睡眠对于记忆巩固的影响
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摘要
睡眠一直以来都是研究者感兴趣的领域,睡眠除了消除身体和精神上的疲劳之外,它还可能以另一种方式工作着,对认知活动产生影响。目前关于睡眠功能的研究中,它对于记忆巩固(memory consolidation)的重要作用受到了诸多关注。睡眠为记忆巩固提供了一个适宜的环境,使得经历过练习、初步编码的记忆痕迹得到巩固,从而进入更为稳定的形式。
本文的理论背景部分,概述记忆巩固及睡眠的相关概念,介绍睡眠依赖性记忆巩固的部分要素,并通过回顾前人研究简要介绍此现象背后的神经机制。
在本文的实验部分,主要通过序列反应时任务(SRTT)范式的多种变式,对意识水平对睡眠依赖性记忆巩固效应的影响进行探讨。
本研究中包括三个实验：实验一,采用序列反应时任务,通过指导语将被试分为外显组与内隐组,验证睡眠对内隐和外显记忆巩固的分离效应；实验二和实验三在此基础上进一步探讨意识水平的影响。实验二,采用多维度序列学习范式,提高序列学习过程中的意识水平,考查意识水平的提升是否导致睡眠依赖性记忆巩固的出现；实验三,采用双任务内隐学习范式,引入次要任务对序列学习任务进行干扰,考查意识水平的降低对睡眠依赖性记忆巩固的影响。
研究发现：1.在部分序列学习任务中,睡眠参与记忆巩固的过程,证明了睡眠依赖性记忆巩固效应的存在性；2.意识水平影响了睡眠依赖性记忆巩固,在需要较多意识参与的外显学习和多维度内隐序列学习任务中,记忆巩固效应的发生依赖于睡眠；而对需要较少意识参与的单维度内隐学习及注意资源受到干扰的多任务序列学习的情况下,记忆巩固与睡眠无关。
Sleep has always been an interest topic. In addition to elimination of physical and mental fatigue, sleep also may work in another way and impact cognitive activities. Recently, in the field of sleep research, the effect of sleep on memory consolidation plays an important role. Sleep provides a suitable environment for memory consolidation that means the practiced and the initial encoding memory traces are consolidated, then transfer to the more stable form.
In the theory section of the dissertation, the related concepts of memory consolidation and sleep are introduced; the impact factors of sleep-dependent memory consolidation are reviewed, and the neural mechanisms behind this phenomenon are summarized.
In the experiment section, Serial Reaction Time Task (SRTT) paradigm is used to explore the impact of consciousness on sleep-dependent memory consolidation
The study included three experiments:
In the first experiment, Serial Reaction Time Task is used. Subjects are separated into two groups:implicit group and explicit group by introduction. It aimed to verify only explicit memory consolidation is sleep-dependent. On the basis of first study, experiment 2 and experiment 3 aimed to discuss the question deeply.
In the second experiment, the multi-dimensional sequence learning paradigm is used for improving the consciousness of sequence learning. It aimed to explore whether the higher level of consciousness leads to sleep-dependent memory consolidation. In the third experiment, the dual task paradigm is used, because the secondary task interfere the sequence learning, It explored whether the lower level of consciousness impact the sleep-dependent memory consolidation.
The research got the following findings:1.in partial sequence learning tasks, sleep involved in the process of memory consolidation, which indicates the existence of sleep-dependent memory consolidation existence; 2. The level of consciousness impact the sleep-dependent memory consolidation:In explicit learning and multi-dimensional implicit learning tasks which needs more consciousness attendance, memory consolidation depended on the occurrence of sleep; however, in the single dimension and dual tasks sequence learning which obtains less consciousness attendance, sleep-dependent memory consolidation was not observed.
