“查韦斯现象”研究
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摘要
查韦斯是当今时代最具代表性的拉美左派领导人之一。1998年以来,他连续3次当选总统。时至2010年,这位左派民族主义者已经连续担任委内瑞拉总统十年之久。在此期间,查韦斯推动委内瑞拉实现对新自由主义模式的突破,并谋求建设“21世纪社会主义”。他在政治领域主张构建参与式民主,使之取代代议制民主;在经济领域强调国家对经济生活的干预,把国有化视为冲破发展障碍的重要战略;在社会领域实施一系列社会项目,维护社会公正;在国际关系领域呼吁改变现行的不合理国际政治经济秩序,提出和实施一系列具有鲜明“替代”色彩的政策主张。查韦斯的内政外交政策在国内外产生广泛影响,成为拉美国家以变革应对全球化挑战的突出范例,被视为拉美发展进程中的“查韦斯现象”。
“查韦斯现象”是委内瑞拉的政治、经济和社会状况经历长期演变的产物。本文在研究这一现象的过程中,尝试对查韦斯的政治理念和执政实践进行全面地整理和分析,综合吸收一系列有关查韦斯的中外研究成果,紧密跟踪委内瑞拉政治、经济和社会状况的动态,借鉴和运用民主巩固理论、宪政理论、反全球化理论和新自由主义理论,在此基础上对“查韦斯现象”进行全面透视,分析查韦斯政治理念的发展脉络,总结他为促进国家的经济-社会发展模式转变而采取的重大措施,评估其执政绩效及其未来面临的重大挑战。
本文共有六章。第一章阐明“查韦斯现象”的内涵、这一现象产生的历史背景以及查韦斯在委内瑞拉的执政历程。“查韦斯现象”产生的政治背景包括:精英政治色彩浓厚,两大传统政党专权;政府的治理能力存在严重欠缺;高度的政治排斥。经济背景包括:20世纪80年代和90年代实施的新自由主义改革未能使委内瑞拉的国民经济在整体上得到重振,反而导致中下阶层的生活水平直线下降;新自由主义改革缺乏国民共识,是一种迫于内部困境和外部压力而做出的被动选择。社会背景包括:社会状况在80年代和90年代趋于恶化,经济衰退和经济改革造成的损失通过各种渠道转嫁给中下层民众。国际背景包括:美国及其控制的国际货币基金组织迫使委内瑞拉实行新自由主义改革,使委内瑞拉民族主义者担忧本国的经济主权受到损害。
第二章分析查韦斯的执政理念及其发展。查韦斯的执政理念是理解和分析“查韦斯现象”的主线。查韦斯始终是新自由主义发展模式的激烈批评者,主张对委内瑞拉既有的政治-经济发展模式实现根本变革,推动国家走上一条符合自身国情的发展道路。他在执政之初尝试走“第三条道路”,为此掀起一场“玻利瓦尔革命”。伴随政治立场的逐步激进化,他把探索的目光转向社会主义,以“21世纪社会主义”作为革命的指导理论,从寻找新自由主义的替代模式走向寻找资本主义的替代模式。
第三章分析查韦斯执政时期的政治变革。查韦斯政府谋求把代议制民主转变为参与式民主,保障民众对公共事务的充分参与,构建一种对政治精英具有约束力的政治体制,以便使民主巩固走向深化。为实现改造国家的构想,查韦斯政府还大力强化联邦政府的权力,谋求建设一个强有力的国家机器。在这一过程中,委内瑞拉统一社会主义党(PSUV)宣告成立。查韦斯希望使之成为推动玻利瓦尔革命、建设“21世纪社会主义”的重要保证。
第四章分析查韦斯执政时期的经济发展模式转变和社会公正构建。查韦斯认为,经济发展模式的转变需要大力强化国家对经济的干预能力,而强化国家对经济干预的主要途径是国有化。查韦斯政府在执政以来大力推行国有化。委内瑞拉的这一轮国有化进程始于石油业,然后向电讯业、电力业、水泥业、钢铁业、银行业等战略部门扩散,并波及非战略部门的食品业,从而使国家对经济的干预能力得到强化。
查韦斯希望委内瑞拉实现“内生发展”(endogenous development)。“内生发展”意味着委内瑞拉依靠自身条件发展经济,把自然资源转化为可用于消费或出口的产品,促进社会化服务和本地化生产。查韦斯政府为实现“内生发展”采取一系列政策措施,其中包括大力发展合作社和维护本国的粮食主权。
查韦斯政府致力于改善社会发展状况,在2003年以来大力实施30多个名为“使命”(misión)的社会计划。石油收入被用于向民众提供医疗服务、得到价格补贴的食品和教育培训,以便满足委内瑞拉人的基本需求、促进社会发展和更为公正地分配资源。
第五章分析查韦斯的国际战略和外交政策。在查韦斯执政的10余年期间,委内瑞拉推行具有鲜明第三世界立场的国际战略,把“南南合作”视为发展中国家实现经济独立和发展、改革现行国际政治经济秩序的关键途径。委内瑞拉以地区外交为核心,大力推动拉美国家、尤其是南美洲国家的团结合作和一体化,一方面谋求加入南共市,一方面推动美洲玻利瓦尔联盟的发展;在此基础上深化和扩大南南合作,提出一系列合作构想,加强与新兴发展中大国的关系;以能源外交拓展国际合作空间,保障石油收益的稳定;参与变革国际政治经济秩序,提出一系列有关国际金融体制改革的构想;寻求制约美国的影响力,推动世界走向多极化。
第六章是对“查韦斯现象”的思考。“查韦斯现象”的核心是委内瑞拉对新发展模式的探索。经过查韦斯的长期执政,委内瑞拉完成对新自由主义模式的替代,形成具有自身特点的“玻利瓦尔发展模式”。查韦斯的执政还推动委内瑞拉重塑政治体制,促进民主巩固进程的深化,实现社会发展状况的改善。在可预见的未来,委内瑞拉的社会主义建设将面对来自外部和内部的两大挑战。外部挑战是:如何保障建设社会主义进程的稳定和延续?内部挑战是:查韦斯及其支持者是否能够通过体制内道路建设“21世纪社会主义”?通过对“查韦斯现象”的研究,本文得出以下两点启示:启示之一:维护社会公正是实现民主巩固的关键因素。启示之二:社会主义是全球化时代各国变革发展道路的重要选择。
The Chavez Phenomenon is a major event in Latin America which represents a remarkable effort to meet challenges from globalization by self-reform. Hugo Chavez was elected Venezuelan President in 1998 and has been ruling the country over a decade. During the period he calls to smash the neo-liberal development model and construct the so-called 21st Century Socialism in Venezuela. Politically he expects to achieve the transition from the representative democracy to the participatory democracy. Economically he is a firm believer of state intervention and views nationalization as a tool to break bottlenecks restricting Venezuela’s development. Socially he launches the social programs“misión”to promote social development. Internationally he proposes a variety of alternative projects to reform the existing political-economic order and boost the South-South cooperation.
