建筑结构风效应风洞试验及数值模拟研究
|
摘要
双层通风幕墙在改善高层建筑节能性和环保性方面起到了良好作用。双层幕墙外墙风压需要考虑内外表面的合力作用，其风荷载不同于传统单层幕墙。本文通过风洞试验研究了矩形和圆形截面高层建筑的外通风廊道式双幕墙的静、动力风压分布特性，对比分析了双幕墙内、外幕墙之间以及单、双幕墙之间风荷载取值的异同点，总结了双幕墙抗风薄弱部位，为此类幕墙抗风设计提供了设计依据。
弧形大跨屋盖建筑因其外形美观、功能实用而在大型公用建筑工程中不断涌现。此类建筑自重轻、阻尼小，对风荷载比较敏感。研究其表面静、动力风荷载分布具有重要的实用价值。本文运用计算流体动力学(CFD)方法，选取不同湍流模型，对TTU试验建筑原型表面平均风压进行了模拟，将数值模拟结果与风洞试验和现场实测结果进行对比。在核实了数值模拟精度的基础上，运用改进的k-ε湍流模型对某曲面大跨网壳在大门开启和大门关闭两种不同工况下内、外表面的平均风压进行数值模拟研究，并考察了来流风向角和背景建筑对其风压分布的影响。
最后，本文利用刚性模型风洞试验中测得的风压时程，对此曲面屋盖及雨蓬结构在时域内进行了风振响应分析，得到每个节点的加速度响应。在此基础上通过定义荷载风振系数，求得结构各节点的静力等效风荷载，并通过分块平均及整体平均求得屋盖及雨蓬表面分块和整体静力等效风荷载。本文还分析了静力等效风荷载的分布特点，为此类结构的抗风设计提供了依据。
Double-skin facade system can greatly improve the energy saving and environmental performance of high rise buildings. For the wind resistant design of double skin facade, the net wind pressure on the external facade should be considered, which is more complicated than single-skin facade system. In this paper, wind tunnel tests on a cylindrical and a rectangular tall building with double-skin facade were carried out respectively and the characteristics of the wind loads on the double-skin facade were analyzed. The mean and fluctuating wind load distribution between the external and internal facade of double-skin facade system as well as between single facade and double facades were compared. Suggestions were made on the key part of wind resistance design of the double-skin facade system.
Domes and semi-sphere shaped long-span roofs have been widely used in large public buildings because of its aesthetically great out looking and its high performance. This kind of structures are usually lightly weighted and have small damping thus are sensitive to wind loads. It is of great importance to study its mean and fluctuating wind loads.
The mean wind pressures on the wall and roof of the TTU test building were simulated by the CFD method, using the full scale prototype model. Comparisons between the results from the wind tunnel tests, numerical simulations and the field tests were performed to verify the accuracy of the CFD method. Then the advanced k-ε turbulence model was used to compute the mean pressures on a long span curve shaped roof with the front door open or not open.
At last, the wind pressure time serials derived from the rigid model wind tunnel experiment were adopted to calculate the wind induced vibrating response of this long span roof and awning system in time domain. The acceleration responses of each node of the roof and awning structures were thus available. Based on this, by defining the wind load factors, the equivalent static wind loads were calculated for each of the node. For the sake of practical use in structural wind resistant design, the roof
structure were divided into small areas, of witch the equivalent static wind loads were studied.
弧形大跨屋盖建筑因其外形美观、功能实用而在大型公用建筑工程中不断涌现。此类建筑自重轻、阻尼小，对风荷载比较敏感。研究其表面静、动力风荷载分布具有重要的实用价值。本文运用计算流体动力学(CFD)方法，选取不同湍流模型，对TTU试验建筑原型表面平均风压进行了模拟，将数值模拟结果与风洞试验和现场实测结果进行对比。在核实了数值模拟精度的基础上，运用改进的k-ε湍流模型对某曲面大跨网壳在大门开启和大门关闭两种不同工况下内、外表面的平均风压进行数值模拟研究，并考察了来流风向角和背景建筑对其风压分布的影响。
最后，本文利用刚性模型风洞试验中测得的风压时程，对此曲面屋盖及雨蓬结构在时域内进行了风振响应分析，得到每个节点的加速度响应。在此基础上通过定义荷载风振系数，求得结构各节点的静力等效风荷载，并通过分块平均及整体平均求得屋盖及雨蓬表面分块和整体静力等效风荷载。本文还分析了静力等效风荷载的分布特点，为此类结构的抗风设计提供了依据。
Double-skin facade system can greatly improve the energy saving and environmental performance of high rise buildings. For the wind resistant design of double skin facade, the net wind pressure on the external facade should be considered, which is more complicated than single-skin facade system. In this paper, wind tunnel tests on a cylindrical and a rectangular tall building with double-skin facade were carried out respectively and the characteristics of the wind loads on the double-skin facade were analyzed. The mean and fluctuating wind load distribution between the external and internal facade of double-skin facade system as well as between single facade and double facades were compared. Suggestions were made on the key part of wind resistance design of the double-skin facade system.