本文的理论背景部分,概述记忆巩固及睡眠的相关概念,介绍睡眠依赖性记忆巩固的部分要素,并通过回顾前人研究简要介绍此现象背后的神经机制。
在本文的实验部分,主要通过序列反应时任务(SRTT)范式的多种变式,对意识水平对睡眠依赖性记忆巩固效应的影响进行探讨。
本研究中包括三个实验：实验一,采用序列反应时任务,通过指导语将被试分为外显组与内隐组,验证睡眠对内隐和外显记忆巩固的分离效应；实验二和实验三在此基础上进一步探讨意识水平的影响。实验二,采用多维度序列学习范式,提高序列学习过程中的意识水平,考查意识水平的提升是否导致睡眠依赖性记忆巩固的出现；实验三,采用双任务内隐学习范式,引入次要任务对序列学习任务进行干扰,考查意识水平的降低对睡眠依赖性记忆巩固的影响。
研究发现：1.在部分序列学习任务中,睡眠参与记忆巩固的过程,证明了睡眠依赖性记忆巩固效应的存在性；2.意识水平影响了睡眠依赖性记忆巩固,在需要较多意识参与的外显学习和多维度内隐序列学习任务中,记忆巩固效应的发生依赖于睡眠；而对需要较少意识参与的单维度内隐学习及注意资源受到干扰的多任务序列学习的情况下,记忆巩固与睡眠无关。
Sleep has always been an interest topic. In addition to elimination of physical and mental fatigue, sleep also may work in another way and impact cognitive activities. Recently, in the field of sleep research, the effect of sleep on memory consolidation plays an important role. Sleep provides a suitable environment for memory consolidation that means the practiced and the initial encoding memory traces are consolidated, then transfer to the more stable form.
In the theory section of the dissertation, the related concepts of memory consolidation and sleep are introduced; the impact factors of sleep-dependent memory consolidation are reviewed, and the neural mechanisms behind this phenomenon are summarized.
In the experiment section, Serial Reaction Time Task (SRTT) paradigm is used to explore the impact of consciousness on sleep-dependent memory consolidation
The study included three experiments:
In the first experiment, Serial Reaction Time Task is used. Subjects are separated into two groups:implicit group and explicit group by introduction. It aimed to verify only explicit memory consolidation is sleep-dependent. On the basis of first study, experiment 2 and experiment 3 aimed to discuss the question deeply.
In the second experiment, the multi-dimensional sequence learning paradigm is used for improving the consciousness of sequence learning. It aimed to explore whether the higher level of consciousness leads to sleep-dependent memory consolidation. In the third experiment, the dual task paradigm is used, because the secondary task interfere the sequence learning, It explored whether the lower level of consciousness impact the sleep-dependent memory consolidation.
The research got the following findings:1.in partial sequence learning tasks, sleep involved in the process of memory consolidation, which indicates the existence of sleep-dependent memory consolidation existence; 2. The level of consciousness impact the sleep-dependent memory consolidation:In explicit learning and multi-dimensional implicit learning tasks which needs more consciousness attendance, memory consolidation depended on the occurrence of sleep; however, in the single dimension and dual tasks sequence learning which obtains less consciousness attendance, sleep-dependent memory consolidation was not observed.
引文
1.Barrett, T.R.,Ekstrand, B.R.(1972). Effect of sleep on memory controlling for time of-day effects. Journal of Experiment Psychology,93,321-327.
2. Born, J.,Rasch, B.,Gais, S.(2006). Sleep to remember. Neuroscientist,12,410-424.
3.Brown, R.M., Robertson, E.M. (2007). Off-line processing:reciprocal interactions between declarative and procedural memories. Journal of Neuroscience,27,10468-10475.
4. Chun, M.M., Phelps, E.A.(1999). Memory deficits for implicit contextual information in amnesic subjects with hippocampal damage. Nature Neuroscience,2,844-847.
5.Donchin, O.,Sawaki, L.,Madupu, G., Cohen, L.G. (2002).Shadmehr R. Mechanisms influencing acquisition and recall of motor memories.Journal of Neurophysiology, 88,2114-23.
6. Empson, J.A.C., Clarke, P.R.F.(1970). Rapid eye movements and remembering. Nature, 227,287-288.
7. Fischer, S.,Nitschke, M.F., Melchert, U.H., Erdmann, C.,Born, J.(2005). Motor memory consolidation in sleep shapes more effective neuronal representations. Journal of Neuroscience,25,11248-11255.
8.Fischer, S.,Hallschmid, M.,Elsner, A.L.,Born, J.(2002).Sleep forms memory for finger skills. Processing of the National Academy Science of the USA,99,11987-11991.
9.Fortin, N.J.,Agster, K.L.,Eichenbaum, H.B.(2002). Critical role of the hippocampus in memory for sequences of events. Nature Neuroscience,5,458-462.
