NA,RG306,Records Relating to the American National Exhibition,Moscow,1957—59,Box7,Reporton American Exhibition in Moscow Visitors' Reactions to the American Exhibit in Moscow a PreliminaryReport,September28,1959,p.25.
    ⑥NA,RG306,1956—1964Moscow Exhibits, UD-UP10,Box1,Facts about the American NationalExhibition in Moscow1959,April1,1959.
    ①NA,RG306,Records Relating to the American National Exhibition, Moscow,1957-1959,Box7,Verbatim Text,sent to Ambassy Moscow Priority,August25,1959.
    ②NA,RG306,Records Relating to the American National Exhibition, Moscow,1957-1959,Box7,U.S.—Soviet Trade Relations,September10,1959.
    ③Nicholas J. Cull,The Cold War and the United States Information Agency: American Propaganda andPublic Diplomacy,1945–1989,New York: Cambridge University Press,2008,p.164.
    ④NA,RG306,Records Relating to the American National Exhibition, Moscow,1957-1959,Box7,Onthe Lessons Taught by the Exchange of US—USSR National Exhibitions,October30,1959.
    ⑤NA,RG306,1956—1964Moscow Exhibits,UD-UP10,Box1,Excerpts from Moscow Comment Books,August24,1959.
    ①NA,RG306,1956—1964Moscow Exhibits,UD-UP10,Box1,Visitors' Comments on American NationalExhibition in Moscow July25-September5,1959.
    ②Walter L. Hixson, Parting the Curtain: Propaganda, Culture, and the Cold War,1945-1961,Basingstoke: Macmillan Press Ltd,1997,p.213.
    ③Nicholas J. Cull,The Cold War and the United States Information Agency: American Propaganda andPublic Diplomacy,1945—1989,New York: Cambridge University Press,2008,pp.168—169.
    ④1959年7月10日,艾森豪威尔决定邀请赫鲁晓夫到美国访问,很快,苏联方面就对此做出了肯定的回复。尽管早在1959年之前,美国国务院就开始对邀请赫鲁晓夫访问美国进行讨论,艾森豪威尔也多次在媒体见面会上表达了这一想法,不过,在国务卿杜勒斯的反对下,这一设想并没有真正得到落实。此次随着苏联国家展览的开幕,艾森豪威尔最终决定通过科兹洛夫正式向赫鲁晓夫传达这一意愿。有关艾森豪威尔邀请赫鲁晓夫访问美国的更多描述,可参见: FRUS,1958—1960, Vol.X, Part1, Eastern Europe Region; Soviet Union; Cyprus,Washington,D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office,1993,pp.309—311.
    ①樊百玉:《走向戴维营之路——艾森豪威尔政府时期美苏对抗中的对话》,华东师范大学博士论文,2010年,第180页。
    ②FRUS,1958—1960,Vol.X,Part2,Eastern Europe;Finland;Greece;Turkey,Washington,D.C.: U.S.Government Printing Office,1993,pp.40—48;Thomas C.Sorensen,The Word War:The Story of AmericanPropaganda,New York:Harper&Row,Publishers,1968,pp.110—111;NA,RG306,General Records,UD-WW237,Box7,U.S.Information Agency Memorandum of Conversation,Subject:Jamming,September26,1959.
    ③转引自Nicholas J. Cull,The Cold War and the United States Information Agency: American Propagandaand Public Diplomacy,1945—1989,New York: Cambridge University Press,2008,p.169.
    ④苏方的这一建议是朱可夫同艾伦在1959年9月15日会谈中提出,但此次会谈却没有取得任何实质性进展。有关此次会谈的更多内容,可参见:NA,RG306,1949-1970General Subject Files,UD-WW372,box603,Notesof Allen-Zhukov Conversation Tuesday,September15,1959.
    ①NA,RG306,General Records,UD-WW237,Box7,U.S.Information Agency Memorandum of Conversation,Subject:Reading Rooms,September26,1959.
    ②Walter L. Hixson, Parting the Curtain: Propaganda, Culture, and the Cold War,1945-1961,Basingstoke: Macmillan Press Ltd,1997,p.219.
    ③FRUS,1958—1960,Vol.X,Part2,Eastern Europe;Finland;Greece;Turkey,Washington,D.C.: U.S.Government Printing Office,1993,pp.51—52.
    ④FRUS,1958—1960,Vol.X,Part2,Eastern Europe;Finland;Greece;Turkey,Washington,D.C.: U.S.Government Printing Office,1993,p.37.