Domes and semi-sphere shaped long-span roofs have been widely used in large public buildings because of its aesthetically great out looking and its high performance. This kind of structures are usually lightly weighted and have small damping thus are sensitive to wind loads. It is of great importance to study its mean and fluctuating wind loads.
The mean wind pressures on the wall and roof of the TTU test building were simulated by the CFD method, using the full scale prototype model. Comparisons between the results from the wind tunnel tests, numerical simulations and the field tests were performed to verify the accuracy of the CFD method. Then the advanced k-ε turbulence model was used to compute the mean pressures on a long span curve shaped roof with the front door open or not open.
At last, the wind pressure time serials derived from the rigid model wind tunnel experiment were adopted to calculate the wind induced vibrating response of this long span roof and awning system in time domain. The acceleration responses of each node of the roof and awning structures were thus available. Based on this, by defining the wind load factors, the equivalent static wind loads were calculated for each of the node. For the sake of practical use in structural wind resistant design, the roof
structure were divided into small areas, of witch the equivalent static wind loads were studied.
引文
[1] 曹崇高，张相庭，结构风灾经济损失模型的建立及其应用[J]，安阳师范学院学报，2000(2)：32～34
[2] 张俊香，李平日，黄光庆，新奥尔良飓风灾难与华南沿海台风风暴潮[J]，热带地理，2006．26(3)：218～222
[3] 廖河山，黄诗福，滨海城市建筑工程台风灾害的新特点[J]，厦门理工学院学报，2006．14(1)：28～32
[4] J. Maeda, E. Tomokiyo, etc., Tornado Disaster in Saga Prefecture, Japan, on June 27, 2004[C], Proceeding of The Sixth Asia-Pacific Conference on Wind Engineering, Seoul, Korea, 2005: 2874～2887
[5] C. W. Letchford, K. C. Mehta, J. A. Womble, L.J. Tanner, Some engineering lessons from the 2004 US hurricane season[C], Proceeding of The Sixth Asia-Pacific Conference on Wind Engineering, Seoul, Korea, 2005: 2888～2897
[6] 埃米尔·希缪，罗伯特·H·斯坎伦，风对结构的作用—风工程导论[M]，同济大学出版社，1992
[7] 中华人民共和国建设部，建筑结构荷载规范(GB50009-2001)[S]，中国标准出版社，2002
[8] A. G. Davenport, Past, present and future of wind engineering[J], J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 2002. 90(12-15): 1371～1380
[9] 项海帆，结构风工程研究的现状和展望[J]，振动工程学报，1997．10(3)：259～263
[10] 张氢，600吨超大型龙门起重机风压和风振研究[D]，同济大学博士后研究工作报告，2001
[11] C. V. Chok, Wind parameters of Texas Tech University field site, M. S. Thesis, Department of Civil Engineering, Texas Tech University, USA(1988)
[12] H. W. Tieleman, D. Surry, K. C. Mehta, Full/model-scale comparison of surface pressures on the Texas Tech experimental building[J], J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 1996.61(1): 1～23
[13] D. Surry, Pressure measurements on the Texas Tech building: Wind tunnel measurements and comparisons with full scale[J], J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 1991.38(2-3):227～234
[14] S. A. Bekele, H. Hangan, A comparative investigation of the TTU pressure envelope. Numerical versus laboratory and full scale results[J], Wind Structures, 2002. 5(2-4): 337～346
[15] 王福军，计算流体动力学分析——CFD软件原理与应用[M]，清华大学出版社，2004
[16] 杨伟，顾明，高层建筑三维定常风场数值模拟[J]，同济大学学报，2003．31(6)：647～651
[17] S. Murakami, Overview of turbulence models applied in CWE-1997[J], J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 1998. 74-76: 1～24
[18] 秦云，张耀春，王春刚，计算流体动力学在建筑风工程中的应用[J]，哈尔滨工业大学学报，2003．35(8)：977～981
[19] 詹超，环保节能型双层通风幕墙[J]，建筑技术开发，2004．31(10)：9～10
[20] 李保峰，“双层皮”幕墙类型分析及应用展望[J]，建筑学报，2001(11)：28～31
[21] H. J. Gerhardt, C. Kramer, Wind loads on wind-permeable building facades[J], J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 1983. 11 (1-3): 1～20
[22] H. J. Gerhardt, F. Janser, Wind loads on wind permeable facades[J], J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 1994. 53(1-2): 37～48
[23] M. G. Gomes, F. M. Silva, Multi-storey double-skin facades influence on surface pressure distribution[J], CISBAT 2004, Lausanne
[24] M. G. Gomes, F. M. Silva, Effects of different multi-storey double skin facade configurations on surface pressures[J], CISBAT 2005, Lausanne
[25] H. Kawai, Wind loads on double skin facades with opening windows[C], Proceeding of The Sixth Asia-Pacific Conference on Wind Engineering, Seoul, Korea, 2005: 231～247
[26] 左建明，朱凤荣，梁彬，李长龄，孟宪忠，双层玻璃幕墙的风荷载和层间流态的显示[C]，第十一届全国结构风工程学术会议论文集，三亚，2003：163～168
[27] 黄鹏，顾明，双层玻璃幕墙风压分布特性的试验研究[C]，第十一届全国结构风工程学术会议论文集，三亚，2003：117～122
[28] P. J. Saathoff, W. H. Melbourne, The generation of peak pressures in separated/ reattaching flows, J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 1989. 32(1-2):121～134.
