意象训练对英语学习者阅读理解影响之实证研究
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摘要
人们运用语言的方式包括听,说,读,写这四种形式,其中听和读是获取信息的输入过程,而说和写是运用语言来表达自己的思想的输出过程。第二语言习得理论认为,语言输出的前提首先是输入。阅读教学一直是国内外学者比较关注的一个问题。在学术界出现的几大阅读模式和理论对阅读教学的提高起到了积极作用。其中,自下而上理论,自上而下理论,交互式理论,可以解释部分阅读过程。然而这些理论强调的都是言语层面,而忽略了同样对理解有积极作用的非言语层面。双重代码理论是一种相对较新的认知理论,逐渐受到众多学者的关注。双重代码理论关注的不仅仅是言语层面,还有非言语层面,主要为意象。双重代码理论不同于其他理论,认为阅读这一认知过程包括两个语码处理系统。语言系统处理语言,非语言系统处理非语言因素,主要为意象和情感,这对于全面理解阅读材料起到了桥梁的作用。双重代码理论的三大处理机制的特点,使其本身具有提高阅读水平的极大优势。主要代表人物有萨多斯基(1983,1985),普莱斯利(1976),托姆林森(1994,1996)等。
在中国,通过构建意象来提高阅读水平的研究不是很多,国内此领域的代表人物是成晓光(2003)。鉴于此,作者在曲阜师范大学展开实验研究。本研究主要探讨二个方面的问题:
1.基于双重代码理论的意象构建策略训练能否显著提高学生的阅读水平?
2.基于双重代码理论的意象构建策略会对阅读水平的哪些方面有影响?
针对以上研究问题,我们选择了两个平行班作为实验对象。控制组接受常规阅读训练,试验组在接受常规训练的同时,接受激发意象的指导和练习。通过对实验前后的阅读成绩,以及试验之后访谈的定量研究和定性研究探寻研究问题1和2的答案。
该研究是对阅读教学提供了一个新的视角,希望能对英语阅读教学有所启迪。
The four basic skills in the use of any language are listening, speaking, reading and writing. Receptive skills (listening and reading) are the basis of productive skills (speaking and writing) according to EFL (English as foreign language) learning theory. The improvement of application of English is based on a multitude of input, especially reading. It has been the hot issue of scholars at home and abroad. The recent reading theories like bottom-up theories, top-down theories, schema theory and interactive theory can partly explain the reading process. The models and strategies of learning have great effect on reading instruction. However, the emphasis of all these theories is linguistic factors. In fact, the non-linguistic factors can also play a very important role in reading process. A relatively new reading theory called Dual Coding Theory (DCT) is received more and more attention by researchers today. It gives equal weight to both verbal and nonverbal aspects (mainly, mental imagery) of reading process. DCT claims that cognition in reading consists of the activity of two separate coding systems of mental representation, one system specialized for language and the other specialized for dealing with nonverbal objects and events, mental imagery, and affective responses, which plays the mediating role in thorough comprehension of the reading materials. The internal characteristics of the three level cognitive processing make DCT have special advantages in reading comprehension teaching. We can find its' effectiveness from experiments conducted by researchers such as Sadoski (1983,1985), Pressley (1976) and Tomlinson (1994,1996) etc..
There are few studies on the effects of teaching comprehension strategies of mental imagery to students in the university in China. Cheng Xiaoguang(2003) is the representative of research in this field. Therefore one experiment was conducted in Qufu Normal University.
1. Can the strategy training of image generation based on DCT during reading significantly promote students' reading comprehension?
2. In what aspects does image generation based on DCT affect students' reading performance?
In order to find the answers of these two questions, we carried out an experiment in two parallel classes. The control group (CG) received the traditional way of teaching, while the experimental group (EG) received special way of training to elicit mental imagery while using traditional reading strategy. Through the qualitative and quantitative analysis of the achievements in pre-test and post-test, and interview with subjects in EG, we can find the answers to research question 1 and 2.
The present study aims at exploring new method of reading instruction. I hope that it would provide insights into research about how to improve reading comprehension.
在中国,通过构建意象来提高阅读水平的研究不是很多,国内此领域的代表人物是成晓光(2003)。鉴于此,作者在曲阜师范大学展开实验研究。本研究主要探讨二个方面的问题:
1.基于双重代码理论的意象构建策略训练能否显著提高学生的阅读水平?
