前瞻记忆执行意向效应的实验研究
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摘要
执行意向是提高前瞻记忆成绩非常有效的策略,研究利用执行意向提高个体的前瞻记忆具有非常重要的现实意义。
本研究应用双任务实验室研究范式,使用E-prime程序在个人电脑上呈现实验材料和记录数据,采取给被试提供实验材料让被试进行想象操作的方法来使被试形成执行意向计划,进行了三项实验分别考察知觉类型任务、不同任务重要性和增加任务难度等三种不同条件下前瞻记忆的执行意向效应。具体地,实验一考察了在知觉类型任务中是否存在前瞻记忆的执行意向效应;实验二主要考察了任务重要性对前瞻记忆的执行意向效应的影响;实验三通过增加进行中任务的难度来考察前瞻记忆的执行意向效应。
根据以上三项实验,本研究得出以下结论:
(1)在前瞻记忆任务中,在知觉类型任务中、强调不同任务重要性和增加进行中任务难度这三个实验中,执行意向的形成均显著提高了被试前瞻记忆任务成绩;
(2)在进行中任务中,在知觉类型任务中、强调不同任务重要性和增加进行中任务难度这三个实验中,执行意向的形成条件下进行中任务成绩均没有降低;
(3)在知觉类型任务中、强调不同任务重要性和增加进行中任务难度这三个实验中,前瞻记忆成绩的提高不是以降低进行中任务为代价的,而是形成执行意向的作用,因而证明执行意向计划是一种有效的提高前瞻记忆成绩的策略;
(4)在形成执行意向条件下,进行中任务成绩均略好于无执行意向形成条件下的成绩,这说明形成执行意向不仅提高了前瞻记忆成绩,而且还节省了个体加工前瞻记忆任务所需要的认知资源,把更多的认知资源用于进行中任务,在某种程度上提高了进行中任务的成绩。
Prospective memory that the memory of future events occurring in daily life is very common, the research about enhancing the individual's prospective memory is of practical importance. Implementation intentions are self-regulatory problems that facilitate control processing, implementation intentions are formed for the purpose of enhancing the translation of goal intentions into action. Recently, many studies show that implementation intentions can significant increases in prospective memory with implementation intentions. This paper investigated in the implementation intentions effect within prospective memory under the conditions of the perception task type, task importance and task difficulty.
Implementation intentions summaries by Gollwitzer, implementation intentions are if-then plans that link situational cues with responses that are effective in attaining goals or desired outcomes (“If situation Y is encountered, then I will initiate behavior Z in order to reach goal X!”). In the prospective memory laboratory tasks, to form an implementation intention, the person relatively automatically initiate the identification of prospective memory target when he encountered prospective memory cues,and established the strong links between prospective memory cues and prospective memory tasks, it will automatically initiate the strong links between prospective memory cues and prospective memory tasks,then contributing to the implementation of prospective memory tasks.
Implementation intentions are very effective strategies to improve prospective memory performance. This has been demonstrated in several studies. But so far, there are no studies that investigated in the implementation intentions effect within prospective memory under the conditions of the perception task type, task importance and task difficulty. This study fills the gap. The results show that ,changing the importance of the task, or increase the difficulty of the ongong task, will significantly affect the prospective memory task performance. So, this study that investigated in the implementation intentions effect within prospective memory by changing the on-gong task is feasible.
In this study, the dual-task paradigms is applied, using E-prime program on a personal computer to present materials and records of experimental data, using the method that leave participants provide experimental materials to have them conduct imagined operation and make participants form if-then plans,it is conducted in the three experiments about implementation intentions effect within prospective memory under the conditions of the perception task type, task importance and task difficulty. Specifically, in the first experiment,it is investigated in the implementation intentions effect within prospective memory under the condition of the perception task type; in the second experiment,it is investigated in the implementation intentions effect within prospective memory under the condition of the task importance; in the third experiment,it is investigated in the implementation intentions effect within prospective memory under the condition of the task difficulty. The there experiments investigated in the implementation intentions effect within prospective memory by ongong task affecting prospective memory, the experimental results analyzed the achievements of ongong task and prospective memory. Because of the dual-task paradigms, prospective memory task and ongong task meanwhile occupied cognitive resources of the individual participant, two kinds of tasks compete for limited resources, two kinds of tasks is bound to interact. So, under the condition of the implementation intentions, prospective memory performance have been improved, but the performance of ongong task have not been damaged, then it can be infered that implementation intentions strategies are effective.