    ⑤韩召颖:《输出美国:美国新闻署与美国公众外交》,天津:天津人民出版社2000年版,第98—99页。
    ⑥Yale Richmond, U.S.—Soviet Cultural Exchange,1958—1986,Who Wins? Boulder, Colo., and London:Westview Press, Inc.,1987,p.26.
    ①Yale Richmond, U.S.—Soviet Cultural Exchange,1958—1986,Who Wins? Boulder, Colo., and London:Westview Press, Inc.,1987,p.123.
    ②Yale Richmond,U.S.—Soviet Cultural Exchange,1958—1986,Who Wins? Boulder, Colo.,and London:Westview Press,Inc.,1987,p.113.
    ③DNSA,NSC6013,Status of National Security Programs on June30,1960,Part5--The USIA Program,September6,1960,Collection: Presidential Directives,Item Number: PR00017;Nicholas J. Cull,TheCold War and the United States Information Agency: American Propaganda and Public Diplomacy,1945–1989,New York: Cambridge University Press,2008,p.171.
    ④Walter L.Hixson, Parting the Curtain: Propaganda, Culture, and the Cold War,1945-1961,Basingstoke: Macmillan Press Ltd,1997,p.223.
    ①Yale Richmond,Culture Exchange and the Cold War: Raising the Iron Curtain,Pennsylvania:ThePennsylvania State University,2003,p.25.
    ①NA, RG306, Director's subject Files,1957—58, Private Enterprise Cooperation—AgencyAmendments,Box2,A Center of Lies and Provocations,January3,1957.
    ①NA,RG306,Director's subject Files,1957—58,Administration—Private Enterprise Cooperation,Box1,Acting Director Abbott Washburn to George,November4,1957.
    ②Nicholas J. Cull,The Cold War and the United States Information Agency: American Propaganda andPublic Diplomacy,1945–1989,New York: Cambridge University Press,2008,p.134.
    ③V.O. Pechatnov,Exercise in Frustration:Soviet Foreign Propaganda in the Early Cold War,1945—47,Cold War History,January2001,Vol.1,Issue2,pp.1—27.
    ④Kristin Roth-ey,Moscow Prime Time: How the Soviet Union Built the Media Empire That Lost theCultural Cold War,Ithaca,N.Y.:Cornell University Press,2011.
    ①张允若、高宁远:《外国新闻事业史新编》,成都:四川人民出版社1996年版,第220页。
    ②NA,RG306,Records Relating to the American National Exhibtion, Moscow,1957-1959,Box7,SovietCitizens Indict Their Government,September30,1959,p.4.
    ③Abbott Washburn,“U. S. Information Agency”,World Affairs,Vol.119,No.4,Winter,1956,p.101.
    ④Sanford J. Ungar,“Pitch Imperfect:The Trouble at the Voice of America”,Foreign Affairs,Volume84,No.3(May-June,2005),pp.7-13.
    ⑤1972年,美国学者麦克斯韦尔麦库姆斯(Maxwell E. Mccombs)和唐纳德肖(Donald L. Shaw)共同发表《大众传播的议程设置功能》,有关议程设置的理论首次被正式提出。文章认为,媒介报道什么,受众便关注什么;媒介越重视什么,受众就越关心什么。换言之,“媒介的议程不仅与受众的议程相吻合,而且受众的议程就来自媒介议程”。有关议程设置理论的更多描述,可参见:李彬主编:《大众传播学》,北京:中央广播电视大学出版社2000年版,第250页。
    ⑥[美]理查德·尼克松:《1999:不战而胜》,社会文化开发研究所组织翻译,北京:中国人民公安大学出版社1988年版,第114页。
    ①[俄]II·布尼亚柯夫、B·科莫洛夫:《帝国主义的“心理战”》,何宁译,北京:群众出版社1961年版,第44页。
    ②[美]布热津斯基:《大棋局——美国的首要地位及其地缘战略》,中国国际问题研究所译,上海:上海人民出版社1998年版,第32—34页。
    ③Nicholas J. Cull,The Cold War and the United States Information Agency: American Propaganda andPublic Diplomacy,1945–1989,New York: Cambridge University Press,2008,p.113.
    ④Nicholas J. Cull,The Cold War and the United States Information Agency: American Propaganda andPublic Diplomacy,1945–1989,New York: Cambridge University Press,2008,p.175.
    ⑤NA,RG306,Press Release;1953—1956,For the Press,No.94,Jul2,1954.