2.基于双重代码理论的意象构建策略会对阅读水平的哪些方面有影响?
针对以上研究问题,我们选择了两个平行班作为实验对象。控制组接受常规阅读训练,试验组在接受常规训练的同时,接受激发意象的指导和练习。通过对实验前后的阅读成绩,以及试验之后访谈的定量研究和定性研究探寻研究问题1和2的答案。
该研究是对阅读教学提供了一个新的视角,希望能对英语阅读教学有所启迪。
The four basic skills in the use of any language are listening, speaking, reading and writing. Receptive skills (listening and reading) are the basis of productive skills (speaking and writing) according to EFL (English as foreign language) learning theory. The improvement of application of English is based on a multitude of input, especially reading. It has been the hot issue of scholars at home and abroad. The recent reading theories like bottom-up theories, top-down theories, schema theory and interactive theory can partly explain the reading process. The models and strategies of learning have great effect on reading instruction. However, the emphasis of all these theories is linguistic factors. In fact, the non-linguistic factors can also play a very important role in reading process. A relatively new reading theory called Dual Coding Theory (DCT) is received more and more attention by researchers today. It gives equal weight to both verbal and nonverbal aspects (mainly, mental imagery) of reading process. DCT claims that cognition in reading consists of the activity of two separate coding systems of mental representation, one system specialized for language and the other specialized for dealing with nonverbal objects and events, mental imagery, and affective responses, which plays the mediating role in thorough comprehension of the reading materials. The internal characteristics of the three level cognitive processing make DCT have special advantages in reading comprehension teaching. We can find its' effectiveness from experiments conducted by researchers such as Sadoski (1983,1985), Pressley (1976) and Tomlinson (1994,1996) etc..
There are few studies on the effects of teaching comprehension strategies of mental imagery to students in the university in China. Cheng Xiaoguang(2003) is the representative of research in this field. Therefore one experiment was conducted in Qufu Normal University.
1. Can the strategy training of image generation based on DCT during reading significantly promote students' reading comprehension?
2. In what aspects does image generation based on DCT affect students' reading performance?
In order to find the answers of these two questions, we carried out an experiment in two parallel classes. The control group (CG) received the traditional way of teaching, while the experimental group (EG) received special way of training to elicit mental imagery while using traditional reading strategy. Through the qualitative and quantitative analysis of the achievements in pre-test and post-test, and interview with subjects in EG, we can find the answers to research question 1 and 2.
The present study aims at exploring new method of reading instruction. I hope that it would provide insights into research about how to improve reading comprehension.
引文
A.F.Helen &G.F.Xavier.(2006).working memory and acquisition of implicit knowledge by imagery training,without actual performance.Neuroscience..
Alty&Beacham(2006).An investigation into the effects that digital media can have on the learning outcomes of individuals who have dyslexia.International Journal Computing and Education.
Anderson,N.(2004).'Reading'.In D.Nunan(Ed.),Practical English language teaching.Beijing:Higher Education Press.
Arnold J.,Puchta H.& Rinvolucri M.(2007)."Imagine That! Mental Imagery in the EFL Classroom." Humanizing language teaching.5 Feb.2008 from:http://www.hltmag.co.uk/jan07/teach.htm
Borey V.(2002).Learning Norwegian through Mnemonics and visual imagery(Part Ⅰ of Ⅱ)3March 2008 from:http://www.suite101.com/article.cfm/norwegian_culture/88536
Bialystok,E.(1981).The Role of Conscious Strategies in Second Language Proficiency.Modern Language Journal,65,24-35.
Carmen,Jose & Alfredo.(2005).Prose learning in children and adults with Down syndrome:the use of visual and mental images strategies to improve recall.Journal of Intellectual &Developmental Disablility,30(4),199-204.
Center,Y.Freeman,L.,Robertson,G.& Outhred,L.(1999).The effect of visual imagery on the reading and listening comprehension of low listening comprehenders in years 2.Journal of research in reading,22(3),241-252.
Cohen,A.D.(2000).Strategies in Learning and Using a Second language.Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
ChiYing.(2005).Non-visual Obstacles in Reading Process.Journal of Jilin Teachers Institute of Engineering and Technology,21(11),31-33.
Craig Rusbult,(1995)."Visual Thinking in Education(Visual-Verbal Language in Learning &Teaching)." 7 Jan.2008 from:http://www.asa3.org/ASA/education/teach/visual.htm
"Creating a course." 2 Feb.2008 from:http://www.lpg.fsu.edu/charting/InstructionalStrategies/howto-tactics/ht-k4rpmi.asp.