Based on the above three experiments, the major findings are as follows:
(1) In prospective memory task, under the three conditions of the perception task type,task importance and task difficulty, to form an implementation intention significantly all increased prospective memory performance;
(2) In ongong task, under the three conditions of the perception task type, task importance and task difficulty, to form an implementation intention did not reduce the performance of ongong task;
(3) In the there experiments, under the three conditions of the perception task type, task importance and task difficulty, to form an implementation intention for improving prospective memory performance is not based on the cost of reducing the performance of ongong task;
(4) The performance of ongong task under the conditions of the implementation intentions, slightly better than that under the standard conditions. This shows that, to form an implementation intention, not only increased prospective memory perfor- mance,but also save the cognitive resources for processing prospective memory task, then there is more cognitive resources for processing ongong task, so the performance of ongong task slightly increased;
(5) Participants were required prospective memory task after finishing the experiment, the recall rates under the conditions of implementation intentions are significantly higher than the results under the standard conditions;
(6) Results of this study support the previous experimental results,and show that implementation intentions are an effective strategy for improving prospective memory performance.
本研究应用双任务实验室研究范式,使用E-prime程序在个人电脑上呈现实验材料和记录数据,采取给被试提供实验材料让被试进行想象操作的方法来使被试形成执行意向计划,进行了三项实验分别考察知觉类型任务、不同任务重要性和增加任务难度等三种不同条件下前瞻记忆的执行意向效应。具体地,实验一考察了在知觉类型任务中是否存在前瞻记忆的执行意向效应;实验二主要考察了任务重要性对前瞻记忆的执行意向效应的影响;实验三通过增加进行中任务的难度来考察前瞻记忆的执行意向效应。
根据以上三项实验,本研究得出以下结论:
(1)在前瞻记忆任务中,在知觉类型任务中、强调不同任务重要性和增加进行中任务难度这三个实验中,执行意向的形成均显著提高了被试前瞻记忆任务成绩;
(2)在进行中任务中,在知觉类型任务中、强调不同任务重要性和增加进行中任务难度这三个实验中,执行意向的形成条件下进行中任务成绩均没有降低;
(3)在知觉类型任务中、强调不同任务重要性和增加进行中任务难度这三个实验中,前瞻记忆成绩的提高不是以降低进行中任务为代价的,而是形成执行意向的作用,因而证明执行意向计划是一种有效的提高前瞻记忆成绩的策略;
(4)在形成执行意向条件下,进行中任务成绩均略好于无执行意向形成条件下的成绩,这说明形成执行意向不仅提高了前瞻记忆成绩,而且还节省了个体加工前瞻记忆任务所需要的认知资源,把更多的认知资源用于进行中任务,在某种程度上提高了进行中任务的成绩。
Prospective memory that the memory of future events occurring in daily life is very common, the research about enhancing the individual's prospective memory is of practical importance. Implementation intentions are self-regulatory problems that facilitate control processing, implementation intentions are formed for the purpose of enhancing the translation of goal intentions into action. Recently, many studies show that implementation intentions can significant increases in prospective memory with implementation intentions. This paper investigated in the implementation intentions effect within prospective memory under the conditions of the perception task type, task importance and task difficulty.
Implementation intentions summaries by Gollwitzer, implementation intentions are if-then plans that link situational cues with responses that are effective in attaining goals or desired outcomes (“If situation Y is encountered, then I will initiate behavior Z in order to reach goal X!”). In the prospective memory laboratory tasks, to form an implementation intention, the person relatively automatically initiate the identification of prospective memory target when he encountered prospective memory cues,and established the strong links between prospective memory cues and prospective memory tasks, it will automatically initiate the strong links between prospective memory cues and prospective memory tasks,then contributing to the implementation of prospective memory tasks.
Implementation intentions are very effective strategies to improve prospective memory performance. This has been demonstrated in several studies. But so far, there are no studies that investigated in the implementation intentions effect within prospective memory under the conditions of the perception task type, task importance and task difficulty. This study fills the gap. The results show that ,changing the importance of the task, or increase the difficulty of the ongong task, will significantly affect the prospective memory task performance. So, this study that investigated in the implementation intentions effect within prospective memory by changing the on-gong task is feasible.
