城市化对长江下游沿江城市气候影响的对比研究
|
摘要
本文利用1961~2008年长江下游沿江四个城市安庆、芜湖、南京、南通的城市站及各自周边3~4个气象站,共18个站点的年和月平均气温、平均最高气温、平均最低气温、平均相对湿度、平均风速及降水量资料,对长江下游沿江不同类型城市的气候变化特征和受城市化影响的气候变化特征进行分析;选择相关的城市化指标衡量城市化的综合水平,即城市发展指数,建立了城市气候与城市发展指数之间的关系模型。
研究结果表明:
(1)近四、五十年来长江下游地区沿江城市的年平均气温、年平均最高气温及年平均最低气温均呈上升趋势,其中年平均最低气温的增温速率是最大的。不同类型城市的年平均气温的增温速率随城市规模的增大而增大,具体表现为:特大城市最大,大城市次之,中等城市是相对最小的;年平均最高气温的增温速率为大城市最快,超过中等城市和特大城市;最低气温的增温随率随城市规模的增大而减小。
除南京年平均最高气温所表征的热岛效应强度下降之外,四个城市的年平均气温、年平均最高气温及年平均最低气温表征的热岛效应均表现为增强趋势。年平均气温表征的热岛效应强度的变化速率表现为:中等城市的热岛效应强度增加最大,大城市次之,特大城市最小。年平均最高气温表征的热岛效应强度的增加速率则表现为:大城市最大,中等城市次之,特大城市最小。年平均最低气温的热岛效应强度增加速率为:特大城市最大,大城市次之,中等城市最小。
长江中下游地区沿江地区除夏季之外,春秋冬季增温显著。通过比较四个城市四季热岛效应强度的增加速率发现,以安庆为代表的中等城市夏季对热岛效应的增温贡献率最大,以芜湖、南通为代表的大城市和以南京为代表的特大城市秋季的增温贡献率最大。
(2)长江下游沿江城市年平均相对湿度逐年减小,以南京为代表的特大城市的年平均相对湿度减小速率最大,芜湖、南通为代表的大城市次之,中等城市的减小速率最小。四个城市均存在干岛效应,但其强度的变化趋势不显著。各城市四季的平均相对湿度也均呈现减少趋势,各城市的四季均存在干岛效应,且以不断增强的趋势为主导,但显著性程度不高。各季节干岛效应的变化动态与年干岛效应的变化动态基本一致。
(3)随着各城市城市化水平的提高,城市及周边地区的平均风速受到一定程度的影响,年和四季的平均风速均显著减小。芜湖与南京的年平均风速减小幅度较大,安庆次之,南通最小。四个城市夏季风速的减小幅度均为最小,安庆、芜湖及南京秋季风速的减小幅度最大,南通冬季风速的减小幅度最大。
(4)四个城市48年来年降水量的变化趋势均不显著,安庆、南京和南通呈弱增加趋势,芜湖则波动较大。受城市化影响的四个城市汛期降水量的波动情况与年降水总量变化情况基本一致,且变化幅度也相当。
(5)长江下游沿江地区的城市发展对城市气候的影响并不完全符合库兹涅茨曲线的特征。年平均气温和年平均最低气温的热岛效应强度随城市的发展呈现先上升后下降的趋势,在一定程度上是符合库兹涅茨曲线特征的,虽然年平均最高气温的热岛效应强度变化趋势与前两者基本一致,但显著性程度相对较低。年平均相对湿度随城市发展变化趋势不明显,后期有微弱的上升趋势,年平均风速则随城市化水平不断提高而不断减小,趋势显著,两者变化趋势均不符合库兹涅茨曲线特征。
(6)除南通外的其余三个城市的年平均气温、年平均最低气温的热岛效应强度与城市发展指数之间的关系的变化趋势与库兹涅茨曲线特征基本一致。南通的年平均气温、年平均最高气温及年平均最低气温的热岛效应随城市的发展在后阶段均呈现出同步增长的趋势。
(7)年平均相对湿度差值与城市发展指数的关系模型除南京外显著性程度均较高。仅南通年平均相对湿度差值随城市的发展的变化趋势与库兹涅茨曲线比较一致,安庆与芜湖随城市发展相对湿度在后期均呈上升趋势,南京随城市发展表现为逐步下降趋势。
(8)年平均风速与城市发展指数的关系模型相关性均较高。南通和南京后阶段的年平均风速随城市发展先增大后减小,变化基本符合库兹涅茨曲线特征。安庆和芜湖的年平均风速随城市发展先下降后上升,但芜湖后阶段上升的趋势不显著。
This paper analyzed the trends of urban climate and that was influenced by urbanization in Anqing, Wuhu, Nanjing and Nantong along the downstream of Yangtze River based on data of annual and monthly mean-temperature, maximum and minimum mean-temperature, mean relative-humidity, mean wind-speed, and precipitation from 1961~2008. There was 18 stations in all, and three or four reference stations around each urban station. And this paper selected some urbanization indicators which were used to measure the comprehensive level of urbanization, which was called urban development index. Models about the relationship between urban climate and urban development index were made.