[29] J. D. Ginger, C. W. Letchford, Characteristics of large pressures in regions of flow separation[J], J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 1993.49(1-3): 301～310
[30] J. X. Lin, D. Surry, H. W. Tieleman, The distribution of pressure near roof corners of flat roof low buildings[J], J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 1995. 56(2-3): 235～265
[31] H. W. Tieleman, Wind tunnel simulation of wind loading on low-rise structures: a review[J], J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 2003.91 (12-15): 1627～1649
[32] H. Kawai, G. Nishimura, Characteristics of fluctuating suction and conical vortices on a flat roof in oblique flow[J], J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 1996.60: 211～225
[33] Y. Uematsu, M. Yamada, Wind-induced dynamic response and resultant load estimation for a flat long-span roof[J], J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 1996.65(1-3): 155～166
[34] D. Banksa, R. N. Meroney, The applicability of quasi-steady theory to pressure statistics beneath roof-top vortices[J], J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 2001. 89(6): 569～598
[35] R. J. Kind, Worst suctions near edges of flat rooftops with parapets[J], J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 1988. 31(2-3): 251～264
[36] S. Pindado, J. Meseguer, Wind tunnel study on the influence of different parapets on the roof pressure distribution of low-rise buildings[J], J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 2003. 91 (9): 1133～1139
[37] C. W. Letchford, R. Marwood, On the influence of v and w component turbulence on roof pressures beneath conical vortices[J], J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 1997. 69-71: 567～577
[38] H. Kawai, G. Nishimura, Characteristics of fluctuating suction and conical vortices on a flat roof in oblique flow[J], J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 1996. 60: 211～225
[39] H. Kawai, Structure of conical vortices related with suction fluctuation on a flat roof in oblique smooth and turbulent flows[J], J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 1997. 69-71: 579～588
[40] H. W. Tieleman, Pressures on surface-mounted prisms: the effects of incident turbulence[J], J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 1993. 49(1-3): 289～300
[41] H. W. Tieleman, D. Surry, J. X. Lin, Characteristics of mean and fluctuating pressure coefficients under comer (delta wing) vortices[J], J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 1994. 52: 263～275
[42] H. J. Gerhardt, C. Kramer, Effect of building geometry on roof windloading[J], J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 1992. 43(1-3): 1765～1773
[43] P. A. Blackmore, Load reduction on flat roofs-the effect of edge profile[J], J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 1988. 29(1-3): 89～98
[44] T. Stathopoulos, P. Saathoff, X. Du, Wind loads on parapets[J], J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 2002. 90(4-5): 503～514
[45] D. Surry and J. X. Lin, The effect of surroundings and roof comer geometric modifications on roof pressures on low-rise buildings[J], J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 1995.58(1-2): 113～138
[46] Y. Uematsu, Nicholas Isyumov, Wind pressures acting on low-rise buildings[J], J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 1999. 82(1-3): 1～25
[47] T. Stathopoulos, D. Surry, A. G. Davenport, Effective wind loads on flat roofs[J], Journal of Structural Division, ASCE, 1981. 107: 281～298
[48] A. G. Davenport, On the assessment of the reliability of wind loading on low buildings[J], J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 1983.11(1-3): 21～37
[49] A. P. Robertson, Codification of local pressure coefficients for low-rise structures[J], J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 1988. 30(1-3): 143～152
[50] D. Surry, Recent and current research into wind loading of low buildings at the University of Western Ontario[J], J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 1990. 36(1-3): 1319～1329
[51] D. Meecham, D. Surry, A. G. Davenport, The magnitude and distribution of wind-induced pressures on hip and gable roofs[J], J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 1991. 38(2-3): 257～272
[52] B. Bienkiewicz, Y. Sun, Local wind loading on the roof of low-rise building[J], J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 1992.45(1):11～24
[53] D. Meecham, D. Surry and A. G. Davenport, The magnitude and distribution of wind-induced pressures on hip and gable roofs[J], J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 1991. 38(2-3): 257～272