D.Ray Reutzel,John A.Smith & Parker C.Fawson(2005).An evaluation of two approaches for teaching reading comprehension strategies in the primary years using science information texts.Early Childhood Research Quarterly.,20,276-305.
"Dual Coding and Common Coding Theories of Memory."(2007).Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.1 Nov.2007 from:http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/mental-imagery/theories-memory.html
Elliott B.Forrest,OD,FAAO,FCOVD(2001).Visual imagery as an information processing strategy.Journal of Disabilities,584-586.
Fairlie,C.(2004).Seeing Scotland:creating visual imagery in an Ohio classroom.Changing English,11(2),205-211.
Furey D.& Seifert T.(1996)."Towards A Metacognitive Model for Introducing Learning Strategies into the Classroom,with a Focus on the Value of Imagery".25 Jan.2007 from:http://www.stemnet.nf.ca/～dfurey/metacog/
Gambrell,L.B.(1982).'Induced mental imagery and the text prediction performance of first and third graders'.In J.A.Niles & L.A.Harris(Eds.),J.A.Noles & L.A.Harris.131-135.Rochester,NY:National Reading Conference.
Gambrell,L.B.& Bales,R.J.(1986).Mental imagery and the comprehension-monitoring performance of fourth-and fifth-grade poor readers.Reading Research quarterly,21,454-464.
Goodman,K.S.(1973).'Psycholinguistic universals of the reading process'.In F.Smith(Ed.),Psycholinguistic and reading(pp.21-29).New York:Holt Rinehart and Winson.
Goodman,N.(1976).Languages of Art(2nd ed.),Indianapolis:Hackett.
Gough,P.B.(1972).One second of reading.In Kavanagh,J.F.& Mattingley,I.G.(Eds.),Language by Ear and by Eye.Cambridge,MA:MIT Press.
Janzen,J.(1996).Teaching Strategic Reading.TESOL Journal,Autumn,6-9.
Kirby,J.R.(1988).Verbal and visual learning styles(pp.169-184).Contemporary Educational Psychology.
Liu Xiquan.(1997).The strategical role of the visual system in the Chinese classroom.Journal of Yuxi Teachers College,13(5),64-70.
Kern,R.(1989).Second language reading strategy instruction:its effects on comprehension and word inference ability.The Modern Language Journal.,73(2),135-149.
Long,S.A.,Winograd,P.A.,& Bridge,C.A.(1989).The effects of reader and text characteristics on reports of imagery during and after reading.Reading Research Quarterly,24,353-372.
"Mental imagery",Sep.4,(2007).Stanford encyclopedia of philosophy.25 Feb.2008 from:http://www.science.uva.nl/～seop/entries/mental-imagery/
Moore A. W. (1993). Meaning and Reference. New York: Oxford University Press.
"Mind Pictures: strategies that enhance mental imagery while reading." Read·Write·Think. 25 Feb.2008 from: http://www.readwritethink.org/lessons/lesson_view.asp?id=792,
Oxford, R. (19990).Language Learning Strategies: What Every Teacher Should Know. New York: Newbury House Publishers.
O'Malley, J. & Chamot A. (1990). Learning strategies in second language acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Paivio, A. (1969). Mental imagery in associative learning and memory. Psychology Review, 76, 241-263.
Paivio, A. (1979). Imagery and Verbal Processes. Hillsdale N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Paivio, A. (1986).Mental Representations: A dual coding approach. New York: Oxford University Press.
Paivio, A(1991).Dual coding theory: Retrospect and current status. Canadian Journal of Psychology, 45.
Paivio, A. & Begg, I. (19981). Psychology of Language. New York: Prentice Hall.
Paivio, A. & Desrochers, A. (1980). A dual-coding approach to bilingual memory. Canadian Journal of Psychology.
Paivio, A., & Lambert, W. (1981). Dual coding and bilingual memory. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 20, 232-239.
Pavio A. (2006). Dual coding theory and education Draft chapter for the conference on "Pathways to Literacy Achievement for High Poverty Children."
Pressley, G.M. (1976). Mental imagery helps eight-year-olds remember what they read. Journal of Educational Psychology, 68,355-359.
Rubin, J. (1975). What the 'good language learner' can teach us. TESOL Quarterly,9 (1),41-45.