Research results show that:
1. The annual mean-temperature, maximal and minimum mean-temperature are all on upward trends, and the rising rate of minimum mean- temperature is the fastest in recent four or five decades. The rising rate of annual mean-temperature is faster with the urban scale extending of different cities, and it is seen as following: megalopolis >large city>medium city. The rising rate of maximum mean-temperature of the large city is faster than medium city and megalopolis. The rising rate of annual minimum mean-temperature is slower with the urban scale extending of different cities.
The intensities of heat island effect about annual mean-temperature, maximal and minimum mean-temperature of four cities are increasing except annual maximal mean-temperature of Nanjing. The intensity of heat island effect about annual mean-temperature is that medium city is fastest, and megalopolis is the slowest. The intensity of heat island effect about annual maximal mean-temperature is that large city is fastest, and megalopolis is the slowest. The intensity of heat island effect about annual minimum mean-temperature is that megalopolis is fastest, and medium city is the slowest.
The temperatures in Spring, Autumn and Winter are increasing prominently along the downstream of Yangtze River. Through the comparison of the increasing speeds of the intensity of urban heat island in four seasons of the four cities, the contribution rate of Summer is the biggest to the urban heat island in Anqing which represents the medium city, the contribution rate of Autumn is the biggest to the urban heat island in Wuhu, Nantong which represent the large city, and Nanjing which presents megalopolis.
2. The annual mean relative-humidity is decreasing along the downstream of Yangtze River, and the decreasing speed becomes faster with the city scale extending. There are dry island effects in all four cities, though the trends are inconspicuous. The seasonal relative-humidity of four cities is decreasing, too. Though the significance is not high, there are dry island effects, and the intensities of them are increasing. The intensity trends of seasonal dried island effects are in accordance with that of annum.
3. The annual and seasonal mean wind-speeds are decreasing obviously with the development of the urbanization along the downstream of Yangtze River. The decrease range of annual mean wind-speed is biggest in Wuhu and Nanjing, and that in Nantong is the smallest. The decrease ranges of summer wind-speed in four cities are the smallest, and that of autumn wind-speed in Wuhu, Wuhu and Nanjing are the biggest, and that of winter wind-speed in Nantong is the biggest.
4. The trends of annual precipitation are all insignificant in recent 48 year of four cities. The trends of Anqing, Nanjing and Nantong are increasing since not obviously, and it is fluctuating in Wuhu. The trends and range of precipitation influenced by urbanization between annual and flood-season are coincident.
5. The characteristics of impacts that the development of cities on the urban climate are not entirely conforming to Kuznets curve. The intensities of heat island effect about annual and minimum mean-temperatures are rising first, and then falling off, which conform to Kuznets curve to a certain extent. Although that of maximal mean-temperatures are also rising, the significance are insignificant. The trends of annual mean relative-humidity are weakly rising in the later period, and that of annual mean wind-speed are obviously decreasing with the development of the cities, and the two are not conformed to Kuznets curve.
6. The trends of intensities of heat island effect about annual, maximum and minimum mean-temperatures in Anqing, Wuhu and Nanjing are in accordance with Kuznets curve except Nantong. The trends of that in Nantong are rising with the development of urbanization in the later period.
7. The relationship models between annual mean relative-humidity and urbanization are significant except that of Nanjing. Only that trend in Nantong is in accordance with Kuznets curve. The trends of mean relative-humidity in Anqing and Wuhu are rising in the later period, and which in Nanjing is gradually decreasing with urbanization.
8. The relationship models between annual mean wind-speed and urbanization are all significant. The trends of annual mean wind-speed with urbanization in Nantong and Nanjing are rising first, and decreasing then, which conform to Kuznets curve. And that in Anqing and Wuhu are decreasing first, and rising then, but that in Wuhu is rising insignificant in the later period.