    ⑥王绍光:《中央情报局与文化冷战》,《读书》(北京),2002年第5期,第97页。
    ⑦David Binder,“American Voice of Cold War Survives, but in Different Key”,New York Times (LateEdition (East Coast)),February4,1992.
    ⑧Thomas C. Sorensen,The Word War: The Story of American Propaganda,New York:Harper&Row,Publishers,1968,p.86.
    ①档案来源:NA,RG306,Office of Administration,1952-1955,Box1,Reorganization Plan No.8of1953,June1,1953.
    ①档案来源:FRUS,1955—1957,Vol.XXIV,Soviet Union;Eastern Mediterranean,Washington,D.C.: U.S.Government Printing Office,1989,pp.243—246.
    [1] FRUS,1946,Vol.VI,Eastern Europe,the Soviet Union,Washington,D.C.: U.S.Government Printing Office,1969.
    [2] FRUS,1950, Vol.I, National security affairs; Foreign Economic Policy,Washington,D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office,1977.
    [3] FRUS,1952—1954, Vol.II, National Security Affairs, Washington, D.C.: U.S.Government Printing Office,1984.
    [4] FRUS,1952—1954,Vol.VIII,Eastern Europe;Soviet Union;Eastern Mediterranean,
    [5] FRUS,1955—1957,Vol.IX, Foreign Economic Policy;Foreign Information Program,Washington,D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office,1987.
    [6] FRUS,1955一1957,Vol.XXIV,Soviet Union,Eastern Mediterranean,Soviet Union,Eastern Mediterranean,Washington,D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office,1989.
    [7] FRUS,1958—1960,Vol.X(Part1),Eastern Europe Region;Soviet Union;Cyprus,Washington,D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office,1993.
    [8] FRUS,1958—1960,Vol.X(Part2),Eastern Europe;Finland;Greece;Turkey,Washington,D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office,1993.
    [1] DOS and USIA establish guidelines for official comments on Powers case,August10,1960,Item number:CK3100458083.
    [2] Foreign public opinion discussed,September28,1957,Item number:CK3100281506.
    [3] Memorandum from U.S. Information Agency (USIA) director Arthur Larson and CentralIntelligence Agency (CIA) director Allen Dulles regarding President Dwight D.Eisenhower's decision to direct action on Recommendation no.6of the Report to thePresident by the President's Board of Consultants on Foreign Intelligence Activitieswith respect to the need for the coordination of USIA and CIA programs, particularlyin the field of propaganda,April30,1957,Item number:CK3100554319.
    [4] Memorandum to Operations Coordinating Board (OCB) staff member John MacDonald fromWilliam Peterson regarding United States Information Agency (USIA) contributions tokeep South Koreans informed of political and economic proceedings in that countrythrough USIA radio broadcasts and press releases,October24,1955,Item number:CK3100499104.
    [5] Notes on a9/19/60committee meeting regarding U.S. Information Agency (USIA)expansion plans to counter Communist oppression abroad, September20,1960, Itemnumber:CK3100504981.
    [6] NSC to discuss USIA study “Free World Views of the U.S.-U.S.S.R. PowerBalance”, September27,1960,Item number:CK3100238642.
    [7]Operations Coordinating Board (OCB) memorandum regarding operationalresponsibilities for the United States Information Agency (USIA) implementation of anoverseas doctrinal program,April6,1954,Item number:CK3100499367.
    [8] Operations Coordinating Board Committee meeting on Buddhism held on6/28/56,June29,1956,Item number:CK3100148155.
    [9] Operations Coordinating Board intelligence notes, topics include: USIA urgescontinuation of anti-Communist propaganda campaign in Afghanistan;Pakistan urges U.S.take a conciliatory policy toward the new Ceylonese government;sales of surplus riceunder PL-480in the Far East,April20,1956,Item number:CK3100047877.
    [10] Paper regarding a United States Information Agency (USIA) program designed todevelop and utilize means of reaching Soviet citizens through international broadcasts,magazine articles and motion pictures,November12,1954,Item number:CK3100480655.
    [11] Policy control of Voice of America output to Eastern Europe,December3,1956,Item number:CK3100055277.
    [12] Recommendations of the Director of the USIA to the OCB in regard to FY1957budget for President Eisenhower's emergency fund for international affairs,December2,1955,Item number:CK3100047872.
    [13] Reorganization of the USIA in accordance with the President's reorganization plancompleted,May12,1954,Item number:CK3100246391.
    [14] Report of the Presidents Committee on Information Activities Abroad entitled:“The Roles of Attributed and Unattributed Information and the Division ofResponsibility Between USIA [United States Information Agency] and CIA [CentralInformation Agency].”,May9,1960,Item number:CK3100504990.