Rubin, J. (1987). 'Learner strategies: theoretical assumptions, research history and typology'. In Wenden, A. & J. Rubin (Eds). Learner strategies in language learning. Englewood Cliffs, N, J.: Prentice Hall.
Rumelhart, D. (1980). 'Schemata: The building blocks of cognition'. In Theoretical issues in reading comprehension. R. Spiro, B. Bruce and W. Brewer. Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Sadoski, M. (1983). An exploratory study of the relationships between reported imagery and the comprehension and recall of a story. Reading Research Quarterly, 19,110-123.
Sadoski, M. (1985). The natural use of imagery in story comprehension and recall: Replication and extension. Reading Research Quarterly, 20, 658-667.
Sadoski, M., Goetz, E., & Kangiser, S. (1988). Imagination in story response: Relationships between imagery,affect,and structural importance.Reading Research Quarterly,23,320-336.
Sadoski,M.& Paivio,A.(2004).'A dual coding theoretical model of reading'.In R.B.Ruddell & N.J.Unrau(Eds.),Theoretical models and processes of reading(5~(th)ed.)
Stern,H.(1992).Issues and Options in Language Teaching.Oxford:Oxford University Press.
Tomlinson,B.(1996),'Helping L2 readers to see'.In T.Hickey and J.Williams(Eds),Language,Education and Society in a Changing World.Clevedon,Avon:Multilingual Matters.
Tomlinson,B.(1998).'Seeing what they mean:helping L2 readers to visualise'.In B.Tomlinson.(Ed.)Materials Development in Language Teaching.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,265-278.
Tomlinson,B.& Avila J.(2007).The Role of Visualisation in the Reading of Literature by Learners of a Foreign Language.Unpublished PhD thesis.University of Nottingham.
Tomlinson,B.(2000).A multi-dimensional approach.The Language Teacher,24(7),1-6.
Tomlinson,T.(2007).Embracing reluctance when classroom teachers shy away from Graphic books,library media connection,29.
Weinstein,C.E.,& Mayer,R.E.(1986).'The teaching of learning strategies'.In M.Wittrock (Ed.),Handbook of research on teaching(pp.3 19).New York,NY:Macmillan.
Wen,Q.F.(1993).Advanced English Language Learning in China:The Relationship of Modifiable Learner Variables to Learning Outcomes,PhD thesis,University of Hong Kong.
Wen,Q.F.& Johnson,R.K.(1997).L2 learner variables and English achievement:A study of tertiary-level English majors in China.Applied Linguistics,18(1),28-48.
Wharton,.W.P.(1980).Higher imagery and the readability of college history texts.Journal of Mental Imagery,4,129-147.
Williams,Joan G.(1992).Accelerated Fault Simulation:.A Deductive Approach.Circuits Quarterly,9,212-220.
Stanovich,K.E.(1980).Toward an interactive-compensatory model of individual differences in the development of reading fluency.Reading research.
Sternberg,R.J.(1996).Cognitive Psychology.Fort Worth:Harcourt Brace College Publishers.8Sweet,A.P.,& Snow,C.E.(Eds.).(2003).Rethinking reading comprehension.New York:Guilford.
成晓光,2003,双重代码理论与英语阅读,《外语与外语教学》第3期。
傅世侠,1999,关于视觉思维问题,《北京大学学报(哲学社会科学版)》第36期。
刘丹丹,2002,中国英语学习者的阅读策略研究.《外语界》第6期。
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李有亮,1999,“视觉意象”:直觉与思维的桥梁,《晋阳学刊》第4期。
文秋芳,11996,《英语学习策略论》,上海:上海外语教育出版社。
文秋芳,1996,大学生英语学习策略变化的趋势及其特点,《外语学习与研究》第4期。
Alty&Beacham(2006).An investigation into the effects that digital media can have on the learning outcomes of individuals who have dyslexia.International Journal Computing and Education.
Anderson,N.(2004).'Reading'.In D.Nunan(Ed.),Practical English language teaching.Beijing:Higher Education Press.
Arnold J.,Puchta H.& Rinvolucri M.(2007)."Imagine That! Mental Imagery in the EFL Classroom." Humanizing language teaching.5 Feb.2008 from:http://www.hltmag.co.uk/jan07/teach.htm
Borey V.(2002).Learning Norwegian through Mnemonics and visual imagery(Part Ⅰ of Ⅱ)3March 2008 from:http://www.suite101.com/article.cfm/norwegian_culture/88536
Bialystok,E.(1981).The Role of Conscious Strategies in Second Language Proficiency.Modern Language Journal,65,24-35.