研究结果表明:
(1)近四、五十年来长江下游地区沿江城市的年平均气温、年平均最高气温及年平均最低气温均呈上升趋势,其中年平均最低气温的增温速率是最大的。不同类型城市的年平均气温的增温速率随城市规模的增大而增大,具体表现为:特大城市最大,大城市次之,中等城市是相对最小的;年平均最高气温的增温速率为大城市最快,超过中等城市和特大城市;最低气温的增温随率随城市规模的增大而减小。
除南京年平均最高气温所表征的热岛效应强度下降之外,四个城市的年平均气温、年平均最高气温及年平均最低气温表征的热岛效应均表现为增强趋势。年平均气温表征的热岛效应强度的变化速率表现为:中等城市的热岛效应强度增加最大,大城市次之,特大城市最小。年平均最高气温表征的热岛效应强度的增加速率则表现为:大城市最大,中等城市次之,特大城市最小。年平均最低气温的热岛效应强度增加速率为:特大城市最大,大城市次之,中等城市最小。
长江中下游地区沿江地区除夏季之外,春秋冬季增温显著。通过比较四个城市四季热岛效应强度的增加速率发现,以安庆为代表的中等城市夏季对热岛效应的增温贡献率最大,以芜湖、南通为代表的大城市和以南京为代表的特大城市秋季的增温贡献率最大。
(2)长江下游沿江城市年平均相对湿度逐年减小,以南京为代表的特大城市的年平均相对湿度减小速率最大,芜湖、南通为代表的大城市次之,中等城市的减小速率最小。四个城市均存在干岛效应,但其强度的变化趋势不显著。各城市四季的平均相对湿度也均呈现减少趋势,各城市的四季均存在干岛效应,且以不断增强的趋势为主导,但显著性程度不高。各季节干岛效应的变化动态与年干岛效应的变化动态基本一致。
(3)随着各城市城市化水平的提高,城市及周边地区的平均风速受到一定程度的影响,年和四季的平均风速均显著减小。芜湖与南京的年平均风速减小幅度较大,安庆次之,南通最小。四个城市夏季风速的减小幅度均为最小,安庆、芜湖及南京秋季风速的减小幅度最大,南通冬季风速的减小幅度最大。
(4)四个城市48年来年降水量的变化趋势均不显著,安庆、南京和南通呈弱增加趋势,芜湖则波动较大。受城市化影响的四个城市汛期降水量的波动情况与年降水总量变化情况基本一致,且变化幅度也相当。
(5)长江下游沿江地区的城市发展对城市气候的影响并不完全符合库兹涅茨曲线的特征。年平均气温和年平均最低气温的热岛效应强度随城市的发展呈现先上升后下降的趋势,在一定程度上是符合库兹涅茨曲线特征的,虽然年平均最高气温的热岛效应强度变化趋势与前两者基本一致,但显著性程度相对较低。年平均相对湿度随城市发展变化趋势不明显,后期有微弱的上升趋势,年平均风速则随城市化水平不断提高而不断减小,趋势显著,两者变化趋势均不符合库兹涅茨曲线特征。
(6)除南通外的其余三个城市的年平均气温、年平均最低气温的热岛效应强度与城市发展指数之间的关系的变化趋势与库兹涅茨曲线特征基本一致。南通的年平均气温、年平均最高气温及年平均最低气温的热岛效应随城市的发展在后阶段均呈现出同步增长的趋势。
(7)年平均相对湿度差值与城市发展指数的关系模型除南京外显著性程度均较高。仅南通年平均相对湿度差值随城市的发展的变化趋势与库兹涅茨曲线比较一致,安庆与芜湖随城市发展相对湿度在后期均呈上升趋势,南京随城市发展表现为逐步下降趋势。
(8)年平均风速与城市发展指数的关系模型相关性均较高。南通和南京后阶段的年平均风速随城市发展先增大后减小,变化基本符合库兹涅茨曲线特征。安庆和芜湖的年平均风速随城市发展先下降后上升,但芜湖后阶段上升的趋势不显著。
This paper analyzed the trends of urban climate and that was influenced by urbanization in Anqing, Wuhu, Nanjing and Nantong along the downstream of Yangtze River based on data of annual and monthly mean-temperature, maximum and minimum mean-temperature, mean relative-humidity, mean wind-speed, and precipitation from 1961~2008. There was 18 stations in all, and three or four reference stations around each urban station. And this paper selected some urbanization indicators which were used to measure the comprehensive level of urbanization, which was called urban development index. Models about the relationship between urban climate and urban development index were made.
Research results show that:
1. The annual mean-temperature, maximal and minimum mean-temperature are all on upward trends, and the rising rate of minimum mean- temperature is the fastest in recent four or five decades. The rising rate of annual mean-temperature is faster with the urban scale extending of different cities, and it is seen as following: megalopolis >large city>medium city. The rising rate of maximum mean-temperature of the large city is faster than medium city and megalopolis. The rising rate of annual minimum mean-temperature is slower with the urban scale extending of different cities.
The intensities of heat island effect about annual mean-temperature, maximal and minimum mean-temperature of four cities are increasing except annual maximal mean-temperature of Nanjing. The intensity of heat island effect about annual mean-temperature is that medium city is fastest, and megalopolis is the slowest. The intensity of heat island effect about annual maximal mean-temperature is that large city is fastest, and megalopolis is the slowest. The intensity of heat island effect about annual minimum mean-temperature is that megalopolis is fastest, and medium city is the slowest.
The temperatures in Spring, Autumn and Winter are increasing prominently along the downstream of Yangtze River. Through the comparison of the increasing speeds of the intensity of urban heat island in four seasons of the four cities, the contribution rate of Summer is the biggest to the urban heat island in Anqing which represents the medium city, the contribution rate of Autumn is the biggest to the urban heat island in Wuhu, Nantong which represent the large city, and Nanjing which presents megalopolis.
2. The annual mean relative-humidity is decreasing along the downstream of Yangtze River, and the decreasing speed becomes faster with the city scale extending. There are dry island effects in all four cities, though the trends are inconspicuous. The seasonal relative-humidity of four cities is decreasing, too. Though the significance is not high, there are dry island effects, and the intensities of them are increasing. The intensity trends of seasonal dried island effects are in accordance with that of annum.