In this study, the dual-task paradigms is applied, using E-prime program on a personal computer to present materials and records of experimental data, using the method that leave participants provide experimental materials to have them conduct imagined operation and make participants form if-then plans,it is conducted in the three experiments about implementation intentions effect within prospective memory under the conditions of the perception task type, task importance and task difficulty. Specifically, in the first experiment,it is investigated in the implementation intentions effect within prospective memory under the condition of the perception task type; in the second experiment,it is investigated in the implementation intentions effect within prospective memory under the condition of the task importance; in the third experiment,it is investigated in the implementation intentions effect within prospective memory under the condition of the task difficulty. The there experiments investigated in the implementation intentions effect within prospective memory by ongong task affecting prospective memory, the experimental results analyzed the achievements of ongong task and prospective memory. Because of the dual-task paradigms, prospective memory task and ongong task meanwhile occupied cognitive resources of the individual participant, two kinds of tasks compete for limited resources, two kinds of tasks is bound to interact. So, under the condition of the implementation intentions, prospective memory performance have been improved, but the performance of ongong task have not been damaged, then it can be infered that implementation intentions strategies are effective.
Based on the above three experiments, the major findings are as follows:
(1) In prospective memory task, under the three conditions of the perception task type,task importance and task difficulty, to form an implementation intention significantly all increased prospective memory performance;
(2) In ongong task, under the three conditions of the perception task type, task importance and task difficulty, to form an implementation intention did not reduce the performance of ongong task;
(3) In the there experiments, under the three conditions of the perception task type, task importance and task difficulty, to form an implementation intention for improving prospective memory performance is not based on the cost of reducing the performance of ongong task;
(4) The performance of ongong task under the conditions of the implementation intentions, slightly better than that under the standard conditions. This shows that, to form an implementation intention, not only increased prospective memory perfor- mance,but also save the cognitive resources for processing prospective memory task, then there is more cognitive resources for processing ongong task, so the performance of ongong task slightly increased;
(5) Participants were required prospective memory task after finishing the experiment, the recall rates under the conditions of implementation intentions are significantly higher than the results under the standard conditions;
(6) Results of this study support the previous experimental results,and show that implementation intentions are an effective strategy for improving prospective memory performance.
引文
[1] Burgess PW. Strategy application disorder: the role of the frontal lobes in human multitasking[J]. Psychological Research,2000,63:279-288.
[2] Terry WS. Everyday forgetting:Data from a diary study[J]. Psychological Reports, 1988,62: 299-303.
[3] Parks–Stamm EJ, Gollwitzer PM, Oettingen G. Action control by implementation intentions: Effective cue detection and efficient response initiation[J]. Social Cognition, 2007,25(2):248-266.
[4] Cohen AL,Gollwitzer PM.Self-regulatory strategy and executive control: implementation intentions modulate task switching and Simon task performance[J]. Psychological Research,2008,72:12-26.
[5] Loftus EF. Memory for intentions: The effect of presence of a cue and interpolated activity[J]. Psychonomic Science, 1971,23:315-316.
[6] Graf P, Uttl B.Prospective memory: a new focus for research[J].Consciousness and Cognition,2001, 10: 437–450.
[7] McDaniel MA, Einstein GO. Prospective memory: An overview and synthesis of an emerging field[M]. Los Angeles, CA: Sage Publications,2007.
[8] Einstein GO, McDaniel MA. Retrieval processes in prospective memory: Theoretical approaches and some new empirical findings. In Prospective Memory: Theory and Applications,Brandimonte M, Einstein GO, McDaniel MA (eds). Erlbaum: Mahwah, NJ; 115-124,1996.
[9] Kvavilashvili L, Ellis J. Let’s forget the everyday/laboratory controversy[J]. Behavioral and Brain Sciences,1996,19:199-200.
[10] Craik FIM. A functional account of age differences in memory. In Klix F., Hagendorf H. (Eds.), Human memory and cognitive capabilities: Mechanisms and performances (pp. 409-422). Amsterdam: Elsevier.
[11] Kvavilashvili L. Remembering intentions: A critical review of existing experimental paradigms[J]. Applied Cognitive Psychology,1992, 6: 507-524.
[12]王丽娟.前瞻记忆的加工机制及其影响因素:发展的视角[D].华东师范大学, 2006.
[13] Kliegel M, McDaniel M A, Ensitein GO. Plan formation, retention, and executive in prospective memory: A new approach and age-related effects[J]. Memory & cognition, 2000,28:1041 - 1049.
[14] Martin M, Kliegel M, McDaniel M A. The involvement of executive functions in prospective memory performance of adults[J]. International Journal of Psychology, 2003, 38: 195-206.