Carmen,Jose & Alfredo.(2005).Prose learning in children and adults with Down syndrome:the use of visual and mental images strategies to improve recall.Journal of Intellectual &Developmental Disablility,30(4),199-204.
Center,Y.Freeman,L.,Robertson,G.& Outhred,L.(1999).The effect of visual imagery on the reading and listening comprehension of low listening comprehenders in years 2.Journal of research in reading,22(3),241-252.
Cohen,A.D.(2000).Strategies in Learning and Using a Second language.Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
ChiYing.(2005).Non-visual Obstacles in Reading Process.Journal of Jilin Teachers Institute of Engineering and Technology,21(11),31-33.
Craig Rusbult,(1995)."Visual Thinking in Education(Visual-Verbal Language in Learning &Teaching)." 7 Jan.2008 from:http://www.asa3.org/ASA/education/teach/visual.htm
"Creating a course." 2 Feb.2008 from:http://www.lpg.fsu.edu/charting/InstructionalStrategies/howto-tactics/ht-k4rpmi.asp.
D.Ray Reutzel,John A.Smith & Parker C.Fawson(2005).An evaluation of two approaches for teaching reading comprehension strategies in the primary years using science information texts.Early Childhood Research Quarterly.,20,276-305.
"Dual Coding and Common Coding Theories of Memory."(2007).Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.1 Nov.2007 from:http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/mental-imagery/theories-memory.html
Elliott B.Forrest,OD,FAAO,FCOVD(2001).Visual imagery as an information processing strategy.Journal of Disabilities,584-586.
Fairlie,C.(2004).Seeing Scotland:creating visual imagery in an Ohio classroom.Changing English,11(2),205-211.
Furey D.& Seifert T.(1996)."Towards A Metacognitive Model for Introducing Learning Strategies into the Classroom,with a Focus on the Value of Imagery".25 Jan.2007 from:http://www.stemnet.nf.ca/～dfurey/metacog/
Gambrell,L.B.(1982).'Induced mental imagery and the text prediction performance of first and third graders'.In J.A.Niles & L.A.Harris(Eds.),J.A.Noles & L.A.Harris.131-135.Rochester,NY:National Reading Conference.
Gambrell,L.B.& Bales,R.J.(1986).Mental imagery and the comprehension-monitoring performance of fourth-and fifth-grade poor readers.Reading Research quarterly,21,454-464.
Goodman,K.S.(1973).'Psycholinguistic universals of the reading process'.In F.Smith(Ed.),Psycholinguistic and reading(pp.21-29).New York:Holt Rinehart and Winson.
Goodman,N.(1976).Languages of Art(2nd ed.),Indianapolis:Hackett.
Gough,P.B.(1972).One second of reading.In Kavanagh,J.F.& Mattingley,I.G.(Eds.),Language by Ear and by Eye.Cambridge,MA:MIT Press.
Janzen,J.(1996).Teaching Strategic Reading.TESOL Journal,Autumn,6-9.
Kirby,J.R.(1988).Verbal and visual learning styles(pp.169-184).Contemporary Educational Psychology.
Liu Xiquan.(1997).The strategical role of the visual system in the Chinese classroom.Journal of Yuxi Teachers College,13(5),64-70.
Kern,R.(1989).Second language reading strategy instruction:its effects on comprehension and word inference ability.The Modern Language Journal.,73(2),135-149.
Long,S.A.,Winograd,P.A.,& Bridge,C.A.(1989).The effects of reader and text characteristics on reports of imagery during and after reading.Reading Research Quarterly,24,353-372.
"Mental imagery",Sep.4,(2007).Stanford encyclopedia of philosophy.25 Feb.2008 from:http://www.science.uva.nl/～seop/entries/mental-imagery/
Moore A. W. (1993). Meaning and Reference. New York: Oxford University Press.
"Mind Pictures: strategies that enhance mental imagery while reading." Read·Write·Think. 25 Feb.2008 from: http://www.readwritethink.org/lessons/lesson_view.asp?id=792,
Oxford, R. (19990).Language Learning Strategies: What Every Teacher Should Know. New York: Newbury House Publishers.
O'Malley, J. & Chamot A. (1990). Learning strategies in second language acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Paivio, A. (1969). Mental imagery in associative learning and memory. Psychology Review, 76, 241-263.