3. The annual and seasonal mean wind-speeds are decreasing obviously with the development of the urbanization along the downstream of Yangtze River. The decrease range of annual mean wind-speed is biggest in Wuhu and Nanjing, and that in Nantong is the smallest. The decrease ranges of summer wind-speed in four cities are the smallest, and that of autumn wind-speed in Wuhu, Wuhu and Nanjing are the biggest, and that of winter wind-speed in Nantong is the biggest.
4. The trends of annual precipitation are all insignificant in recent 48 year of four cities. The trends of Anqing, Nanjing and Nantong are increasing since not obviously, and it is fluctuating in Wuhu. The trends and range of precipitation influenced by urbanization between annual and flood-season are coincident.
5. The characteristics of impacts that the development of cities on the urban climate are not entirely conforming to Kuznets curve. The intensities of heat island effect about annual and minimum mean-temperatures are rising first, and then falling off, which conform to Kuznets curve to a certain extent. Although that of maximal mean-temperatures are also rising, the significance are insignificant. The trends of annual mean relative-humidity are weakly rising in the later period, and that of annual mean wind-speed are obviously decreasing with the development of the cities, and the two are not conformed to Kuznets curve.
6. The trends of intensities of heat island effect about annual, maximum and minimum mean-temperatures in Anqing, Wuhu and Nanjing are in accordance with Kuznets curve except Nantong. The trends of that in Nantong are rising with the development of urbanization in the later period.
7. The relationship models between annual mean relative-humidity and urbanization are significant except that of Nanjing. Only that trend in Nantong is in accordance with Kuznets curve. The trends of mean relative-humidity in Anqing and Wuhu are rising in the later period, and which in Nanjing is gradually decreasing with urbanization.
8. The relationship models between annual mean wind-speed and urbanization are all significant. The trends of annual mean wind-speed with urbanization in Nantong and Nanjing are rising first, and decreasing then, which conform to Kuznets curve. And that in Anqing and Wuhu are decreasing first, and rising then, but that in Wuhu is rising insignificant in the later period.
引文
[1]周淑贞,束炯.城市气候学[M].气象出版社,1994,1.
[2]孙颖,王长科等.直面气候挑战—解读政府间气候变化专门委员会(IPCC)第四次评估报告[J].中国减灾, 2007(7):8~9.
[3]秦大河,罗勇等.气候变化科学的最新进展:IPCC第四次评估综合报告解析[J].气候变化研究进展,2007, 3(6):311~314.
[4] Howard L., Climate of London Deduced from Meteorological Observation. Harvey & Darton, London 1833,3(3).
[5] Renon, E., Instructions meteorologliques. Annuaire Soc. Méte, de, France, 1855,Vol.3, Part1, 73～160.
[6] Witter, W.C., Grundzüge der Klimatogie von Bayern in:《Bavaria》, Landes und volkskunded. Kgr. Bayern, 1, München, 1860.
[7] Russel, F.A., Der Nebel in London und Scine Beziehung. Zum Rauch《Meteorologlsche Zeitschrift》, 1889,S.33~36.
[8] Angot, A., La Néhulositéa Paris,《Ann, B.C., Met. Fr., 1891》Paris,1893,137~144.
[9] Hellmann, G., Resultate des Regenme Bversuchs feldes bei Berlin 1885-1891,《M.Z.》1892,16,S.173~181.
[10] Schmidt, W.,Zum Einfluss grasser st?dte auf das klima. Naturwissenschaften, 1907,5,494~495
[11] Schmauss , A., Groszst?dte und Niederschlag, Meteorolog.1927,2.44,339~341.
[12] Landsberg, H.E., The Urban Climate, Academic Press, A Subsidiary of Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Publishers. New York. 1981, 17~19.
[13] Chow Shu Zhen and Chang Chao, On Some features of the Shanghai Urban Climate.《城市气候与区域气候》,华东师大出版社,1989, 220~223.
[14] Rao P K. Remote sensing of urban heat is lands from an environmental satellite [J]. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 1972,53(8):647~648.
[15]周淑贞,束炯.城市气候学.北京:气象出版社,1994,244~345.
[16] Carnahan W H. Larson R C.An analysis of an urban heat sink[J].Remote sensing of Environment, 1990,33(1):65~71.
[17] Niehol J E. A GIS-based approach to microclimate monitoring in Singapore’s high-rise housing estates[J]. Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing, 1994,60:1225~1232.
[18] Kawashima. Relations between surface temperature and air temperature on a local scale during winter night[J]. Journal of Applied Meteorology,2000,39(9):1570~1579.
[19] WENG Q H. Estimation of land surface- vegetation abundance relationship for urban heat island studies [J]. Remote Sensing of Environment, 2004, 89(4):467~483.
[20] Portman D.A. Identifying and correction urban bias in regional time series:surface temperature in China’s-Northern Plains, Journal of Climate.[J], 1993, 6:2298~2308.
[21] Hughes W.E.,Balling R.C. Urban influences on South African temperature trends.[J] Int .J. Climatology, 1996, 16:935~940.