The paper comprises six chapters. Chapter one explains the meaning and significance of the Chavez phenomenon. Then it provides the background of the phenomenon. Politically it is a result of long-existed political exclusion and the deficiencies of the two-party system and those elected governments. Economically it is a result of the neo-liberal reform launched in the late 1980s, which failed to rejuvenate the national economy and undermined people’s living standard. Chapter two analyzes Hugo Chavez’s ideology and its evolution. An intense criticizer of neo-liberalism, Chavez seeks to reform the development model in Venezuela. Originally he followed the doctrine of the Third Way and launched the Bolivarian Revolution. As a result of political confrontation against the opposition, he gradually radicalized his position and referred to socialism as the guiding principle of his revolution.
Chapter three explores the political transition during Chavez’s reign. Chavez has made a considerable effort to transform Venezuela from a representative democracy to a participatory one. For the purpose of deepening the reform, he stopped the decentralization process started in the 1980s and continued to promote centralization of state into the federal government. The Partido Socialista Unido de Venezuela (PSUV) was founded in 2008 to help Chavez promote the revolution process.
Chapter four discusses Chavez’s efforts to promote the transition of development model and the improvement of social justice. He is an earnest advocate of state intervention and has initiated massive nationalization which covers the strategic sectors such as oil, telecom, electric power and banking. Aimed at advancing endogenous development in Venezuela, Chavez put an emphasis on developing cooperatives and maintaining food sovereignty. Since 2003 over thirty misión were put into effect to meet people’s pressing demand for social welfare.
Chapter five analyzes Chavez’s international strategy and foreign polices. Chavez regards the South-South cooperation as a tool to reshape the political-economic order. During his reign, Venezuela makes a continuous effort to enhance the integration in Latin America, which is reflected by its pursuit for membership of Mercosur and contribution to the foundation of the Bolivarian Alliance for the Peoples of Our America (ALBA) and the Petrocaribe.
Chapter six provides the reflections on the Chavez phenomenon. It is pointed out that the so-called Bolivarian development model has come into being in Venezuela as a replacement to the neo-liberal one. According to Chavez, Venezuela will move into a socialist development model in the future. However, there exist two major challenges in the process of constructing socialism. The first one is how to ensure the continuance of the process if there was a change of government due to election? The second one is how to find an effective way for Chavez and his supports to construct socialism under capitalism?