[15] McDaniel MA, Einstein GO. Strategic and automatic processes in prospective memory retrieval: A multiprocess framework[J]. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 2000,14:S127 - S144.
[16]赵晋全.前瞻记忆的特点、机制和应用研究[D].华东师范大学,2002.
[17]彭聃龄.普通心理学[M].第三版.北京:北京师范大学出版社,2004.
[18]赵晋全,郭力平.前瞻记忆研究评述[J].心理科学, 2000,23(4):466-469.
[19] Gollwitzer PM. (1993). Goal achievement: The role of intentions. In W. Stroebe & M. Hewstone (Eds.), European Review of Social Psychology (Vol. 4, pp. 141-185). Chicester: Wiley.
[20] Gollwitzer PM. Implementation intentions: Strong effects of simple plans[J]. American Psychologist, 1999,54:493-503.
[21] Mayr U, Kliegl R. Differential effects of cue changes and task changes on task-set selection costs[J]. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition,2003,29(3):362-372.
[22] Gollwitzer PM, Sheeran P. Implementation intentions and goal achievement: A meta-analysis of effects and processes[J]. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 2006,38: 69-119.
[23] Schnitzspahn KM, Kliegel M. Age effects in prospective memory performance within older adults: the paradoxical impact of implementation intentions[J]. European Journal of Ageing,2009,6:147-155.
[24] Cohen AL, Gollwitzer PM. The cost of remembering to remember: cognitive load and implementation intentions influence ongoing task performance. In: Kliegel M, McDaniel MA, Einstein GO (eds) Prospective memory: cognitive, neuroscience, developmental, and applied perspectives. Erlbaum, London,2008.
[25] Ellis JA ,Freeman JE. Ten years on: realizing delayed intentions. In: M. Kliegel, M.A. McDaniel and G.O. Einstein, Editors, Prospective memory: Cognitive, neuroscience, developmental, and applied perspectives, Lawrence Erlbaum, Mahwah, NJ (2008), pp. 1–27.
[26] Einstein GO, McDaniel MA, Williford CL, Pagan JL, Dismukes RK. Forgetting of intentions in demanding situations is rapid[J].Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied,2003,9(3):147-162.
[27] McDaniel MA, Howard DC, Butler KM.Implementation intentions facilitate prospective memory under high attention demands[J].Memory & Cognition, 2008,36:716-724.
[28] Kliegel M, Martin M, McDaniel MA, Einstein G.O, Moor C. Realizing complex delayed intentions in young and old adults: the role of planning aids[J]. Mem Cogn ,2007,35(7):1735-1746.
[29] Bayer C, Gollwitzer P M. Boosting scholastic test scores by willpower: The role of implementation intentions[J]. Self and Identity, 2007,6:1-19.
[30] Chasteen AL, Park DC, Schwarz N. Implementation intentions and facilitation of prospective memory[J]. Psychological Science, 2001,12(6): 457-461.
[31] Liu LL, Park DC. Aging and medical adherence: The use of automatic processes to achieve effortful things[J]. Psychology and Aging, 2004,19(2): 318-325.
[32] Miles JD, Proctor RW. Improving performance through implementation intentions: Are preexisting response biases replaced? [J]. Psychonomic bulletin & Review,2008,15(6),1105-1110.
[33]张芝,王健,张彤,葛列众.任务重要性对前瞻记忆的迁移恰当加工效应的影响[J].心理科学,心理科学,2006,38(5):718-723.
[34]孙瑶,周仁来.任务难度对前瞻记忆TAP效应影响的研究[J].心理科学,2009,32(3):528-530.
[35] Kliegel M, Martin M, McDaniel MA, Ensitein GO. Varying the importance of a prospective memory task: differential effects across time- and event-based prospective memory[J]. Memory, 2001, 9: 1-11.
[36] Smith RE, Bayen UJ.A Multinomial Model of Event-Based Prospective Memory[J]. Journal of experimental psychology: Learning, Memory& Cognition, 2004,30(4):756-77.
[37] Einstein G O, Smith R E, McDaniel M A, et al. Aging and prospective memory: The influence of increased task demands at encoding and retrieval[J]. Psychology and Aging, 1997,12(3): 479-488.
[1]彭聃龄.普通心理学[M].第三版.北京:北京师范大学出版社,2004
[2] Cohen AL, Gollwitzer PM. The cost of remembering to remember: cognitive load and implementation intentions influence ongoing task performance. In: Kliegel M, McDaniel MA, Einstein GO (eds) Prospective memory: cognitive, neuroscience, developmental, and applied perspectives. Erlbaum, London,2008.