[22] Kly sik Kazimiierz, Krzysztoof Fortuniak. Temporal and spatial characterististics of the urban heat island of Lodz, Poland. [J].Atmospheric Environment, 1999,33:3885~3895.
[23] Comire A.C.,Mapping a wind-modified urban heat island in Tucson, Arizona(with comments on integrating research and undergraduate learning).[J]. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 2000.81(10): 2417 ~2431.
[24] Morris C.J.G.,I.Simmonds, N. Plummer. Quantification of the influence of wind and cloud on the nocturnal urban heat island of a large city.[J]..Appl.Meteor., 2001,40:169~182.
[25] Kim Yeon-Hee, Jong-Jin Bank. Maximum urban heat island intensity in Seoul.[J].Appl. Meteor, 2002,41(6):651~659.
[26] Eugenia Kalnay, Ming Cai. Impact of urbanization and Land-use change on climate.[J]. Nature, 2003, 423: 538~531.
[27]周明煜,曲绍厚,李玉英,等.北京地区热岛和热岛环流特征.环境科学,1980,1(5): 12~18.
[28]周淑贞,张超.上海城市热岛效应[J].地理学报,1982,37(4):372~381.
[29]吴艳标.广州城区热岛特征及其对空气污染的影响[J].热带气象,1986,2(3):212~230.
[30]北京气象局.北京城市气候[M].北京:气象出版社,1991.
[31]黄增明等.广州城市气候[M].北京:气象出版社,1994.
[32]陈明.论我国城市气候研究工作的进展[J].南京大学学报,1995,31(3):529~532.
[33]那济海,郝立生.哈尔滨等几个城市气候变化的对比分析[J].自然灾害学报,2006,15(4): 48~52.
[34]张景哲,刘启明.北京城市气温与下垫面结构关系的时相变化[J].地理学报,1988,43 (2):159~168.
[35]刘熙明,胡非,李磊等.北京地区夏季城市气候趋势和环境效应地分析研究[J].地球物理学报, 2006,49(3):689~697.
[36]张光智,徐祥德,王继志等.北京及周边地区城市尺度热岛特征及其演变[J].应用气象学报, 2002,13(l):43~50.
[37]佟华,刘辉志,李延明等.北京夏季城市热岛现状及楔形绿地规划对缓解城市热岛地作用[J].应用气象学报,2005,16(3):357~366.
[38]彭静,刘伟东等.北京城市热岛的时空变化分析[J].地球物理学进展,2007,22 (6):1942~ 1947.
[39]程炳岩,周子平.郑州城市热岛特征及成因[J].河南气象,1997(1):20~22.
[40]程炳岩,周子平,钱晓燕等.郑州城市温度分布特征[J].河南气象,1997(1):18~20.
[41]程炳岩,钱晓燕,王迟等.郑州城市降水与湿度特征[J].河南气象,1997(2):26~27.
[42]张一平,彭贵芬.低纬高原城市昆明的气候特征[J].高原气象,1997,16(3):320~325.
[43]束炯,江田汉,杨晓明.上海城市热岛效应的特征分析[J].上海环境科学,2000(11):532~53 4.
[44]周淑贞,王行恒.上海大气环境中的城市干岛和湿岛效应[J].华东师范大学学报(自然科学版),1996 (4):68~80.
[45]唐国利,丁一汇.近44年南京温度变化的特征及其可能原因的分析[J].大气科学,2006,30 (1):56~68.
[46]朱诗武,王月莲.南京城市气候灾害的研究[J].南京气象学院学报,1993,16(1):97~100.
[47]杨德保,王式功,王玉玺.兰州城市气候变化及热岛效应分析[J].兰州大学学报(自然科学版),1994,30 (4):1661~167.
[48]李兆元等.西安城市气候研究分报告.中国不同气候区域城市气候的研究.国家自然科学基金资助项目2860043号,1990.
[49]施晓晖,顾本文.昆明城市气候特征[J].气象,2001,27(3):38~41.
[50]何云玲,张一平,刘玉洪等.昆明城市气候水平空间分布特征[J].地理科学,2002,22(6):724~ 729.
[51]张一平,何云玲,马友鑫等,昆明城市热岛效应立体分布特征[J].高原气象, 2002,21(6):604 ~609.
[52]张一平,彭贵芬.低纬高原城市昆明的气候特征[J].高原气象,1997,16(3):320~325.
[53]汤锁坤,刘其顺,李鹏章等.贵阳市城市气候特征的分析研究[J].贵州气象, 1995,19(2):2~47.
[54]何萍,李宏波等.楚雄市城市气候特征分析—兼谈中国主要城市热岛强度对比分析[J].地理学报, 2003,58(5):712~720.
[55]周国逸,黄忠良.广州近35年的气候变化[J].热带地理,1999,19(3):198~218.
[56]张恩洁,赵昕奕,张晶晶.近50年深圳气候变化研究[J].2007,43(4):535~541.
[57]杜春丽,沈新勇等.43a来我国城市气候和太阳辐射的变化特征[J].南京气象学院学报,2008, 31(2):200～207.