Paivio, A. (1979). Imagery and Verbal Processes. Hillsdale N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Paivio, A. (1986).Mental Representations: A dual coding approach. New York: Oxford University Press.
Paivio, A(1991).Dual coding theory: Retrospect and current status. Canadian Journal of Psychology, 45.
Paivio, A. & Begg, I. (19981). Psychology of Language. New York: Prentice Hall.
Paivio, A. & Desrochers, A. (1980). A dual-coding approach to bilingual memory. Canadian Journal of Psychology.
Paivio, A., & Lambert, W. (1981). Dual coding and bilingual memory. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 20, 232-239.
Pavio A. (2006). Dual coding theory and education Draft chapter for the conference on "Pathways to Literacy Achievement for High Poverty Children."
Pressley, G.M. (1976). Mental imagery helps eight-year-olds remember what they read. Journal of Educational Psychology, 68,355-359.
Rubin, J. (1975). What the 'good language learner' can teach us. TESOL Quarterly,9 (1),41-45.
Rubin, J. (1987). 'Learner strategies: theoretical assumptions, research history and typology'. In Wenden, A. & J. Rubin (Eds). Learner strategies in language learning. Englewood Cliffs, N, J.: Prentice Hall.
Rumelhart, D. (1980). 'Schemata: The building blocks of cognition'. In Theoretical issues in reading comprehension. R. Spiro, B. Bruce and W. Brewer. Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Sadoski, M. (1983). An exploratory study of the relationships between reported imagery and the comprehension and recall of a story. Reading Research Quarterly, 19,110-123.
Sadoski, M. (1985). The natural use of imagery in story comprehension and recall: Replication and extension. Reading Research Quarterly, 20, 658-667.
Sadoski, M., Goetz, E., & Kangiser, S. (1988). Imagination in story response: Relationships between imagery,affect,and structural importance.Reading Research Quarterly,23,320-336.
Sadoski,M.& Paivio,A.(2004).'A dual coding theoretical model of reading'.In R.B.Ruddell & N.J.Unrau(Eds.),Theoretical models and processes of reading(5~(th)ed.)
Stern,H.(1992).Issues and Options in Language Teaching.Oxford:Oxford University Press.
Tomlinson,B.(1996),'Helping L2 readers to see'.In T.Hickey and J.Williams(Eds),Language,Education and Society in a Changing World.Clevedon,Avon:Multilingual Matters.
Tomlinson,B.(1998).'Seeing what they mean:helping L2 readers to visualise'.In B.Tomlinson.(Ed.)Materials Development in Language Teaching.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,265-278.
Tomlinson,B.& Avila J.(2007).The Role of Visualisation in the Reading of Literature by Learners of a Foreign Language.Unpublished PhD thesis.University of Nottingham.
Tomlinson,B.(2000).A multi-dimensional approach.The Language Teacher,24(7),1-6.
Tomlinson,T.(2007).Embracing reluctance when classroom teachers shy away from Graphic books,library media connection,29.
Weinstein,C.E.,& Mayer,R.E.(1986).'The teaching of learning strategies'.In M.Wittrock (Ed.),Handbook of research on teaching(pp.3 19).New York,NY:Macmillan.
Wen,Q.F.(1993).Advanced English Language Learning in China:The Relationship of Modifiable Learner Variables to Learning Outcomes,PhD thesis,University of Hong Kong.
Wen,Q.F.& Johnson,R.K.(1997).L2 learner variables and English achievement:A study of tertiary-level English majors in China.Applied Linguistics,18(1),28-48.
Wharton,.W.P.(1980).Higher imagery and the readability of college history texts.Journal of Mental Imagery,4,129-147.
Williams,Joan G.(1992).Accelerated Fault Simulation:.A Deductive Approach.Circuits Quarterly,9,212-220.
Stanovich,K.E.(1980).Toward an interactive-compensatory model of individual differences in the development of reading fluency.Reading research.
Sternberg,R.J.(1996).Cognitive Psychology.Fort Worth:Harcourt Brace College Publishers.8Sweet,A.P.,& Snow,C.E.(Eds.).(2003).Rethinking reading comprehension.New York:Guilford.
成晓光,2003,双重代码理论与英语阅读,《外语与外语教学》第3期。
傅世侠,1999,关于视觉思维问题,《北京大学学报(哲学社会科学版)》第36期。
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