    [15] Secretary Dulles outlines plan to reorganize USIA so that the output willemphasize factual news reporting and will reflect the attitude of the U.S.governmentin a responsible manner,October14,1953,Item number:CK3100213753.
    [16] Status of USIA program as of6/30/59,June30,1959,Item number:CK3100003435.
    [17] Study of Voice of America and Radio Free Europe including: estimated audience;effect or influence on audience;efforts of the Communists to control or restrict U.S.broadcasts;side effects of broadcasts;suggested changes or improvements,June2,1960,Item number:CK3100214471.
    [18] Summary of a meeting of the Four-Power Conference Ad Hoc Working Group,Pointsinclude:Soviet intentions in Western Europe;U.S.-Soviet relations;policy guidancefor the United States Information Agency,May13,1955,Item number:CK3100493315.
    [19] Summary of a meeting with the President12/16/58discussing content of Voice ofAmerica programs,December18,1958,Item number:CK3100462350.
    [20] USIA prepares report on U.S.-U.S.S.R. power balance but labels it a “thinkpiece” rather than a statement of policy since it does not reflect Eisenhower's movesto strengthen the armed forces,launching of Echo satellite,actions of Khrushchev atUN,October11,1960,Item number:CK3100227111.
    [21] USIA program covering period from1/1/54-6/30/54(NSC5430, Part7),August12,1954,Item number:CK3100084242.
    [22] USIA program covering period from1/1/55-6/30/55detailed, Item number:CK3100018132.
    [23] USIA weekly report: guidance and control of U.S.broadcasting; world reactions toKennedy's statement on Berlin,Item number:CK3100174195.
    [24] USIA anti-Communist actions outlined, December20,1955, Item number:CK3100314422.
    [25] World reactions to U.S.S.R.announcement that it launched earth satelliteoutlined,October17,1957,Item number:CK3100288623.
    [1] An Effective Countertheme to “Peaceful Coexistence”,July14,1961,Collection:Presidential Directives,Item number:PD00715.
    [2] Broadcasting to Cuba, September11,1962,Collection:Cuban Missile Crisis, Itemnumber:CC00398.
    [3] Communist Reactions to U.S. Establishment of a “Volunteer;Freedom Corps”,Special Estimate,April13,1953,Collection:Soviet Estimate,Item number:SE00140.
    [4] Covert Operations,Directive,March12,1955,Collection:Intelligence Community,Item number:IP00652.
    [5] Mission of the United States Information Agency, National Security CouncilReport,October9,1953,Collection:Presidential Directives,Item number:PD00358.
    [6] Probable Developments in Soviet-Satellite Relations,Special National IntelligenceEstimate,November27,1956,Collection:Soviet Estimate,Item number:SE00195.
    [7] Probable Developments in the European Satellites Through;1960, NationalIntelligence Estimate,January10,1956,Collection:Soviet Estimate,Item number:SE00185.
    [8] Probable Developments in East Europe and Implications for;Soviet Policy,SpecialNational Intelligence Estimate,October30,1956,Collection:Soviet Estimate,Itemnumber:SE00192.
    [9] Probable Intelligence Warning of Soviet Attack on the U.S.,Through Mid-1958,July1,1955,Collection:Soviet Estimate,Item number:SE00179.
    [10] Review of Soviet Foreign Policy in the Light of the Geneva;Foreign Ministers'Conference,December6,1955,Collection:Soviet Estimate,Item number:SE00183.
    [11] Soviet Assistance to Cuba,April25,1961,Collection:Presidential Directives,Item number:PD00693.
    [12] Soviet Bloc Capabilities Through1957, June16,1953, Collection: SovietEstimate,Item number:SE00146.
    [13] Soviet Foreign Policy in the Light of the Summit Conference, October4,1955,Collection:Soviet Estimate,Item number:SE00182.
    [14] Status of National Security Programs on June30,1956, June30,1956,Collection:Presidential Directives,Item number:PD00480.
    [15] Status of National Security Programs on June30,1958,September9,1958,PartII,Collection:Presidential Directives, Item number:PR00011.
    [16] Status of U.S. Programs for National Security as of December31,1954,March2,1955,Collection:Presidential Directives,Item number:PD00446.
    [17] Terms of Reference, Watch Committee of the USIB [United States IntelligenceBoard], November14,1958, Collection:Intelligence Community, Item number:IP00743.