[58] Fang Xiaoyi, Jiang Weimei, Miao Shiguang ets. The Multi-Scale Numerical Modeling System for Research on the Relationship between Urban Planning and Meteorological Environment. [J].Advances in Atmospheric Sciences. 2004,21(1):103~112.
[59]陈燕,蒋维嵋,徐敏等.城市规划中绿化布局对区域气象环境影响的数值实验研究[J].地球物理学报,2005,48(2):265~274
[60]边海,李兴生等.天津夜间城市热岛的数值模拟[J].地理学报.1988, (2): 43.
[61]缪启龙,陈标金,陈棘.南京市最高温度场的数值模拟[J].南京气象学院学报,1991,14(1):82~ 90.
[62]缪启龙,陈标金,牛玉琴.南京市最低温度场的数值模拟[J].热带地理.1991,11(2):165~173.
[63]王才军.基于RS的城市热岛效应研究[D].重庆师范大学硕士论文.2006,8.
[64]赵红梅.基于遥感的石家庄市城市热岛效应的空间分异规律研究[D].河北师范大学硕士论文.2008,11.
[65]张心怡.基于遥感和GIS的上海土地利用/覆盖变化及其热环境效应研究[D].华东师范大学硕士论文.2006,9.
[66]李亮.长春市热岛效应的时空规律及其形成机制[D].东北师范大学硕士论文.2008,10.
[67]杨英宝,苏伟忠,江南.南京热岛效应时空特征的遥感分析[J].遥感技术与用.2006,21(6): 488~492.
[68]邵华木,徐竞平.芜湖市城市气候效应初步研究[J].安徽师范大学学报,1992 (2):67~76.
[69]任春燕,吴殿廷,董锁成.西北地区城市化对城市气候环境的影响[J].地理研究,2006.25(3): 233~241.
[70]刘长友,陈爱丽,巴图等.从IPCC第四次评估报告看全球气候变化及防灾减灾对策[J].防灾科技学院学报,2008. 10(4):140~141.
[71]翟盘茂,任福民.中国近四十年最高最低温度的变化[J].气象学报,1997,55 (4):418~429.
[72]郭志梅,缪启龙,李雄.中国北方地区近50年来气温变化特征研究[J].地理科学,2005,25(4): 448~454.
[73]李红梅,刘文杰.景洪市城市发展对气候的影响[J].气象,1997,23(3):38~41.
[74]赵海江,景元书.南京城市化进程对城市增温的影响分析[J].安徽农业科学.2008,36(28): 12346~12366.
[75]周淑贞.上海城市发展与若干气候要素的变化趋势[J].城市气候与区域气候,1989,101~112.
[76] Ackerman B, Climatology of Chicago area urban-rural differences in humidity[J]. Journal of climate end Applied Meteorology, 1987, 26, 427~430.
[77]周淑贞,王恒行,上海城市湿岛与城区雾[J].应用气象学报,1991,2(5):256~263.
[78] Hage, k. D, Urban-Rural differences 3ournal of Applied Meteorology, 1975,14,1277~1283.
[79]葛红卫,黄向荣,周东方.城市发展对安庆气候要素的影响评估.大气科学研究与应用[J]. 2007.2:114~119.
[80] P.A.克拉特采尔,著.谢克宽,译.城市气候[M].北京:中国工业出版社,1963.158~175.
[81] Changnon S A Jr. The La Porte weather anomaly-fact or fiction? Bull Amer Meteorol Soc, 1968,49:4~11.
[82] Principal Investigators of Project METROMEX. METROMEX update. Bull Amer Meteorol Soc, 1976,57: 304~308.
[2]孙颖,王长科等.直面气候挑战—解读政府间气候变化专门委员会(IPCC)第四次评估报告[J].中国减灾, 2007(7):8~9.
[3]秦大河,罗勇等.气候变化科学的最新进展:IPCC第四次评估综合报告解析[J].气候变化研究进展,2007, 3(6):311~314.
[4] Howard L., Climate of London Deduced from Meteorological Observation. Harvey & Darton, London 1833,3(3).
[5] Renon, E., Instructions meteorologliques. Annuaire Soc. Méte, de, France, 1855,Vol.3, Part1, 73～160.
[6] Witter, W.C., Grundzüge der Klimatogie von Bayern in:《Bavaria》, Landes und volkskunded. Kgr. Bayern, 1, München, 1860.
[7] Russel, F.A., Der Nebel in London und Scine Beziehung. Zum Rauch《Meteorologlsche Zeitschrift》, 1889,S.33~36.
[8] Angot, A., La Néhulositéa Paris,《Ann, B.C., Met. Fr., 1891》Paris,1893,137~144.
[9] Hellmann, G., Resultate des Regenme Bversuchs feldes bei Berlin 1885-1891,《M.Z.》1892,16,S.173~181.
[10] Schmidt, W.,Zum Einfluss grasser st?dte auf das klima. Naturwissenschaften, 1907,5,494~495
[11] Schmauss , A., Groszst?dte und Niederschlag, Meteorolog.1927,2.44,339~341.