“查韦斯现象”是委内瑞拉的政治、经济和社会状况经历长期演变的产物。本文在研究这一现象的过程中,尝试对查韦斯的政治理念和执政实践进行全面地整理和分析,综合吸收一系列有关查韦斯的中外研究成果,紧密跟踪委内瑞拉政治、经济和社会状况的动态,借鉴和运用民主巩固理论、宪政理论、反全球化理论和新自由主义理论,在此基础上对“查韦斯现象”进行全面透视,分析查韦斯政治理念的发展脉络,总结他为促进国家的经济-社会发展模式转变而采取的重大措施,评估其执政绩效及其未来面临的重大挑战。
本文共有六章。第一章阐明“查韦斯现象”的内涵、这一现象产生的历史背景以及查韦斯在委内瑞拉的执政历程。“查韦斯现象”产生的政治背景包括:精英政治色彩浓厚,两大传统政党专权;政府的治理能力存在严重欠缺;高度的政治排斥。经济背景包括:20世纪80年代和90年代实施的新自由主义改革未能使委内瑞拉的国民经济在整体上得到重振,反而导致中下阶层的生活水平直线下降;新自由主义改革缺乏国民共识,是一种迫于内部困境和外部压力而做出的被动选择。社会背景包括:社会状况在80年代和90年代趋于恶化,经济衰退和经济改革造成的损失通过各种渠道转嫁给中下层民众。国际背景包括:美国及其控制的国际货币基金组织迫使委内瑞拉实行新自由主义改革,使委内瑞拉民族主义者担忧本国的经济主权受到损害。
第二章分析查韦斯的执政理念及其发展。查韦斯的执政理念是理解和分析“查韦斯现象”的主线。查韦斯始终是新自由主义发展模式的激烈批评者,主张对委内瑞拉既有的政治-经济发展模式实现根本变革,推动国家走上一条符合自身国情的发展道路。他在执政之初尝试走“第三条道路”,为此掀起一场“玻利瓦尔革命”。伴随政治立场的逐步激进化,他把探索的目光转向社会主义,以“21世纪社会主义”作为革命的指导理论,从寻找新自由主义的替代模式走向寻找资本主义的替代模式。
第三章分析查韦斯执政时期的政治变革。查韦斯政府谋求把代议制民主转变为参与式民主,保障民众对公共事务的充分参与,构建一种对政治精英具有约束力的政治体制,以便使民主巩固走向深化。为实现改造国家的构想,查韦斯政府还大力强化联邦政府的权力,谋求建设一个强有力的国家机器。在这一过程中,委内瑞拉统一社会主义党(PSUV)宣告成立。查韦斯希望使之成为推动玻利瓦尔革命、建设“21世纪社会主义”的重要保证。
第四章分析查韦斯执政时期的经济发展模式转变和社会公正构建。查韦斯认为,经济发展模式的转变需要大力强化国家对经济的干预能力,而强化国家对经济干预的主要途径是国有化。查韦斯政府在执政以来大力推行国有化。委内瑞拉的这一轮国有化进程始于石油业,然后向电讯业、电力业、水泥业、钢铁业、银行业等战略部门扩散,并波及非战略部门的食品业,从而使国家对经济的干预能力得到强化。
查韦斯希望委内瑞拉实现“内生发展”(endogenous development)。“内生发展”意味着委内瑞拉依靠自身条件发展经济,把自然资源转化为可用于消费或出口的产品,促进社会化服务和本地化生产。查韦斯政府为实现“内生发展”采取一系列政策措施,其中包括大力发展合作社和维护本国的粮食主权。
查韦斯政府致力于改善社会发展状况,在2003年以来大力实施30多个名为“使命”(misión)的社会计划。石油收入被用于向民众提供医疗服务、得到价格补贴的食品和教育培训,以便满足委内瑞拉人的基本需求、促进社会发展和更为公正地分配资源。
第五章分析查韦斯的国际战略和外交政策。在查韦斯执政的10余年期间,委内瑞拉推行具有鲜明第三世界立场的国际战略,把“南南合作”视为发展中国家实现经济独立和发展、改革现行国际政治经济秩序的关键途径。委内瑞拉以地区外交为核心,大力推动拉美国家、尤其是南美洲国家的团结合作和一体化,一方面谋求加入南共市,一方面推动美洲玻利瓦尔联盟的发展;在此基础上深化和扩大南南合作,提出一系列合作构想,加强与新兴发展中大国的关系;以能源外交拓展国际合作空间,保障石油收益的稳定;参与变革国际政治经济秩序,提出一系列有关国际金融体制改革的构想;寻求制约美国的影响力,推动世界走向多极化。
第六章是对“查韦斯现象”的思考。“查韦斯现象”的核心是委内瑞拉对新发展模式的探索。经过查韦斯的长期执政,委内瑞拉完成对新自由主义模式的替代,形成具有自身特点的“玻利瓦尔发展模式”。查韦斯的执政还推动委内瑞拉重塑政治体制,促进民主巩固进程的深化,实现社会发展状况的改善。在可预见的未来,委内瑞拉的社会主义建设将面对来自外部和内部的两大挑战。外部挑战是:如何保障建设社会主义进程的稳定和延续?内部挑战是:查韦斯及其支持者是否能够通过体制内道路建设“21世纪社会主义”?通过对“查韦斯现象”的研究,本文得出以下两点启示:启示之一:维护社会公正是实现民主巩固的关键因素。启示之二:社会主义是全球化时代各国变革发展道路的重要选择。
The Chavez Phenomenon is a major event in Latin America which represents a remarkable effort to meet challenges from globalization by self-reform. Hugo Chavez was elected Venezuelan President in 1998 and has been ruling the country over a decade. During the period he calls to smash the neo-liberal development model and construct the so-called 21st Century Socialism in Venezuela. Politically he expects to achieve the transition from the representative democracy to the participatory democracy. Economically he is a firm believer of state intervention and views nationalization as a tool to break bottlenecks restricting Venezuela’s development. Socially he launches the social programs“misión”to promote social development. Internationally he proposes a variety of alternative projects to reform the existing political-economic order and boost the South-South cooperation.