[3] Gollwitzer PM. (1993). Goal achievement: The role of intentions. In W. Stroebe & M. Hewstone (Eds.), European Review of Social Psychology (Vol. 4, pp. 141-185). Chicester: Wiley.
[1]王丽娟.前瞻记忆的加工机制及其影响因素:发展的视角[D].华东师范大学, 2006.
[2]赵晋全.前瞻记忆的特点、机制和应用研究[D].华东师范大学,2002.
[1]孙瑶,周仁来.任务难度对前瞻记忆TAP效应影响的研究[J].心理科学, 2009,32(3):528-530.
[2]赵晋全,郭力平.前瞻记忆研究评述[J].心理科学, 2000,23(4):466-469.
[3]张芝,王健,张彤,葛列众.任务重要性对前瞻记忆的迁移恰当加工效应的影响[J].心理科学,2006,38(5):718-723.
[4] Bayer C, Gollwitzer P M. Boosting scholastic test scores by willpower: The role of implementation intentions[J]. Self and Identity, 2007,6:1-19.
[5] Chasteen AL, Park DC, Schwarz N. Implementation intentions and facilitation of prospective memory[J]. Psychological Science, 2001,12(6): 457-461.
[6] Cohen AL,Gollwitzer PM.Self-regulatory strategy and executive control: implementation intentions modulate task switching and Simon task performance[J]. Psychological Research,2008,72:12-26.
[7] Gollwitzer PM. Implementation intentions: Strong effects of simple plans[J]. American Psychologist, 1999,54:493-503.
[8] Gollwitzer PM, Sheeran P. Implementation intentions and goal achievement: A meta-analysis of effects and processes[J]. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 2006,38: 69-119.
[9] Graf P, Uttl B.Prospective memory: a new focus for research[J].Consciousness and Cognition,2001, 10: 437 - 450.
[10] Kliegel M, Martin M, McDaniel MA, Ensitein GO. Varying the importance of a prospective memory task: differential effects across time- and event-based prospective memory[J]. Memory, 2001, 9: 1-11.
[11] Kliegel M, Martin M, McDaniel MA, Einstein G.O, Moor C. Realizing complex delayed intentions in young and old adults: the role of planning aids[J]. Mem Cogn ,2007,35(7):1735-1746.
[12] Kliegel M, McDaniel M A, Ensitein GO. Plan formation, retention, and executive in prospective memory: A new approach and age-related effects[J]. Memory & cognition, 2000,28:1041 - 1049.
[13] Kvavilashvili L. Remembering intentions: A critical review of existing experimental paradigms[J]. Applied Cognitive Psychology,1992, 6: 507-524.
[14] McDaniel MA, Einstein GO. Strategic and automatic processes in prospective memory retrieval: A multiprocess framework[J]. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 2000,14:S127 - S144.
[15] McDaniel MA, Einstein GO. Prospective memory: An overview and synthesis of an emerging field[M]. Los Angeles, CA: Sage Publications,2007.
[16] McDaniel MA, Howard DC, Butler KM.Implementation intentions facilitate prospective memory under high attention demands[J].Memory & Cognition, 2008,36:716-724.
[17]Parks–Stamm EJ, Gollwitzer PM, Oettingen G. Action control by implementation intentions: Effective cue detection and efficient response initiation[J]. Social Cognition, 2007,25(2):248-266.
[18] Schnitzspahn KM, Kliegel M. Age effects in prospective memory performancewithin older adults: the paradoxical impact of implementation intentions[J]. European Journal of Ageing,2009,6:147-155.
[2] Terry WS. Everyday forgetting:Data from a diary study[J]. Psychological Reports, 1988,62: 299-303.
[3] Parks–Stamm EJ, Gollwitzer PM, Oettingen G. Action control by implementation intentions: Effective cue detection and efficient response initiation[J]. Social Cognition, 2007,25(2):248-266.
[4] Cohen AL,Gollwitzer PM.Self-regulatory strategy and executive control: implementation intentions modulate task switching and Simon task performance[J]. Psychological Research,2008,72:12-26.
[5] Loftus EF. Memory for intentions: The effect of presence of a cue and interpolated activity[J]. Psychonomic Science, 1971,23:315-316.
[6] Graf P, Uttl B.Prospective memory: a new focus for research[J].Consciousness and Cognition,2001, 10: 437–450.
[7] McDaniel MA, Einstein GO. Prospective memory: An overview and synthesis of an emerging field[M]. Los Angeles, CA: Sage Publications,2007.