[54] D. Meecham, The improved performance of hip roofs in extreme winds-A case study[J], J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 1992. 43(1-3): 1717～1726
[55] T. Ogawa, M. Nakayama, S. Murayama, Characteristics of wind pressure on spherical domes in trubulent boundary layers[D], Proceedings of the 10th National Symposium on Wind Engineering, Tokyo, 1988, 55～60
[56] T. J. Taylor, Wind pressures on a hemispherical domes[J], J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 1992. 40(2): 199～213
[57] S. Kawamura, T. Kiuchi, T. Mochizuki, Characteristics of wind pressures acting on spatial large dome[J], J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 1992. 42(1-3): 1511～1512
[58] T. Hongo, Experimental study of wind forces on spherical roofs[D], Ph. D. Thesis, Tohoku University, 1995
[59] Y. Uematsu, K. Yamada, A. Inoue, T. Hongo, Wind loads and wind-induced dynamic behavior of a single-layer latticed dome[J], J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 1997. 66(3): 227～248
[60] C. W. Letchford, P. P. Sarkar, Mean and fluctuating wind loads on rough and smooth parabolic domes[J], J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 2000. 88(1): 101～117
[61] O. Nakamura, Y. Tamura, K. Miyashita, M. Itoh, A case study of wind pressure and wind-induced vibration of large span open-type roof[J], J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 1994. 52: 237～248
[62] M Nakayama, Y. Sasaki, K. Masuda, T. Ogawa, An efficient method for selection of vibration modes contributory to wind response on dome-like roofs[J], J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 1998.73(1): 31～43
[63] 赵臣，吕伟平，沈世钊，悬索屋盖结构风振反应的时域分析方法[J]，哈尔滨 建筑大学学报，1995(2)
[64] Y. Uematsu, O. Kuribara, M. Yamada, A. Sasaki, T. Hongo, Wind-induced dynamic behavior and its load estimation of a single-layer latticed dome with a long span[J], J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 2001.89(14-15): 1671～1687
[65] Massimiliano Lazzari, Anna V. Saetta, Renato V. Vitaliani, Non-linear dynamic analysis of cable-suspended structures subjected to wind actions[J], Computers and Structures, 2001.79(9): 953～969
[66] A. G. Davenport, The application of statistical concepts to the wind loading of structures[C], Proc. Inst. Civil Eng., 19(1961)449～471
[67] 周晅毅，大跨度屋盖结构风荷载及风致响应研究[D]，同济大学博士论文，2004
[68] Y. Marukawa, Y. Uematsu, O. Tamura, H. Nakamura, D. Ueda, Design wind load on flat long-span roofs[C], Proc. 4th east Asia-Pacific conf. on Structural Engineering and Construction, Seoul, eds. Y. K. Shin, S. P. Chang and H. M. Koh, 3(1993)1619～1624.
[69] H. Ueda, Y. Tamura, Equivalent design pressure coefficients for beams supporting flat roofs[J], J. Struct. Construction Eng., Architectural Institute of Japan 464 (1994) 59～69
[70] Y. Uematsu, M. Yamada, A. Karasu, Design wind loads for structural frames of flat long-span roofs: Gust loading factor for the beam supporting roofs[J], J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 1997. 66(1): 35～50
[71] Y. Uematsu, M. Yamada, A. Karasu, Design wind loads for structural frames of flat long-span roofs: Gust loading factor for a structurally integrated type[J], J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 1997.66(2): 155～168
[72] J. D. Holmes, Effective static load distribution in wind engineering[J], J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 2002. 90(2): 91～109
[73] M. Kasperski, Extreme wind load distributions for linear and nonlinear design[J], Eng. Struct., 1992.14(1): 27～34.
[74] Y. Uematsu, K. Watanabe, A. Sasakic, T. Hongo, Wind-induced dynamic response and resultant load estimation of a circular flat roof[J], J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 1999．83(1-3)：251～261
[75] 楼文娟，孙炳楠，复杂体形高层建筑表面风压分布的特征[J]，建筑结构学报，1995．16(6)：38～44
[76] 楼文娟，金虎，陈勇，双幕墙长矩形建筑风荷载特性的试验研究[J]，建筑结构学报，2005．26(1)：65～70
[77] 赵西安，幕墙设计中的若干问题[J]，建筑技术，2004．35(9)：648～652
[78] 陈义良，湍流计算模型[M]，中国科学技术大学出版社，1991
[79] M. Piller, E. Nobile, J. Thomas, DNS study of turbulent transport at low Prandtl numbers in a channel flow[J], Journal of Fluid Mechanics, 2002(458): 419～441
[80] J. G. Wissink, DNS of separating low Reynolds number flow in a turbine cascade with incoming wakes[J], International Journal of Heat and Fluid Flow, 2003.24(4): 626～635
[81] H. K. Versteeg, W. Malalasekera, An introduction to computational fluid dynamics: The finite volume method[M], Wiley, New York, 1995
[82] 陶文铨，数值传热学(第二板)(M]，西安交通大学出版社，2001
[83] B. E. Launder, D. B. Spalding, Lectures in Mathematical Models of Turbulence[M], Academic Press, London, 1972
[84] M. B. Abbott, D. R. Basco, Computational Fluid Dynamics-An Introduction for Engineers[M], Longrnan Scientific & Technical, Harlow, England, 1989