10. Gais, S.,Albouy, G.,Boly, M., (2007). Sleep transforms the cerebral trace of declarative memories. Processing of the National Academy Science of the USA,104,18778-18783
11.Giuditta, A., Ambrosini, M.V.,Montagnese, P., Mandile, P.,Cotugno, M.,Zucconi, G., Vescia, S.(1995).The sequential hypothesis of the function of sleep. Behavior Brain Research.69(1-2),157-166.
12. Grafton, S.T., Hazeltine, E., Ivry, R.(1995). Functional mapping ofsequence learning in normal humans. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience,7,497-510.
13.Graves, L.A.,Heller, E.A.,Pack, A.I.,and Abel, T. (2003). Sleep deprivation selectively impairs memory consolidation for contextual fear conditioning. Learning and Memory. 10,168-176.
14. Hipolito, C., Jezzard, P., Adams, M.M., Turner, R.,et al.(1998). The acquisition of skilled motor performance:fast and slow experience-driven changes in primary motor cortex.Processing of National Academy Science USA,95,861-868.
15. Hu, P., Stylos-Allan, M.,Walker, M.P. (2006). Sleep facilitates consolidation of emotional declarative memory. Psychology Science,17,891-898.
16. Idzikowski, C.(1984).Sleep and memory. British Journal of Psychology,75,439-449.
17. Karni, A., Sagi, D. (1993). The time course of learning a visual skill. Nature,365, 250-252.
18. Karni, A., Tanne, D.,Rubenstein, B. S.,Askenasy, J. J. M.,Sagi, D.(1994). Dependence on REM sleep of overnight improvement of a perceptual skill. Science,265,679-682.
19. Keele, S.W.,Ivry, R.B., Mayr, U.,Hazeltine, E., and Heuer, H. (2003). The cognitive and neural architecture of sequence representation. Psychological Review,110,316-339.
20. Krakauer, J.W., Shadmehr, R. (2006). Consolidation of motor memory. Trends of Neuroscience,29,58-64.
21.Maquet, P.,Laureys, S.,Peigneux, P., et al. (2000).Experience-dependent changes in cerebral activation during human REM sleep.Nature Neuroscience,3,831-836.
22.Marshall, L.,Born J.(2007).The contribution of sleep to hippocampus-dependent memory consolidation. Trends in Cognitive Sciences,11(10).
23.McGaugh, J.L.(2000) Memory-a century of consolidation. Science,287,248-251
24. McGaugh, J.L. (2004). The amygdala modulates the consolidation of memories of emotionally arousing experiences. Annual Review of Neuroscience,27,1-28.
25.Mednick, S.,Nakayama, K., Stickgold, R. (2003).Sleep-dependent learning:a nap is as good as a night. Nature Neuroscience,6(7),697-698.
26. Nader, K. (2003)Memory traces unbound. Trends of Neuroscience,26,65-72
27. Plihal, W., Born, J.(1997). Effects of early and late nocturnal sleep on declarative and procedural memory. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience,9,534-547.
28. Quintilian.(2004) Institutes of Oratory,.
29. Rasch, B.,Buchel, C.,Gais, S.,Born, J.(2007). Odor cues during slow-wave sleep prompt declarative memory consolidation. Science,315,1426-1429.
30. Rauchs, G., Desgranges, B., Foret, J.,Eustache, F. (2005). The relationships between memory systems and sleep stages. Journal of Sleep Research,14(2),123-140.
31.Rauch, S.L.,Whalen, P.J., Savage, C.R.,Curran, T.,Kendrick, A.,Brown, H.D.,Bush, G., Breiter, H.C., Rosen, B.R. (1997). Striatal recruitment during an implicit sequence learning task as measured by functional magnetic resonance imaging. Human Brain Mapping,5(2),124-132.
32. Reber, A.S.(1993). Implicit learning and tacit knowledge:an essay on the cognitive unconscious. New York, NY:Oxford University Press.
33.Robertson, E.M.,Pascual-Leone, A., Miall, R. (2004). Current concepts in procedural consolidation. Nature Review Neuroscience,5,576-582.
34. Robertson, E., Pascual-Leone, A.,Press D.,Awareness Modifies the Skill-Learning Benefits of Sleep,2004,Current Biology, Volume 14, Issue 3, Pages 208-212
35.Schendan, H.E.,Searl, M.M.,Melrose, R.J.,Stern, C.E. (2003). An fMRI study of the role of the medial temporal lobe in implicit and explicit sequence learning. Neuron,37, 1013-1025.