[8] Einstein GO, McDaniel MA. Retrieval processes in prospective memory: Theoretical approaches and some new empirical findings. In Prospective Memory: Theory and Applications,Brandimonte M, Einstein GO, McDaniel MA (eds). Erlbaum: Mahwah, NJ; 115-124,1996.
[9] Kvavilashvili L, Ellis J. Let’s forget the everyday/laboratory controversy[J]. Behavioral and Brain Sciences,1996,19:199-200.
[10] Craik FIM. A functional account of age differences in memory. In Klix F., Hagendorf H. (Eds.), Human memory and cognitive capabilities: Mechanisms and performances (pp. 409-422). Amsterdam: Elsevier.
[11] Kvavilashvili L. Remembering intentions: A critical review of existing experimental paradigms[J]. Applied Cognitive Psychology,1992, 6: 507-524.
[12]王丽娟.前瞻记忆的加工机制及其影响因素:发展的视角[D].华东师范大学, 2006.
[13] Kliegel M, McDaniel M A, Ensitein GO. Plan formation, retention, and executive in prospective memory: A new approach and age-related effects[J]. Memory & cognition, 2000,28:1041 - 1049.
[14] Martin M, Kliegel M, McDaniel M A. The involvement of executive functions in prospective memory performance of adults[J]. International Journal of Psychology, 2003, 38: 195-206.
[15] McDaniel MA, Einstein GO. Strategic and automatic processes in prospective memory retrieval: A multiprocess framework[J]. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 2000,14:S127 - S144.
[16]赵晋全.前瞻记忆的特点、机制和应用研究[D].华东师范大学,2002.
[17]彭聃龄.普通心理学[M].第三版.北京:北京师范大学出版社,2004.
[18]赵晋全,郭力平.前瞻记忆研究评述[J].心理科学, 2000,23(4):466-469.
[19] Gollwitzer PM. (1993). Goal achievement: The role of intentions. In W. Stroebe & M. Hewstone (Eds.), European Review of Social Psychology (Vol. 4, pp. 141-185). Chicester: Wiley.
[20] Gollwitzer PM. Implementation intentions: Strong effects of simple plans[J]. American Psychologist, 1999,54:493-503.
[21] Mayr U, Kliegl R. Differential effects of cue changes and task changes on task-set selection costs[J]. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition,2003,29(3):362-372.
[22] Gollwitzer PM, Sheeran P. Implementation intentions and goal achievement: A meta-analysis of effects and processes[J]. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 2006,38: 69-119.
[23] Schnitzspahn KM, Kliegel M. Age effects in prospective memory performance within older adults: the paradoxical impact of implementation intentions[J]. European Journal of Ageing,2009,6:147-155.
[24] Cohen AL, Gollwitzer PM. The cost of remembering to remember: cognitive load and implementation intentions influence ongoing task performance. In: Kliegel M, McDaniel MA, Einstein GO (eds) Prospective memory: cognitive, neuroscience, developmental, and applied perspectives. Erlbaum, London,2008.
[25] Ellis JA ,Freeman JE. Ten years on: realizing delayed intentions. In: M. Kliegel, M.A. McDaniel and G.O. Einstein, Editors, Prospective memory: Cognitive, neuroscience, developmental, and applied perspectives, Lawrence Erlbaum, Mahwah, NJ (2008), pp. 1–27.
[26] Einstein GO, McDaniel MA, Williford CL, Pagan JL, Dismukes RK. Forgetting of intentions in demanding situations is rapid[J].Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied,2003,9(3):147-162.
[27] McDaniel MA, Howard DC, Butler KM.Implementation intentions facilitate prospective memory under high attention demands[J].Memory & Cognition, 2008,36:716-724.
[28] Kliegel M, Martin M, McDaniel MA, Einstein G.O, Moor C. Realizing complex delayed intentions in young and old adults: the role of planning aids[J]. Mem Cogn ,2007,35(7):1735-1746.
[29] Bayer C, Gollwitzer P M. Boosting scholastic test scores by willpower: The role of implementation intentions[J]. Self and Identity, 2007,6:1-19.
[30] Chasteen AL, Park DC, Schwarz N. Implementation intentions and facilitation of prospective memory[J]. Psychological Science, 2001,12(6): 457-461.
[31] Liu LL, Park DC. Aging and medical adherence: The use of automatic processes to achieve effortful things[J]. Psychology and Aging, 2004,19(2): 318-325.
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