    [18] Transcript of Handwritten Notes on10:00a.m. ExComm Meeting, October26,1962,Collection:Cuban Missile Crisis, Item number:CC01441.
    [19] Wartime Organization for Foreign Information and Psychological Operations, May16,1958, Collection:Presidential Directives, Item number:PD00559.
    [20] Wartime Organization for Overseas Psychological Operations, National SecurityCouncil Report, June4,1958, Collection: Presidential Directives, Item number:PD00560.
    [1]美国伍德罗·威尔逊国际学者研究中心国际冷战史项目(Cold War International HistoryProject),将大量来自于原苏联、东欧国家以及中国的档案资料译成英文,供国际学者免费试用,毋庸置疑,此举为推进冷战国际史研究做出了重大贡献。伍德罗·威尔逊国际学者研究中心:http://www.wilsoncenter.org/.
    [2]美国杜鲁门图书馆和艾森豪威尔图书馆保存的非常详尽的解密文件以及国情咨文等。杜鲁门图书馆: http://www.trumanlibrary.org/photos/av-photo.htm.艾森豪威尔图书馆: http://www.eisenhower.archives.gov/.
    [1] Biographic Files Relating to USIA Directors and Other Senior Officials,1953—2000.
    [2] Director's Chronological Files,1954-1964.
    [3] Director Subject Files.
    [4] General Records,1957—1963.
    [5] Records Relating to the American National Exhibition, Moscow,1957—1959.
    [6] Records Relating to "Amerika Magazine", documenting the period1943—1952.
    [7] Records Relating to the Hungarian Revolt,1956—1957.
    [8] Records Relating to the Soviet Union,compiled1955—1962.
    [9] Research Reports,compiled1954—1955.
    [10] Research Reports,1956-1959.
    [11] Research Reports,1960—1964.
    [12] Review of Operations Reports,1953.08—1964.12.(2)Central Intelligence Agency,Declassified documents, CD-ROM
    [1] Brief for U.S.Information Agency Membership in the IAC,June4,1956,CIA-RDP61-OO549R000100230002-8.
    [2] Conclusions and Recommendations of the President's Committee on InformationActivities Abroad,December,1960,CIA-RDP86BOO269R000600040001-0.
    [3] Permission for USIA Intelligence Officers to Take CIA's Basic Intelligence Course,October27,1954,CIA-RDP80R01731R002600300011-3.
    [4] Soviet Book Discusses U.S. Psychological Warfare,October4,1963,CIA-RDP75-00149R000400260003-0.
    [5] Trend of Communist Media Activity,October4,1963,CIA-RDP82-00803R000400150074-9.
    [6] USIA Memorandum on Communist Propaganda Expenditures,October9,1958,CIA-RDP80-1446R000100080008-1.
    [7] USIA Office of Research and Intelligence,June4,1956,CIA-RDP61-00549R000100230003-7.
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    [1] Allison Greene, United States diplomacy in the age of the Internet, ProQuestDigital Dissertations(PQDD),Item Number: AAI3113038.
    [2] Amanda Wood Aucoin, Deconstructing the American way of life: Soviet responses tocultural exchange and American information activity during the Khrushchev years,PQDD,Item Number:AAI3025486.
    [3] Liudmila Mikhailova, The history of CIEE: Council of International EducationalExchange and its role in international education development,1947—2002,PQDD,ItemNumber: AAI3107937.
    [4] Melinda Schwenk-Borrell, Selling democracy: The United States Information Agency'sportrayal of American race relations,1953--1976, PQDD,Item Number: AAI3125895.
    [5] Tomas Tolvaisas, America on display: United States commercial and culturalexhibitions in the Soviet bloc countries,1961—1968,PQDD,Item Number: AAI3253021.
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    [1]白建才:《美国的冷战战略在苏东剧变、冷战结束中的作用》,《湛江师范学院学报》,2010年第5期。
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    [1]崔建立:《冷战时期富布莱特项目与美国文化外交》,东北师范大学,2011年博士学位论文。
    [2]郭又新:《穿越“铁幕”:美国对“苏东国家”的冷战宣传(1945—1963)》,东北师范大学,2003年博士学位论文。
    [3]黄慧玲:《美国文化价值观与文化霸权之研究》,暨南大学,2008年博士学位论文。
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    [7]彭凤玲:《杜鲁门、艾森豪威尔政府对西欧的心理战略探究》,陕西师范大学,2010年博士学位论文。
    [8]王誉晔:《艾森豪威尔时期美国在欧洲的文化冷战研究》,华中师范大学,2012年硕士学位论文。
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