[85] A. Okuno, T. Tamura, Y. Okuda, H. Kikitsu, LES Estimation of Wind Velocity Profiles over Various Roughened Ground Surfaces in Cities[C], Proceeding of The Sixth Asia-Pacific Conference on Wind Engineering, Seoul, Korea, 2005: 437～447
[86] J. Chung, B. Bienkiewicz, The TL/LES Model[C], Proceeding of The Sixth Asia-Pacific Conference on Wind Engineering, Seoul, Korea, 2005: 2527～2537
[87] T. Hasama, S. Kato, Study on Effect of Various Wall Boundary Conditions in Large-eddy Simulation of Wind near Buildings[C], Proceeding of The Sixth Asia-Pacific Conference on Wind Engineering, Seoul, Korea, 2005: 2128～2139
[88] S．V．Patankar，传热与流体流动的数值方法[M]，安徽科技出版社，1984
[89] M. L. Levitan, K. C. Mehta, Texas Tech field experiments for wind loads: Part 1. Building and pressure measuring system[J], J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 1992. 43(1-3): 1565～1576
[90] M. L. Levitan, K. C. Mehta, Texas Tech field experiments for wind loads: Part Ⅱ. Meteorological instrumentation and terrain parameters[J], J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 1992. 43(1-3): 1577～1588
[91] H. J. Ham, B. Bienkiewicz, Wind tunnel simulation of TTU flow and building roof pressure[J], J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 1998. 77～78:119～133
[92] M. Endo, B. Bienkiewicz, H. J. Ham, Wind-tulmel investigation of point pressure on TTU test building[J], J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 2006.94(7): 553～578
[93] M. L. Levitan, K. C. Mehta, W. P. Vann, J. D. Holmes, Field measurements of pressures on the Texas Tech building[J], J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 1991. 38(2-3): 227～234
[94] H. W. Tieleman, D. Surry, K. C. Mehta, Full/model-scale comparison of surface pressures on the Texas Tech experimental building[J], J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 1996.61(1): 1～23
[95] J. C. K. Cheung, J. D. Holmes, W.H. Melbourne, N. Lakshmanan, P. Bowditch, Pressures on a 1/10 scale model of the Texas Tech Building, J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 1997. 69-71: 529～538
[96] R. P. Hoxey, A. P. Robertson, G. M. Richardson, J.L. Short, Correction of wind-tunnel pressure coefficients for Reynolds number effect[J], J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 1997. 69-71: 547～555
[97] R. P. Hoxey, A. M. Reynolds, G. M. Richardson, A. P. Robertson, J. L. Short, Observations of Reynolds number sensitivity in the separated flow region on a bluff body[J], J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 1998. 73(3)231～249
[98] C. W. Letchford, P. P. Sarkar, Mean and fluctuating wind loads on rough and smooth parabolic domes[J], J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 2000. 88(1): 101～117
[99] 陆锋，大跨度平屋面结构的风振响应和风振系数研究[D]，浙江大学博士学位论文，2001
[2] 张俊香，李平日，黄光庆，新奥尔良飓风灾难与华南沿海台风风暴潮[J]，热带地理，2006．26(3)：218～222
[3] 廖河山，黄诗福，滨海城市建筑工程台风灾害的新特点[J]，厦门理工学院学报，2006．14(1)：28～32
[4] J. Maeda, E. Tomokiyo, etc., Tornado Disaster in Saga Prefecture, Japan, on June 27, 2004[C], Proceeding of The Sixth Asia-Pacific Conference on Wind Engineering, Seoul, Korea, 2005: 2874～2887
[5] C. W. Letchford, K. C. Mehta, J. A. Womble, L.J. Tanner, Some engineering lessons from the 2004 US hurricane season[C], Proceeding of The Sixth Asia-Pacific Conference on Wind Engineering, Seoul, Korea, 2005: 2888～2897
[6] 埃米尔·希缪，罗伯特·H·斯坎伦，风对结构的作用—风工程导论[M]，同济大学出版社，1992
[7] 中华人民共和国建设部，建筑结构荷载规范(GB50009-2001)[S]，中国标准出版社，2002
[8] A. G. Davenport, Past, present and future of wind engineering[J], J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 2002. 90(12-15): 1371～1380
[9] 项海帆，结构风工程研究的现状和展望[J]，振动工程学报，1997．10(3)：259～263
[10] 张氢，600吨超大型龙门起重机风压和风振研究[D]，同济大学博士后研究工作报告，2001
[11] C. V. Chok, Wind parameters of Texas Tech University field site, M. S. Thesis, Department of Civil Engineering, Texas Tech University, USA(1988)
[12] H. W. Tieleman, D. Surry, K. C. Mehta, Full/model-scale comparison of surface pressures on the Texas Tech experimental building[J], J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 1996.61(1): 1～23
[13] D. Surry, Pressure measurements on the Texas Tech building: Wind tunnel measurements and comparisons with full scale[J], J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 1991.38(2-3):227～234
[14] S. A. Bekele, H. Hangan, A comparative investigation of the TTU pressure envelope. Numerical versus laboratory and full scale results[J], Wind Structures, 2002. 5(2-4): 337～346
[15] 王福军，计算流体动力学分析——CFD软件原理与应用[M]，清华大学出版社，2004
[16] 杨伟，顾明，高层建筑三维定常风场数值模拟[J]，同济大学学报，2003．31(6)：647～651
[17] S. Murakami, Overview of turbulence models applied in CWE-1997[J], J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 1998. 74-76: 1～24
[18] 秦云，张耀春，王春刚，计算流体动力学在建筑风工程中的应用[J]，哈尔滨工业大学学报，2003．35(8)：977～981