[12] Landsberg, H.E., The Urban Climate, Academic Press, A Subsidiary of Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Publishers. New York. 1981, 17~19.
[13] Chow Shu Zhen and Chang Chao, On Some features of the Shanghai Urban Climate.《城市气候与区域气候》,华东师大出版社,1989, 220~223.
[14] Rao P K. Remote sensing of urban heat is lands from an environmental satellite [J]. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 1972,53(8):647~648.
[15]周淑贞,束炯.城市气候学.北京:气象出版社,1994,244~345.
[16] Carnahan W H. Larson R C.An analysis of an urban heat sink[J].Remote sensing of Environment, 1990,33(1):65~71.
[17] Niehol J E. A GIS-based approach to microclimate monitoring in Singapore’s high-rise housing estates[J]. Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing, 1994,60:1225~1232.
[18] Kawashima. Relations between surface temperature and air temperature on a local scale during winter night[J]. Journal of Applied Meteorology,2000,39(9):1570~1579.
[19] WENG Q H. Estimation of land surface- vegetation abundance relationship for urban heat island studies [J]. Remote Sensing of Environment, 2004, 89(4):467~483.
[20] Portman D.A. Identifying and correction urban bias in regional time series:surface temperature in China’s-Northern Plains, Journal of Climate.[J], 1993, 6:2298~2308.
[21] Hughes W.E.,Balling R.C. Urban influences on South African temperature trends.[J] Int .J. Climatology, 1996, 16:935~940.
[22] Kly sik Kazimiierz, Krzysztoof Fortuniak. Temporal and spatial characterististics of the urban heat island of Lodz, Poland. [J].Atmospheric Environment, 1999,33:3885~3895.
[23] Comire A.C.,Mapping a wind-modified urban heat island in Tucson, Arizona(with comments on integrating research and undergraduate learning).[J]. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 2000.81(10): 2417 ~2431.
[24] Morris C.J.G.,I.Simmonds, N. Plummer. Quantification of the influence of wind and cloud on the nocturnal urban heat island of a large city.[J]..Appl.Meteor., 2001,40:169~182.
[25] Kim Yeon-Hee, Jong-Jin Bank. Maximum urban heat island intensity in Seoul.[J].Appl. Meteor, 2002,41(6):651~659.
[26] Eugenia Kalnay, Ming Cai. Impact of urbanization and Land-use change on climate.[J]. Nature, 2003, 423: 538~531.
[27]周明煜,曲绍厚,李玉英,等.北京地区热岛和热岛环流特征.环境科学,1980,1(5): 12~18.
[28]周淑贞,张超.上海城市热岛效应[J].地理学报,1982,37(4):372~381.
[29]吴艳标.广州城区热岛特征及其对空气污染的影响[J].热带气象,1986,2(3):212~230.
[30]北京气象局.北京城市气候[M].北京:气象出版社,1991.
[31]黄增明等.广州城市气候[M].北京:气象出版社,1994.
[32]陈明.论我国城市气候研究工作的进展[J].南京大学学报,1995,31(3):529~532.
[33]那济海,郝立生.哈尔滨等几个城市气候变化的对比分析[J].自然灾害学报,2006,15(4): 48~52.
[34]张景哲,刘启明.北京城市气温与下垫面结构关系的时相变化[J].地理学报,1988,43 (2):159~168.
[35]刘熙明,胡非,李磊等.北京地区夏季城市气候趋势和环境效应地分析研究[J].地球物理学报, 2006,49(3):689~697.
[36]张光智,徐祥德,王继志等.北京及周边地区城市尺度热岛特征及其演变[J].应用气象学报, 2002,13(l):43~50.
[37]佟华,刘辉志,李延明等.北京夏季城市热岛现状及楔形绿地规划对缓解城市热岛地作用[J].应用气象学报,2005,16(3):357~366.
[38]彭静,刘伟东等.北京城市热岛的时空变化分析[J].地球物理学进展,2007,22 (6):1942~ 1947.
[39]程炳岩,周子平.郑州城市热岛特征及成因[J].河南气象,1997(1):20~22.
[40]程炳岩,周子平,钱晓燕等.郑州城市温度分布特征[J].河南气象,1997(1):18~20.
[41]程炳岩,钱晓燕,王迟等.郑州城市降水与湿度特征[J].河南气象,1997(2):26~27.
[42]张一平,彭贵芬.低纬高原城市昆明的气候特征[J].高原气象,1997,16(3):320~325.
[43]束炯,江田汉,杨晓明.上海城市热岛效应的特征分析[J].上海环境科学,2000(11):532~53 4.
[44]周淑贞,王行恒.上海大气环境中的城市干岛和湿岛效应[J].华东师范大学学报(自然科学版),1996 (4):68~80.
[45]唐国利,丁一汇.近44年南京温度变化的特征及其可能原因的分析[J].大气科学,2006,30 (1):56~68.
[46]朱诗武,王月莲.南京城市气候灾害的研究[J].南京气象学院学报,1993,16(1):97~100.