The paper comprises six chapters. Chapter one explains the meaning and significance of the Chavez phenomenon. Then it provides the background of the phenomenon. Politically it is a result of long-existed political exclusion and the deficiencies of the two-party system and those elected governments. Economically it is a result of the neo-liberal reform launched in the late 1980s, which failed to rejuvenate the national economy and undermined people’s living standard. Chapter two analyzes Hugo Chavez’s ideology and its evolution. An intense criticizer of neo-liberalism, Chavez seeks to reform the development model in Venezuela. Originally he followed the doctrine of the Third Way and launched the Bolivarian Revolution. As a result of political confrontation against the opposition, he gradually radicalized his position and referred to socialism as the guiding principle of his revolution.
Chapter three explores the political transition during Chavez’s reign. Chavez has made a considerable effort to transform Venezuela from a representative democracy to a participatory one. For the purpose of deepening the reform, he stopped the decentralization process started in the 1980s and continued to promote centralization of state into the federal government. The Partido Socialista Unido de Venezuela (PSUV) was founded in 2008 to help Chavez promote the revolution process.
Chapter four discusses Chavez’s efforts to promote the transition of development model and the improvement of social justice. He is an earnest advocate of state intervention and has initiated massive nationalization which covers the strategic sectors such as oil, telecom, electric power and banking. Aimed at advancing endogenous development in Venezuela, Chavez put an emphasis on developing cooperatives and maintaining food sovereignty. Since 2003 over thirty misión were put into effect to meet people’s pressing demand for social welfare.
Chapter five analyzes Chavez’s international strategy and foreign polices. Chavez regards the South-South cooperation as a tool to reshape the political-economic order. During his reign, Venezuela makes a continuous effort to enhance the integration in Latin America, which is reflected by its pursuit for membership of Mercosur and contribution to the foundation of the Bolivarian Alliance for the Peoples of Our America (ALBA) and the Petrocaribe.
Chapter six provides the reflections on the Chavez phenomenon. It is pointed out that the so-called Bolivarian development model has come into being in Venezuela as a replacement to the neo-liberal one. According to Chavez, Venezuela will move into a socialist development model in the future. However, there exist two major challenges in the process of constructing socialism. The first one is how to ensure the continuance of the process if there was a change of government due to election? The second one is how to find an effective way for Chavez and his supports to construct socialism under capitalism?
引文
①ABN,“Venezuela to defeat a historical barrier on February 15”, February 13 2009. http://www.abn.info.ve/go_news5.php?articulo=169757&lee=17
①曾昭耀:《查韦斯主义——拉美的“第三条道路”》,《世界知识》,1999年第19期。
②曾昭耀:《查韦斯的“第三条道路”与委内瑞拉政变》。见江时学主编:《拉丁美洲和加勒比发展报告:2002～2003》,社科文献出版社2003年版。
③Edgardo Lander,“Venezuelan Social Conflict in a Global Context”, Latin American Perspectives, Issue 141, Vol. 32, No. 2, March 2005.
④Alan Woods,“Venezuela: The Agrarian Revolution-Revolutionary Realism versus Reformist Utopia”, Handsoffvenezula.org, February 16 2005. http://www.handsoffvenezuela.org/venezuela_agrarian_revolution.htm
⑤Leonel Vivas,“Venezuela: The Bolivarian Revolution Will not be Defeated”, Greenleft.org, May 26 2004. http://www.greenleft.org.au/2004/583/32465
⑥Miguel Campos,“Venezuela: The Bolivarian Revolution at a Crossroads”, Marxist.com, 20 December 2001 www.marxist.com/bolivarian-revolution-crossroads201201.htm
⑦Catherine E. Wilson,“The Bolivarian Revolution According to Hugo Chávezst”, 27 May 2008. http://www.sciencedirect.com
⑧Alan Woods,“Venezuela: The Agrarian Revolution-Revolutionary Realism versus Reformist Utopia”, Handsoffvenezula.org, February 16 2005. http://www.handsoffvenezuela.org/venezuela_agrarian_revolution.htm
⑨Alan Woods,“Chavez:“Capitalism must be transcended”, Marxist.com, January 1 2005. http://www.marxist.com/Latinam/chavez_speech_wsf.htm
①Rob Sewell,“Latin America: the Balkanised Continent”, Marxist.com, February 6 2006. http://www.marxist.com/latin-america-balkanised-continent.htm
②Jorge Martin,“President Chavez Reaffirms Opposition to Capitalism”, Handsoffvenezuela.org, March 1 2005. http://www.handsoffvenezuela.org/chavez_opposition_capitalism.htm