[19] 詹超，环保节能型双层通风幕墙[J]，建筑技术开发，2004．31(10)：9～10
[20] 李保峰，“双层皮”幕墙类型分析及应用展望[J]，建筑学报，2001(11)：28～31
[21] H. J. Gerhardt, C. Kramer, Wind loads on wind-permeable building facades[J], J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 1983. 11 (1-3): 1～20
[22] H. J. Gerhardt, F. Janser, Wind loads on wind permeable facades[J], J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 1994. 53(1-2): 37～48
[23] M. G. Gomes, F. M. Silva, Multi-storey double-skin facades influence on surface pressure distribution[J], CISBAT 2004, Lausanne
[24] M. G. Gomes, F. M. Silva, Effects of different multi-storey double skin facade configurations on surface pressures[J], CISBAT 2005, Lausanne
[25] H. Kawai, Wind loads on double skin facades with opening windows[C], Proceeding of The Sixth Asia-Pacific Conference on Wind Engineering, Seoul, Korea, 2005: 231～247
[26] 左建明，朱凤荣，梁彬，李长龄，孟宪忠，双层玻璃幕墙的风荷载和层间流态的显示[C]，第十一届全国结构风工程学术会议论文集，三亚，2003：163～168
[27] 黄鹏，顾明，双层玻璃幕墙风压分布特性的试验研究[C]，第十一届全国结构风工程学术会议论文集，三亚，2003：117～122
[28] P. J. Saathoff, W. H. Melbourne, The generation of peak pressures in separated/ reattaching flows, J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 1989. 32(1-2):121～134.
[29] J. D. Ginger, C. W. Letchford, Characteristics of large pressures in regions of flow separation[J], J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 1993.49(1-3): 301～310
[30] J. X. Lin, D. Surry, H. W. Tieleman, The distribution of pressure near roof corners of flat roof low buildings[J], J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 1995. 56(2-3): 235～265
[31] H. W. Tieleman, Wind tunnel simulation of wind loading on low-rise structures: a review[J], J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 2003.91 (12-15): 1627～1649
[32] H. Kawai, G. Nishimura, Characteristics of fluctuating suction and conical vortices on a flat roof in oblique flow[J], J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 1996.60: 211～225
[33] Y. Uematsu, M. Yamada, Wind-induced dynamic response and resultant load estimation for a flat long-span roof[J], J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 1996.65(1-3): 155～166
[34] D. Banksa, R. N. Meroney, The applicability of quasi-steady theory to pressure statistics beneath roof-top vortices[J], J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 2001. 89(6): 569～598
[35] R. J. Kind, Worst suctions near edges of flat rooftops with parapets[J], J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 1988. 31(2-3): 251～264
[36] S. Pindado, J. Meseguer, Wind tunnel study on the influence of different parapets on the roof pressure distribution of low-rise buildings[J], J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 2003. 91 (9): 1133～1139
[37] C. W. Letchford, R. Marwood, On the influence of v and w component turbulence on roof pressures beneath conical vortices[J], J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 1997. 69-71: 567～577
[38] H. Kawai, G. Nishimura, Characteristics of fluctuating suction and conical vortices on a flat roof in oblique flow[J], J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 1996. 60: 211～225
[39] H. Kawai, Structure of conical vortices related with suction fluctuation on a flat roof in oblique smooth and turbulent flows[J], J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 1997. 69-71: 579～588
[40] H. W. Tieleman, Pressures on surface-mounted prisms: the effects of incident turbulence[J], J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 1993. 49(1-3): 289～300
[41] H. W. Tieleman, D. Surry, J. X. Lin, Characteristics of mean and fluctuating pressure coefficients under comer (delta wing) vortices[J], J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 1994. 52: 263～275
[42] H. J. Gerhardt, C. Kramer, Effect of building geometry on roof windloading[J], J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 1992. 43(1-3): 1765～1773
[43] P. A. Blackmore, Load reduction on flat roofs-the effect of edge profile[J], J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 1988. 29(1-3): 89～98
[44] T. Stathopoulos, P. Saathoff, X. Du, Wind loads on parapets[J], J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 2002. 90(4-5): 503～514
[45] D. Surry and J. X. Lin, The effect of surroundings and roof comer geometric modifications on roof pressures on low-rise buildings[J], J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 1995.58(1-2): 113～138
[46] Y. Uematsu, Nicholas Isyumov, Wind pressures acting on low-rise buildings[J], J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 1999. 82(1-3): 1～25
[47] T. Stathopoulos, D. Surry, A. G. Davenport, Effective wind loads on flat roofs[J], Journal of Structural Division, ASCE, 1981. 107: 281～298