36.Shadmehr, R.,Krug, T.(1997), Functional stages in the formation of human long-term motor memory. Journal of Neuroscience,17,409-419.
37. Shadmehr, R.,Wise, S.P. (2005). The computational neurobiology of reaching and pointing. Cambridge, MA:MIT Press.
38. Shadmehr, R. (2006). Consolidation of motor memory. Trends of Neuroscience,29, 58-64.
39.Smith, C., and MacNeill, C.(1994). Impaired motor memory for a pursuit rotor task following Stage 2 sleep loss in college students.Sleep Research.3,206-213.
40. Stickgold, R., Walker, M.P. (2005). Memory consolidation and reconsolidation:what is the role of sleep? Trends in Neurosciences,28(8).
41.Stickgold, R. et al. (2000). Visual discrimination learning requires sleep after training. Nature Neuroscience,3,1237-1238
42.Stickgold, R., Walker, M. P. (2005). Sleep and memory:the ongoing debate. Sleep,28, 1225-1227.
43.Stickgold, R. (2005). Sleep-dependent memory consolidation.Nature,437(27),1272-1278
44. Song, S.,Howard, J.H.,Howard, D.V. (2007).Sleep does not benefit probabilistic motor sequence learning. Journal of Neuroscience,27(46),12475-12483.
45.Tilley, A.J., Empson, J.A.C.(1978), REM sleep and memory consolidation. Biological Psychology,6,293-300.
46.Tulving, E. (1985). How many memory systems are there? American Psychologist,40, 385-398
47. Walker, M.P. (2005). A refined model of sleep and the time course of memory formation. Behavior Brain Science,28,51-64;discussion 64-104.
48. Walker, M.P.,Brakefield, T.,Seidman, J.,Morgan, A.,Hobson, J.A., Stickgold, R. (2003). Sleep and the time course of motor skill learning. Learning and Memory,10,275-2,84.
49. Smith,C.,and MacNeill, C. (1994). Impaired motor memory for a pursuit rotor task following Stage 2 sleep loss in college students. Sleep Research,3,206-213.
50. Vertes, R.P. (2004). Memory consolidation in sleep; dream or reality. Neuron. 44(1):135-148.
51.Wagner, U.,Gais, S.,Haider, H.,Verleger, R.,Born, J. (2004). Sleep inspires insight. Nature.427(6972),352-355.
52.Walker, M.P.,Stickgold, R. (2004). Sleep-dependent learning and memory consolidation. Neuron,44,121-133.
53.Walker, M.P.,Brakefield, T.,Morgan, A.,Hobson, J.A.,and Stickgold, R. (2002). Practice with sleep makes perfect:sleep dependent motor skill learning. Neuron,35, 205-211.
54. Willingham, D.B.,Nissen, M.J.,and Bullemer, P.(1989).On the development of procedural knowledge. Memory and Cognition,15,1047-1060.
55.刘贤臣,唐茂芹.(1996).匹兹堡睡眠质量指数的信度和效度研究.中华精神科杂志，5(2),103-107
56.郭秀艳.(2003).内隐学习.上海：华东师范大学出版社
57.郭秀艳,杨治良.(2002).内隐学习和外显学习的相互关系.心理学报，34(4),351-356
58.郭秀艳,朱磊,邹庆宇.(2005).内隐学习的主观测量标准.心理科学，28(5),1192-1195
2. Born, J.,Rasch, B.,Gais, S.(2006). Sleep to remember. Neuroscientist,12,410-424.
3.Brown, R.M., Robertson, E.M. (2007). Off-line processing:reciprocal interactions between declarative and procedural memories. Journal of Neuroscience,27,10468-10475.
4. Chun, M.M., Phelps, E.A.(1999). Memory deficits for implicit contextual information in amnesic subjects with hippocampal damage. Nature Neuroscience,2,844-847.
5.Donchin, O.,Sawaki, L.,Madupu, G., Cohen, L.G. (2002).Shadmehr R. Mechanisms influencing acquisition and recall of motor memories.Journal of Neurophysiology, 88,2114-23.