[47]杨德保,王式功,王玉玺.兰州城市气候变化及热岛效应分析[J].兰州大学学报(自然科学版),1994,30 (4):1661~167.
[48]李兆元等.西安城市气候研究分报告.中国不同气候区域城市气候的研究.国家自然科学基金资助项目2860043号,1990.
[49]施晓晖,顾本文.昆明城市气候特征[J].气象,2001,27(3):38~41.
[50]何云玲,张一平,刘玉洪等.昆明城市气候水平空间分布特征[J].地理科学,2002,22(6):724~ 729.
[51]张一平,何云玲,马友鑫等,昆明城市热岛效应立体分布特征[J].高原气象, 2002,21(6):604 ~609.
[52]张一平,彭贵芬.低纬高原城市昆明的气候特征[J].高原气象,1997,16(3):320~325.
[53]汤锁坤,刘其顺,李鹏章等.贵阳市城市气候特征的分析研究[J].贵州气象, 1995,19(2):2~47.
[54]何萍,李宏波等.楚雄市城市气候特征分析—兼谈中国主要城市热岛强度对比分析[J].地理学报, 2003,58(5):712~720.
[55]周国逸,黄忠良.广州近35年的气候变化[J].热带地理,1999,19(3):198~218.
[56]张恩洁,赵昕奕,张晶晶.近50年深圳气候变化研究[J].2007,43(4):535~541.
[57]杜春丽,沈新勇等.43a来我国城市气候和太阳辐射的变化特征[J].南京气象学院学报,2008, 31(2):200～207.
[58] Fang Xiaoyi, Jiang Weimei, Miao Shiguang ets. The Multi-Scale Numerical Modeling System for Research on the Relationship between Urban Planning and Meteorological Environment. [J].Advances in Atmospheric Sciences. 2004,21(1):103~112.
[59]陈燕,蒋维嵋,徐敏等.城市规划中绿化布局对区域气象环境影响的数值实验研究[J].地球物理学报,2005,48(2):265~274
[60]边海,李兴生等.天津夜间城市热岛的数值模拟[J].地理学报.1988, (2): 43.
[61]缪启龙,陈标金,陈棘.南京市最高温度场的数值模拟[J].南京气象学院学报,1991,14(1):82~ 90.
[62]缪启龙,陈标金,牛玉琴.南京市最低温度场的数值模拟[J].热带地理.1991,11(2):165~173.
[63]王才军.基于RS的城市热岛效应研究[D].重庆师范大学硕士论文.2006,8.
[64]赵红梅.基于遥感的石家庄市城市热岛效应的空间分异规律研究[D].河北师范大学硕士论文.2008,11.
[65]张心怡.基于遥感和GIS的上海土地利用/覆盖变化及其热环境效应研究[D].华东师范大学硕士论文.2006,9.
[66]李亮.长春市热岛效应的时空规律及其形成机制[D].东北师范大学硕士论文.2008,10.
[67]杨英宝,苏伟忠,江南.南京热岛效应时空特征的遥感分析[J].遥感技术与用.2006,21(6): 488~492.
[68]邵华木,徐竞平.芜湖市城市气候效应初步研究[J].安徽师范大学学报,1992 (2):67~76.
[69]任春燕,吴殿廷,董锁成.西北地区城市化对城市气候环境的影响[J].地理研究,2006.25(3): 233~241.
[70]刘长友,陈爱丽,巴图等.从IPCC第四次评估报告看全球气候变化及防灾减灾对策[J].防灾科技学院学报,2008. 10(4):140~141.
[71]翟盘茂,任福民.中国近四十年最高最低温度的变化[J].气象学报,1997,55 (4):418~429.
[72]郭志梅,缪启龙,李雄.中国北方地区近50年来气温变化特征研究[J].地理科学,2005,25(4): 448~454.
[73]李红梅,刘文杰.景洪市城市发展对气候的影响[J].气象,1997,23(3):38~41.
[74]赵海江,景元书.南京城市化进程对城市增温的影响分析[J].安徽农业科学.2008,36(28): 12346~12366.
[75]周淑贞.上海城市发展与若干气候要素的变化趋势[J].城市气候与区域气候,1989,101~112.
[76] Ackerman B, Climatology of Chicago area urban-rural differences in humidity[J]. Journal of climate end Applied Meteorology, 1987, 26, 427~430.
[77]周淑贞,王恒行,上海城市湿岛与城区雾[J].应用气象学报,1991,2(5):256~263.
[78] Hage, k. D, Urban-Rural differences 3ournal of Applied Meteorology, 1975,14,1277~1283.
[79]葛红卫,黄向荣,周东方.城市发展对安庆气候要素的影响评估.大气科学研究与应用[J]. 2007.2:114~119.
[80] P.A.克拉特采尔,著.谢克宽,译.城市气候[M].北京:中国工业出版社,1963.158~175.
[81] Changnon S A Jr. The La Porte weather anomaly-fact or fiction? Bull Amer Meteorol Soc, 1968,49:4~11.
[82] Principal Investigators of Project METROMEX. METROMEX update. Bull Amer Meteorol Soc, 1976,57: 304~308.