[48] A. G. Davenport, On the assessment of the reliability of wind loading on low buildings[J], J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 1983.11(1-3): 21～37
[49] A. P. Robertson, Codification of local pressure coefficients for low-rise structures[J], J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 1988. 30(1-3): 143～152
[50] D. Surry, Recent and current research into wind loading of low buildings at the University of Western Ontario[J], J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 1990. 36(1-3): 1319～1329
[51] D. Meecham, D. Surry, A. G. Davenport, The magnitude and distribution of wind-induced pressures on hip and gable roofs[J], J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 1991. 38(2-3): 257～272
[52] B. Bienkiewicz, Y. Sun, Local wind loading on the roof of low-rise building[J], J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 1992.45(1):11～24
[53] D. Meecham, D. Surry and A. G. Davenport, The magnitude and distribution of wind-induced pressures on hip and gable roofs[J], J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 1991. 38(2-3): 257～272
[54] D. Meecham, The improved performance of hip roofs in extreme winds-A case study[J], J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 1992. 43(1-3): 1717～1726
[55] T. Ogawa, M. Nakayama, S. Murayama, Characteristics of wind pressure on spherical domes in trubulent boundary layers[D], Proceedings of the 10th National Symposium on Wind Engineering, Tokyo, 1988, 55～60
[56] T. J. Taylor, Wind pressures on a hemispherical domes[J], J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 1992. 40(2): 199～213
[57] S. Kawamura, T. Kiuchi, T. Mochizuki, Characteristics of wind pressures acting on spatial large dome[J], J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 1992. 42(1-3): 1511～1512
[58] T. Hongo, Experimental study of wind forces on spherical roofs[D], Ph. D. Thesis, Tohoku University, 1995
[59] Y. Uematsu, K. Yamada, A. Inoue, T. Hongo, Wind loads and wind-induced dynamic behavior of a single-layer latticed dome[J], J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 1997. 66(3): 227～248
[60] C. W. Letchford, P. P. Sarkar, Mean and fluctuating wind loads on rough and smooth parabolic domes[J], J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 2000. 88(1): 101～117
[61] O. Nakamura, Y. Tamura, K. Miyashita, M. Itoh, A case study of wind pressure and wind-induced vibration of large span open-type roof[J], J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 1994. 52: 237～248
[62] M Nakayama, Y. Sasaki, K. Masuda, T. Ogawa, An efficient method for selection of vibration modes contributory to wind response on dome-like roofs[J], J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 1998.73(1): 31～43
[63] 赵臣，吕伟平，沈世钊，悬索屋盖结构风振反应的时域分析方法[J]，哈尔滨 建筑大学学报，1995(2)
[64] Y. Uematsu, O. Kuribara, M. Yamada, A. Sasaki, T. Hongo, Wind-induced dynamic behavior and its load estimation of a single-layer latticed dome with a long span[J], J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 2001.89(14-15): 1671～1687
[65] Massimiliano Lazzari, Anna V. Saetta, Renato V. Vitaliani, Non-linear dynamic analysis of cable-suspended structures subjected to wind actions[J], Computers and Structures, 2001.79(9): 953～969
[66] A. G. Davenport, The application of statistical concepts to the wind loading of structures[C], Proc. Inst. Civil Eng., 19(1961)449～471
[67] 周晅毅，大跨度屋盖结构风荷载及风致响应研究[D]，同济大学博士论文，2004
[68] Y. Marukawa, Y. Uematsu, O. Tamura, H. Nakamura, D. Ueda, Design wind load on flat long-span roofs[C], Proc. 4th east Asia-Pacific conf. on Structural Engineering and Construction, Seoul, eds. Y. K. Shin, S. P. Chang and H. M. Koh, 3(1993)1619～1624.
[69] H. Ueda, Y. Tamura, Equivalent design pressure coefficients for beams supporting flat roofs[J], J. Struct. Construction Eng., Architectural Institute of Japan 464 (1994) 59～69
[70] Y. Uematsu, M. Yamada, A. Karasu, Design wind loads for structural frames of flat long-span roofs: Gust loading factor for the beam supporting roofs[J], J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 1997. 66(1): 35～50
[71] Y. Uematsu, M. Yamada, A. Karasu, Design wind loads for structural frames of flat long-span roofs: Gust loading factor for a structurally integrated type[J], J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 1997.66(2): 155～168
[72] J. D. Holmes, Effective static load distribution in wind engineering[J], J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 2002. 90(2): 91～109
[73] M. Kasperski, Extreme wind load distributions for linear and nonlinear design[J], Eng. Struct., 1992.14(1): 27～34.