6. Empson, J.A.C., Clarke, P.R.F.(1970). Rapid eye movements and remembering. Nature, 227,287-288.
7. Fischer, S.,Nitschke, M.F., Melchert, U.H., Erdmann, C.,Born, J.(2005). Motor memory consolidation in sleep shapes more effective neuronal representations. Journal of Neuroscience,25,11248-11255.
8.Fischer, S.,Hallschmid, M.,Elsner, A.L.,Born, J.(2002).Sleep forms memory for finger skills. Processing of the National Academy Science of the USA,99,11987-11991.
9.Fortin, N.J.,Agster, K.L.,Eichenbaum, H.B.(2002). Critical role of the hippocampus in memory for sequences of events. Nature Neuroscience,5,458-462.
10. Gais, S.,Albouy, G.,Boly, M., (2007). Sleep transforms the cerebral trace of declarative memories. Processing of the National Academy Science of the USA,104,18778-18783
11.Giuditta, A., Ambrosini, M.V.,Montagnese, P., Mandile, P.,Cotugno, M.,Zucconi, G., Vescia, S.(1995).The sequential hypothesis of the function of sleep. Behavior Brain Research.69(1-2),157-166.
12. Grafton, S.T., Hazeltine, E., Ivry, R.(1995). Functional mapping ofsequence learning in normal humans. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience,7,497-510.
13.Graves, L.A.,Heller, E.A.,Pack, A.I.,and Abel, T. (2003). Sleep deprivation selectively impairs memory consolidation for contextual fear conditioning. Learning and Memory. 10,168-176.
14. Hipolito, C., Jezzard, P., Adams, M.M., Turner, R.,et al.(1998). The acquisition of skilled motor performance:fast and slow experience-driven changes in primary motor cortex.Processing of National Academy Science USA,95,861-868.
15. Hu, P., Stylos-Allan, M.,Walker, M.P. (2006). Sleep facilitates consolidation of emotional declarative memory. Psychology Science,17,891-898.
16. Idzikowski, C.(1984).Sleep and memory. British Journal of Psychology,75,439-449.
17. Karni, A., Sagi, D. (1993). The time course of learning a visual skill. Nature,365, 250-252.
18. Karni, A., Tanne, D.,Rubenstein, B. S.,Askenasy, J. J. M.,Sagi, D.(1994). Dependence on REM sleep of overnight improvement of a perceptual skill. Science,265,679-682.
19. Keele, S.W.,Ivry, R.B., Mayr, U.,Hazeltine, E., and Heuer, H. (2003). The cognitive and neural architecture of sequence representation. Psychological Review,110,316-339.
20. Krakauer, J.W., Shadmehr, R. (2006). Consolidation of motor memory. Trends of Neuroscience,29,58-64.
21.Maquet, P.,Laureys, S.,Peigneux, P., et al. (2000).Experience-dependent changes in cerebral activation during human REM sleep.Nature Neuroscience,3,831-836.
22.Marshall, L.,Born J.(2007).The contribution of sleep to hippocampus-dependent memory consolidation. Trends in Cognitive Sciences,11(10).
23.McGaugh, J.L.(2000) Memory-a century of consolidation. Science,287,248-251
24. McGaugh, J.L. (2004). The amygdala modulates the consolidation of memories of emotionally arousing experiences. Annual Review of Neuroscience,27,1-28.
25.Mednick, S.,Nakayama, K., Stickgold, R. (2003).Sleep-dependent learning:a nap is as good as a night. Nature Neuroscience,6(7),697-698.
26. Nader, K. (2003)Memory traces unbound. Trends of Neuroscience,26,65-72
27. Plihal, W., Born, J.(1997). Effects of early and late nocturnal sleep on declarative and procedural memory. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience,9,534-547.
28. Quintilian.(2004) Institutes of Oratory,
29. Rasch, B.,Buchel, C.,Gais, S.,Born, J.(2007). Odor cues during slow-wave sleep prompt declarative memory consolidation. Science,315,1426-1429.
30. Rauchs, G., Desgranges, B., Foret, J.,Eustache, F. (2005). The relationships between memory systems and sleep stages. Journal of Sleep Research,14(2),123-140.