③Carsten Schiefer,“Venezuela: A Serious Alternative for Latin America. An Interview with Heinz Dieterich”, Venezuelanalysis.com, March 14 2006. http://www.venezuelanalysis.com/articles.php?artno=1690
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⑦Michael Lebowitz,“The Spectre of Socialism for the 21st Century”, Links.org, June 5, 2008. http://links.org.au/node/503
①Joe Grim Feinber,“The Bolivarian Revolution”, Zcommunications.org, January 4 2006. http://www.zcommunications.org/the-bolivarian-revolution-by-joe-grim-feinberg
②Alan Woods,“Chavez: Capitalism must be transcended?”, Marxist.com, February 1 2005. http://www.marxist.com/chavez-capitalism-transcended-socialism.htm
③Michael Lebowitz,“The Spectre of Socialism for the 21st Century”, Links.org, June 5, 2008. http://links.org.au/node/503
④Gregory Wilpert,“The Meaning of 21st Century Socialism for Venezuela”, Venezuelanalysis.com, July 2006.http://www.venezuelanalysis.com/articles.php?artno=1776
⑤Gregory Wilpert,“The Meaning of 21st Century Socialism for Venezuela”, Venezuelanalysis.com, July 2006.http://www.venezuelanalysis.com/articles.php?artno=1776
⑥Michael Lebowitz,“The Spectre of Socialism for the 21st Century”, Links.org, June 5, 2008. http://links.org.au/node/503
⑦Stuart Piper,“The Challenge of Socialism in the 21st Century-Some initial lessons from Venezuela”, Internationalviewpoint.org, May 2007. http://www.internationalviewpoint.org/spip.php?article1269
⑧Tim Anderson,“Breaking Imperial Ties Venezuela and ALBA”, Green Left Weekly, March 27 2006. http://venezuelanalysis.com/analysis/1675
①Tariq Ali,“Why He Crushed the Oligarchs:The Importance of Hugo Chávez”, Counterpunch.org, August 16 2004. http://counterpunch.org/tariq08162004.html
②Steve Ellner, Rethinking Venezuelan Politics: Class, Conflict, and the Chavez Phenomenon, London: Lynne Rienner, 2008.
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④Tony Saunois,“Hugo Chávez and Socialism”, Socialistworld.net, October 30 2007. http://socialistworld.net/eng/2007/10/30veneza.html
⑤Michael Shifter,“In Search of Hugo Chávez”, Foreign Affairs, May/June 2006.
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⑦Francisco Rodríguez,“An Empty Revolution: the Unfulfilled Promises of Hugo Chávez”, Foreign Affairs, March/April 2008.
①ABN,“Chávez considers that the economic model transformation can not be postponed”, December 6 2007. http://www.abn.info.ve/go_news5.php?articulo=113471&lee=17
②ABN,“President Chavez: G-20 ignored solutions that include the peoples of the world”, April 3 2009. http://www.abn.info.ve/go_news5.php?articulo=176225&lee=17
①Elisabeth J. Friedman,“Paradoxes of Gendered Political Opportunity in the Venezuelan Transition to Democracy”, Latin American Research Review, No. 3, 1998.
②Julia Buxton, The Failure of Political Reform in Venezuela, London: Ashgate, 2001, p.59.
①Trudie O. Coker,“Globalization and State Capital Accumulation: Deteriorating Economic and Political Rights in Venezuela”, Latin American Perspectives, Issue 108, Vol.26, No.5, September 1999.
②IDB, Economic and Social Progress in Latin America, Washington DC., 1996.
③Trudie O. Coker,“Globalization and State Capital Accumulation: Deteriorating Economic and Political Rights in Venezuela”, Latin American Perspectives, Issue 108, Vol.26, No.5, September 1999.
④石瑞元:《为什么委内瑞拉会发生政治危机》,《世界经济与政治》,1993年第7期。
①Michael McCaughan, The Battle of Venezuela, London: Latin America Bureau, 2003, p. 31.
②Michel Chossudovsky, La Miseria en Venezuela, Valencia, Venezuela: Vadell Hermanos, 1979, p. 16.
①Centro de Investigaciones Económicas y Sociales,“Ajuste y conflicto”, Boletín 5: 17, 1996.
②Edgardo Lander,“Venezuelan Social Conflict in a Global Context”, Latin American Perspectives, Issue 141, Vol. 32, No. 2, March 2005.
③George W. Schuyler,“Perspectives on Venezuelan Democracy”, Latin American Perspectives, Issue 90, Vol 23, No 3, Summer 1996.
④Armando Martel,“Metodologías de estimación de la pobreza en Venezuela”, Paper presented to the COPRE-ILDIS Workshop on Methodologies on Poverty in Venezuela, February 1993.
⑤Asdrubal Baptista, Bases cuantitativas de la economía venezolana 1830-1989, Caracas: Comunicaciones Corporativas D., 1991, p.189.
⑥Oficina Nacional de Presupuesto Leyes de Presupuesto Nacional de Ingresos y Gastos Públicos.转引自:PAHO, Mission Barrio Adentro: The Right to Health and Social Inclusion in Venezuela, Caracas: PAHO/Venezuela, 2006. http://www.paho.org/English/DD/PUB/BA_ENG_TRANS.pdf
⑦Ana María San Juan,“La criminalidad en Caracas: percepciones y realidades”, Revista Venezolana de Economía y Ciencias Sociales, April-September 1997.