[74] Y. Uematsu, K. Watanabe, A. Sasakic, T. Hongo, Wind-induced dynamic response and resultant load estimation of a circular flat roof[J], J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 1999．83(1-3)：251～261
[75] 楼文娟，孙炳楠，复杂体形高层建筑表面风压分布的特征[J]，建筑结构学报，1995．16(6)：38～44
[76] 楼文娟，金虎，陈勇，双幕墙长矩形建筑风荷载特性的试验研究[J]，建筑结构学报，2005．26(1)：65～70
[77] 赵西安，幕墙设计中的若干问题[J]，建筑技术，2004．35(9)：648～652
[78] 陈义良，湍流计算模型[M]，中国科学技术大学出版社，1991
[79] M. Piller, E. Nobile, J. Thomas, DNS study of turbulent transport at low Prandtl numbers in a channel flow[J], Journal of Fluid Mechanics, 2002(458): 419～441
[80] J. G. Wissink, DNS of separating low Reynolds number flow in a turbine cascade with incoming wakes[J], International Journal of Heat and Fluid Flow, 2003.24(4): 626～635
[81] H. K. Versteeg, W. Malalasekera, An introduction to computational fluid dynamics: The finite volume method[M], Wiley, New York, 1995
[82] 陶文铨，数值传热学(第二板)(M]，西安交通大学出版社，2001
[83] B. E. Launder, D. B. Spalding, Lectures in Mathematical Models of Turbulence[M], Academic Press, London, 1972
[84] M. B. Abbott, D. R. Basco, Computational Fluid Dynamics-An Introduction for Engineers[M], Longrnan Scientific & Technical, Harlow, England, 1989
[85] A. Okuno, T. Tamura, Y. Okuda, H. Kikitsu, LES Estimation of Wind Velocity Profiles over Various Roughened Ground Surfaces in Cities[C], Proceeding of The Sixth Asia-Pacific Conference on Wind Engineering, Seoul, Korea, 2005: 437～447
[86] J. Chung, B. Bienkiewicz, The TL/LES Model[C], Proceeding of The Sixth Asia-Pacific Conference on Wind Engineering, Seoul, Korea, 2005: 2527～2537
[87] T. Hasama, S. Kato, Study on Effect of Various Wall Boundary Conditions in Large-eddy Simulation of Wind near Buildings[C], Proceeding of The Sixth Asia-Pacific Conference on Wind Engineering, Seoul, Korea, 2005: 2128～2139
[88] S．V．Patankar，传热与流体流动的数值方法[M]，安徽科技出版社，1984
[89] M. L. Levitan, K. C. Mehta, Texas Tech field experiments for wind loads: Part 1. Building and pressure measuring system[J], J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 1992. 43(1-3): 1565～1576
[90] M. L. Levitan, K. C. Mehta, Texas Tech field experiments for wind loads: Part Ⅱ. Meteorological instrumentation and terrain parameters[J], J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 1992. 43(1-3): 1577～1588
[91] H. J. Ham, B. Bienkiewicz, Wind tunnel simulation of TTU flow and building roof pressure[J], J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 1998. 77～78:119～133
[92] M. Endo, B. Bienkiewicz, H. J. Ham, Wind-tulmel investigation of point pressure on TTU test building[J], J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 2006.94(7): 553～578
[93] M. L. Levitan, K. C. Mehta, W. P. Vann, J. D. Holmes, Field measurements of pressures on the Texas Tech building[J], J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 1991. 38(2-3): 227～234
[94] H. W. Tieleman, D. Surry, K. C. Mehta, Full/model-scale comparison of surface pressures on the Texas Tech experimental building[J], J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 1996.61(1): 1～23
[95] J. C. K. Cheung, J. D. Holmes, W.H. Melbourne, N. Lakshmanan, P. Bowditch, Pressures on a 1/10 scale model of the Texas Tech Building, J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 1997. 69-71: 529～538
[96] R. P. Hoxey, A. P. Robertson, G. M. Richardson, J.L. Short, Correction of wind-tunnel pressure coefficients for Reynolds number effect[J], J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 1997. 69-71: 547～555
[97] R. P. Hoxey, A. M. Reynolds, G. M. Richardson, A. P. Robertson, J. L. Short, Observations of Reynolds number sensitivity in the separated flow region on a bluff body[J], J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 1998. 73(3)231～249
[98] C. W. Letchford, P. P. Sarkar, Mean and fluctuating wind loads on rough and smooth parabolic domes[J], J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 2000. 88(1): 101～117
[99] 陆锋，大跨度平屋面结构的风振响应和风振系数研究[D]，浙江大学博士学位论文，2001