31.Rauch, S.L.,Whalen, P.J., Savage, C.R.,Curran, T.,Kendrick, A.,Brown, H.D.,Bush, G., Breiter, H.C., Rosen, B.R. (1997). Striatal recruitment during an implicit sequence learning task as measured by functional magnetic resonance imaging. Human Brain Mapping,5(2),124-132.
32. Reber, A.S.(1993). Implicit learning and tacit knowledge:an essay on the cognitive unconscious. New York, NY:Oxford University Press.
33.Robertson, E.M.,Pascual-Leone, A., Miall, R. (2004). Current concepts in procedural consolidation. Nature Review Neuroscience,5,576-582.
34. Robertson, E., Pascual-Leone, A.,Press D.,Awareness Modifies the Skill-Learning Benefits of Sleep,2004,Current Biology, Volume 14, Issue 3, Pages 208-212
35.Schendan, H.E.,Searl, M.M.,Melrose, R.J.,Stern, C.E. (2003). An fMRI study of the role of the medial temporal lobe in implicit and explicit sequence learning. Neuron,37, 1013-1025.
36.Shadmehr, R.,Krug, T.(1997), Functional stages in the formation of human long-term motor memory. Journal of Neuroscience,17,409-419.
37. Shadmehr, R.,Wise, S.P. (2005). The computational neurobiology of reaching and pointing. Cambridge, MA:MIT Press.
38. Shadmehr, R. (2006). Consolidation of motor memory. Trends of Neuroscience,29, 58-64.
39.Smith, C., and MacNeill, C.(1994). Impaired motor memory for a pursuit rotor task following Stage 2 sleep loss in college students.Sleep Research.3,206-213.
40. Stickgold, R., Walker, M.P. (2005). Memory consolidation and reconsolidation:what is the role of sleep? Trends in Neurosciences,28(8).
41.Stickgold, R. et al. (2000). Visual discrimination learning requires sleep after training. Nature Neuroscience,3,1237-1238
42.Stickgold, R., Walker, M. P. (2005). Sleep and memory:the ongoing debate. Sleep,28, 1225-1227.
43.Stickgold, R. (2005). Sleep-dependent memory consolidation.Nature,437(27),1272-1278
44. Song, S.,Howard, J.H.,Howard, D.V. (2007).Sleep does not benefit probabilistic motor sequence learning. Journal of Neuroscience,27(46),12475-12483.
45.Tilley, A.J., Empson, J.A.C.(1978), REM sleep and memory consolidation. Biological Psychology,6,293-300.
46.Tulving, E. (1985). How many memory systems are there? American Psychologist,40, 385-398
47. Walker, M.P. (2005). A refined model of sleep and the time course of memory formation. Behavior Brain Science,28,51-64;discussion 64-104.
48. Walker, M.P.,Brakefield, T.,Seidman, J.,Morgan, A.,Hobson, J.A., Stickgold, R. (2003). Sleep and the time course of motor skill learning. Learning and Memory,10,275-2,84.
49. Smith,C.,and MacNeill, C. (1994). Impaired motor memory for a pursuit rotor task following Stage 2 sleep loss in college students. Sleep Research,3,206-213.
50. Vertes, R.P. (2004). Memory consolidation in sleep; dream or reality. Neuron. 44(1):135-148.
51.Wagner, U.,Gais, S.,Haider, H.,Verleger, R.,Born, J. (2004). Sleep inspires insight. Nature.427(6972),352-355.
52.Walker, M.P.,Stickgold, R. (2004). Sleep-dependent learning and memory consolidation. Neuron,44,121-133.
53.Walker, M.P.,Brakefield, T.,Morgan, A.,Hobson, J.A.,and Stickgold, R. (2002). Practice with sleep makes perfect:sleep dependent motor skill learning. Neuron,35, 205-211.
54. Willingham, D.B.,Nissen, M.J.,and Bullemer, P.(1989).On the development of procedural knowledge. Memory and Cognition,15,1047-1060.
55.刘贤臣,唐茂芹.(1996).匹兹堡睡眠质量指数的信度和效度研究.中华精神科杂志，5(2),103-107
56.郭秀艳.(2003).内隐学习.上海：华东师范大学出版社
57.郭秀艳,杨治良.(2002).内隐学习和外显学习的相互关系.心理学报，34(4),351-356
58.郭秀艳,朱磊,邹庆宇.(2005).内隐学习的主观测量标准.心理科学，28(5),1192-1195