①ABN,“Venezuela to invest 100 billion dollars in projects in the years to come”, December 31 2008, http://www.abn.info.ve/go_news5.php?articulo=163602&lee=17
②ABN,“Bolivarian Constitution: Ten Years of Democracy and People's Participation”, December 5 2009, http://www.abn.info.ve/noticia.php?articulo=211961&lee=17
①肖楠等编写:《当代拉丁美洲政治思潮》,东方出版社1988年版,第243～244页。
①Hugo Chavez,“Speech by President Hugo Chávez, at the opening of XII G-15 Summit”, Venezuelanalysis.com, March 1 2004. http://www.venezuelanalysis.com/analysis/381
①Edgardo Lander,“Venezuelan Social Conflict in a Global Context”, Latin American Perspectives, Issue 141, Vol. 32, No. 2, March 2005.
①PDVSA,“What is Endogenous Development?”, Pdvsa.com. http://www.pdvsa.com/index.php?tpl=interface.en/design/readmenu.tpl.html&newsid_obj_id=1947&newsid_temas=92
①Hugo Chávez,“Capitalism Is Savagery”, Translated by Daniel Morduchowicz, Zmag.org, April 10 2005.http://www.zmag.org/content/showarticle.cfm?ItemID=7612
②Mariela Léon,“Chávez Blames IMF for Global Financial Crisis”, EL UNIVERSAL, October 9 2008. http://www.eluniversal.com/2008/10/09/en_eco_art_chavez-blames-imf-fo_09A2058285.shtml
①Alan Woods.“Chavez:‘Capitalism Must Be Transcended”, Marxist.com, February 1 2005. http://www.marxist.com/Latinam/chavez_speech_wsf.htm
②Venezuelanalysis.com,“Venezuela’s Chavez Reiterates Support for Socialism”, February 26 2005. http://www.venezuelanalysis.com/news.php?newsno=1524
③Jorge Martin,“President Chavez Reaffirms Opposition to Capitalism”, Handsoffvenezuela.org, March 1 2005. http://www.handsoffvenezuela.org/chavez_opposition_capitalism.htm
④ABN,“The Lines of Chávez # 63: With Marx, Christ and Bolivar!”, Translated by MinCI, March 16 2010. http://www.abn.info.ve/noticia.php?articulo=224981&lee=17
⑤Alan Woods,“For the Bolivarian Revolution there is no 'third way' We must choose socialism”, Venezuelanalysis.com, April 20 2005. http://www.venezuelanalysis.com/articles.php?artno=1426
⑥ABN,“Venezuela to Defeat a Historical Barrier on February 15”, February 12 2009. http://www.abn.info.ve/go_news5.php?articulo=169757&lee=17
⑦Hugo Chavez Frias,“Speech of Unity”, December 15 2006.“Socialism of the XXI Century”Publications, No.1, January 2007.
①ABN,“President Chavez's Speech at the 15th United Nations Climate Change Conference in Copenhagen”, Translation by Minci, December 18 2009. http://www.abn.info.ve/noticia.php?articulo=212345&lee=17
①Hugo Chávez,“Capitalism Is Savagery”, Translated by Daniel Morduchowicz, Zmag.org, April 10 2005. http://www.zmag.org/content/showarticle.cfm?ItemID=7612
②Eluniversal,“Chávez Targets Democratized Property”, El Universal, October 11 2007. http://buscador.eluniversal.com/2007/10/11/en_refco_art_chavez-targets-democ_11A1124557.shtml
③Eluniversal,“Constitutional Reform Removes the State Duty to‘Boost Private Property’”, El Universal, August 15 2007. http://buscador.eluniversal.com/2007/08/15/en_pol_art_constitutional-refor_15A915957.shtml
①Gregory Wilpert,“The Meaning of 21st Century Socialism for Venezuela”, Venezuelanalysis.com, July 2006. http://www.venezuelanalysis.com/analysis/1834
②Sara Carolina Diaz,“Interview with ex FM William Izarra”, El Universal, January 2007. http://buscador.eluniversal.com/2007/01/17/en_pol_art_17A825609.shtml
①Michael Coppedge,“Venezuela: Popular Sovereignty versus Liberal Democracy”, Working Paper #294, April 2002. http://kellogg.nd.edu/publications/workingpapers/WPS/294.pdf
①KPFK,“Interview of President Hugo Chávez on Democracy Now!”, September 16 2005.http://www.embavenez-us.org/news.php?nid=1759
①Clara Irazábal, John Foley,“Reflections on the Venezuelan Transition from a Capitalist Representative to a Socialist Participatory Democracy: What Are Planners to Do?”, Latin American Perspectives, Issue 170, Vol.37, No.1, January 2010.
②Constitución de la República Bolivariana de Venezuela, Tercera edició, Septiembre 2006.
①Stuart Piper,“The Challenge of Socialism in the 21st Century-Some initial lessons from Venezuela”, Internationalviewpoint.org, May 2007. http://www.internationalviewpoint.org/spip.php?article1269
①Constitución de la República Bolivariana de Venezuela, Tercera edició, Septiembre 2006.
②Constitución de la República Bolivariana de Venezuela, Tercera edició, Septiembre 2006.
③Constitución de la República Bolivariana de Venezuela, Tercera edició, Septiembre 2006.
①Constitución de la República Bolivariana de Venezuela, Tercera edició, Septiembre 2006.
②Constitución de la República Bolivariana de Venezuela, Tercera edició, Septiembre 2006.
①Nikolas Kozloff, Hugo Chavez: Oil, Politics, and the Challenge to the U.S., New York: Palgrave MacMillan, 2006, p. 10.
①Chris Carlson,“United Socialist Party of Venezuela Enters New Phase”, Venezuelanalysis.com, January 29 2007. http://venezuelanalysis.com/news/2466
①ABN,“Chávez considers that the economic model transformation can not be postponed”, December 6 2007. http://www.abn.info.ve/go_news5.php?articulo=113471&lee=17
①EIA,“Venezuela”, 2010. http://www.eia.doe.gov/cabs/Venezuela/pdf.pdf
①Iain Bruce,“Chavez calls for democracy at work”, News.bbc.co.uk, August 19 2005. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/4155936.stm
①Constitución de la República Bolivariana de Venezuela, Tercera edició, Septiembre 2006.
②Constitución de la República Bolivariana de Venezuela, Tercera edició, Septiembre 2006.
①Anna Isaacs, Basil Weiner, Grace Bell, Courtney Frantz, Katie Bowen,“The Food Sovereignty Movement in Venezuela Part I”, Venezuelanalysis.com, November 26 2009. http://www.venezuelanalysis.com/analysis/4952
②Michael McCaughan, The Battle of Venezuela, London: Latin America Bureau, 2003, p. 31.
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②Embassy of the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela to the United States,“Economic Measures to Counter the Global Crisis”, March 25 2009. http://www.embavenez-us.org/factsheet/FS-economic-measures%20Apri2009.pdf
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②WHO,“Closing the Gap in a Generation: Health equity through Action on the Social Determinants of Health”, 2008. http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2008/9789241563703_eng.pdf
①Hugo Chávez,“Speech by President Hugo Chávez, at the Opening of XII G-15 Summit”, Venezuelanalysis.com, March 1 2004. http://www.venezuelanalysis.com/analysis/381
②Hugo Chavez,“South America should be among the new facets of world power”, Embassy of the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela in the United States Press Office, October 6 2008. http://www.embavenez-us.org/news.php?nid=4560
①Hugo Chavez,“South America should be among the new facets of world power”, Presidential Press, Embassy of the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela in the United States Press Office, October 6 2008. http://www.embavenez-us.org/news.php?nid=4560
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①Hugo Chavez,“Capitalism Is Savagery”, Translated by Daniel Morduchowicz, April 10 2005. http://www.zmag.org/znet/viewArticle/6510
①EIA,“Venezuela”. http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/Venezuela/Oil.html
②田春荣:《2006年中国石油进出口状况分析》,《国际石油经济》,2007年第3期。田春荣:《2008年中国石油进出口状况分析》,《国际石油经济》,2009年第3期
①EIA,“Venezuela”. http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/Venezuela/Oil.html
②President Chavez,“South America should be among the new facets of world power”, Embassy of the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela in the United States Press Office, October 6, 2008. http://www.embavenez-us.org/news.php?nid=4560
①Hugo Chavez,“Speech Given by President Hugo Chávez at 60th UN General Assembly”, Translated by Néstor Sánchez, Embassy of the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela to the United States, September 15 2005. http://www.embavenez-us.org/news.php?nid=1745
②委内瑞拉的退出进程尚未结束。世界银行和国际货币基金组织的成员国名单均列有委内瑞拉。
①EIA,“Annual US Imports from Venezuela of Crude Oil and Petroleum Products”, Eia.doe.gov, June 29 2009. http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/dnav/pet/hist/LeafHandler.ashx?n=PET&s=mttimusve1&f=A
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①ABN,“Chávez considers that the economic model transformation can not be postponed”, December 6 2007. http://www.abn.info.ve/go_news5.php?articulo=113471&lee=17
②ABN,“The world needs that the bases of capitalism finally plummet”, October 8 2010. http://www.abn.info.ve/go_news5.php?articulo=152482&lee=17
①ABN,“Venezuela to invest 100 billion dollars in projects in the years to come”, December 31 2008. http://www.abn.info.ve/go_news5.php?articulo=163602&lee=17
①ABN,“President Chavez's Speech at the 15th United Nations Climate Change Conference in Copenhagen”, Translation by Minci, December 18 2009. http://www.abn.info.ve/noticia.php?articulo=212345&lee=17
①Constitución de la República Bolivariana de Venezuela, Tercera edició, Septiembre 2006.
①Constitución de la República Bolivariana de Venezuela, Tercera edició, Septiembre 2006.
②ABN,“After 10 years of Revolution, the most important achievement is socio-political”, February 2 2009. http://www.abn.info.ve/noticia.php?articulo=168076&lee=17
③ABN,“Revolutionary policies have saved thousands of lives and reduced poverty in Venezuela”, October 5 2008. http://www.abn.info.ve/imprimir2.php?articulo=201708
①ABN,“Venezuela sanea las cuencas de sus ríos para reducir escasez de agua”, March 21 2007. http://www.abn.info.ve/reportaje_detalle.php?articulo=454
②WHO,“Closing the Gap in a Generation: Health equity through Action on the Social Determinants of Health”, 2008. http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2008/9789241563703_eng.pdf
③PAHO, Mission Barrio Adentro: The Right to Health and Social Inclusion in Venezuela, Caracas: PAHO/Venezuela, 2006. http://www.paho.org/English/DD/PUB/BA_ENG_TRANS.pdf
④ECLAC,“Social Panorama of Latin America 2009”. http://www.eclac.org/publicaciones/xml/0/37840/PSI2009-Sintesis-Lanzamiento.pdf
⑤ABN,“Equity in income distribution prevails in Venezuela”, January 8 2010. http://www.abn.info.ve/noticia.php?articulo=214427&lee=17
①ECLAC,“Social Panorama of Latin America 2009”. http://www.eclac.org/publicaciones/xml/0/37840/PSI2009-Sintesis-Lanzamiento.pdf
②UNDP,“Human Development Report 2009 (Venezuela)”. http://hdrstats.undp.org/en/countries/country_fact_sheets/cty_fs_VEN.html
①Alice O'Keeffe,“Chávez: From Hero to Tyrant”, Newstatesman.com, July 12 2007. http://www.newstatesman.com/politics/2007/07/chavez-venezuela-caracas-cuba
②El Universal,“21st century socialism is a poverty manufacturer, says opposition leader”, May 16 2007. http://buscador.eluniversal.com/2007/05/16/en_pol_art_21st-century-sociali_16A869983.shtml
③El Universal,“Sidor nationalization shows growing State capitalism”, April 09 2008. http://buscador.eluniversal.com/2008/04/09/en_eco_art_sidor-nationalizati_09A1505687.shtml
④El Universal,“Interview with Jorge Cardinal Urosa Savino, the Archbishop of Caracas”, March 14 2007. http://buscador.eluniversal.com/2007/03/14/en_pol_art_you-can't-make-an-i_14A844677.shtml
①Federico Fuentes,“Venezuela: The Struggle for Industry to Serve People”, Greenleft.org.au, August 29 2008. http://www.greenleft.org.au/2008/765/39466
①James Petras,“Venezuela between Ballots and Bullets”, Counterpunch.org, November 14 2007. http://www.counterpunch.org/petras11142007.html
①Manuel Sanchez,“Venezuela: Confronting capitalism's crisis with more revolution”, links.org.au, March 14 2009. http://links.org.au/node/961.
①Arturo Rosales,“Chávez Sweeps Away Budget Predictions of Venezuela's Opposition”, Venezuelanalysis.com, March 24 2009. http://www.venezuelanalysis.com/analysis/4314
②Manuel Sanchez,“Venezuela: Confronting Capitalism's Crisis with More Revolution”, Links.org.au, March 14 2009. http://links.org.au/node/961
①Gregory Wilpert,“The Meaning of 21st Century Socialism for Venezuela”, Venezuelanalysis.com, July 2006. http://www.venezuelanalysis.com/analysis/1834
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③Constitución de la República Bolivariana de Venezuela, Tercera edició, Septiembre 2006.
①Constitución de la República Bolivariana de Venezuela, Tercera edició, Septiembre 2006.
②Constitución de la República Bolivariana de Venezuela, Tercera edició, Septiembre 2006.
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②Constitución de la República Bolivariana de Venezuela, Tercera edició, Septiembre 2006.
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②Michael McCaughan, The Battle of Venezuela, London: Latin America Bureau, 2003, p. 31.
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②委内瑞拉的退出进程尚未结束。世界银行和国际货币基金组织的成员国名单均列有委内瑞拉。
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①Constitución de la República Bolivariana de Venezuela, Tercera edició, Septiembre 2006.
①Constitución de la República Bolivariana de Venezuela, Tercera edició, Septiembre 2006.
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①ABN,“Venezuela sanea las cuencas de sus ríos para reducir escasez de agua”, March 21 2007. http://www.abn.info.ve/reportaje_detalle.php?articulo=454
②WHO,“Closing the Gap in a Generation: Health equity through Action on the Social Determinants of Health”, 2008. http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2008/9789241563703_eng.pdf
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②El Universal,“21st century socialism is a poverty manufacturer, says opposition leader”, May 16 2007. http://buscador.eluniversal.com/2007/05/16/en_pol_art_21st-century-sociali_16A869983.shtml
③El Universal,“Sidor nationalization shows growing State capitalism”, April 09 2008. http://buscador.eluniversal.com/2008/04/09/en_eco_art_sidor-nationalizati_09A1505687.shtml
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