论北极治理范式及其“阶段性递进”机理
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摘要
北极问题在近年来得到世界各国的广泛关注,很大程度上是由于融冰速度加快所导致的。在自然科学中,北极问题的内涵与外延由地理因素、气候因素和生态因素三个方面所决定。在社会科学中,北极问题的内涵由问题自身的演变过程,问题和议题的互动转换所决定。纵观人类探索地球最北端的历史长河,北极问题在发展的不同阶段,其本质随着外部环境变化而不断更新。从宏观趋势来看,呈现出一种从无序到有序的转变,也突显了“竞争—矛盾—合作”的三步走态势。这些变化与人类的科技发展水平,客观的自然环境与主观的国家战略调整有着紧密的联系。目前,对于北极问题的认识已经基本从冷战时期的敏感区域逐步转变为多边合作的新平台,随着主体的多元化、挑战影响的去边疆化和合作方式的多选项发展,国际社会正积极探索建构以化解矛盾、应对挑战和发掘机遇为目的的北极治理范式。
区域治理范式是北极治理的初级阶段。北极区域治理范式强调区域内部的多元整合、良性互动和价值认同,在指标构成上以域内的客观共性与主观建构、现实联系与潜在纽带、外部挑战与合作性博弈三个层面作为标准。在治理框架上,以制度设计推动域内身份认同和域外利益排他,以环境塑造构建“自主治理”的互动模式。北极渔业治理作为区域治理案例之一,体现了制度设计和环境塑造对于北极区域治理范式的重要性,但也反映出跨区域性和集体原则缺失的制度困境。
多边治理范式是北极治理的中级阶段。北极多边治理范式以“三级主体”和“选择性妥协”为特征建构多层次制度性约束。将《斯瓦尔巴德条约》的“权利分离法”作为参考模式,可以看到权利分离原则对于促进多元行为体展开集体行动的作用,而选择性妥协则有利于普遍性准则的构建。北极航道问题是典型的多边治理案例,反映出多元行为体对于多边制度形成的推动作用,选择性妥协则是保障多边互动有效性的关键。
共生治理范式是北极治理的高级阶段,尚处于概念假设和可行性论证的层面。北极共生治理范式由共生单元和共生模式所构成,目前已经形成以主体共生、挑战共生和责任共生为主的共生单元。如继续按照共生治理的路径推演,建立以“导向介入”和“互补性竞争”为主要特征的共生模式,就可能实现共生发展与进化为终极目标的北极共生治理。目前,这种共生治理关系在实践中仅为一种趋势,在环境保护和气候治理等公共性较强的议题中有所体现,尚难以借助完整的案例加以论证。
总的来看,北极治理范式间存在一种“阶段性递进”关系。由于传统意义上的北极问题以初级的区域治理范式为指导,存在着一定的需求滞后和制度困境,无法适应北极从低等级战略区域转为具有全球属性的非传统区域的治理需求。随着治理主体对于身份观念、同化观念和自律观念的内化程度提高,以及北极物质变量因素中体系取向、权力结构和技术革新的客观发展,目前的北极治理正处于由区域向多边治理的范式递进过程中,而这种递进的趋势是朝着高级阶段的共生治理发展的。在这当中,阶段性递进结构形成的意义和单元关系,以及推动由这种递进发生的必要条件,形成了北极治理的“阶段性递进”机理。
但是,北极治理范式的“阶段性递进”并非单向线性发展,而是取决于以主观意识和主体行为为核心的观念内化程度,以及客观环境为核心的物质变量而波动甚至逆向发展。北极问题和其治理范式的发展趋势存在多种可能性,既有可能转向共生治理阶段,也有可能倒退至区域治理阶段,而这主要取决于影响这种“阶段式递进”进程的要素变量。各国在参与治理的过程中,如何提升自身并促进其他主体的观念内化程度,建构良性的客观物质环境,是促进范式阶段性递进的主要影响因子,也是北极治理的关键所在。
Arctic issues have attracted wide global attention in recent years largely due to the increasing ice-melting rate. Arctic issues consist of geographical, climatic and ecological issues in the region from the perspective of natural sciences; yet in social sciences, such issues are mainly related to the evolution of Arctic governance. During the long history of human exploration of the Earth's northmost region, the nature of Arctic issues has constantly varied with the changing external environment. Broadly speaking, Arctic governance has developed from total disorganization to gradual building of order, demonstrating the three steps from competition to disputes, and to cooperation. Such development is basically a function of the advancement of science and technologies, the changing natural environment as well as the strategic adjustments of related countries. The understanding of Arctic issues has shifted from a sensitive topic to discuss at the time of the Cold War to a new platform for multilateral cooperation today. With the growing number of diversified actors, the increasing trans-border challenges and ever more options for cooperation, the international society is taking strenuous efforts to explore various approaches of Arctic governance so as to resolve disputes, tackle challenges and foster new opportunities.
As the initial stage of Arctic governance, regional governance emphasizes the building of common values as well as positive interaction and integration of different parties within the region. Regional Arctic governance is evaluated by three criteria, namely objective commonality and deliberate construction of values, the actual interaction and potential platforms as well as external challenges and the maneuvers of related parties throughout their cooperation. With regard to the framework of governance, various institutions have been designed to promote common identity and ensure exclusive interests, with growing efforts to shape favorable environment for self-governance within the region. As a typical example, Arctic fishery governance not only manifests the importance of institution designing and environmental shaping, but also reflects a lack of institutions on collective actions and cross-regional interaction up to the present.
The intermediate stage of Arctic governance is multilateral governance, which is characterized by three levels of actors and selective compromise. With a reference to the principle of separation of rights constituted by The Svalbard Treaty, multilateral governance underscores the significance of such principle in promoting collective actions of multiple actors; it also features selective compromise that is conducive to the construction of universal norms. As a typical example, the governance of Arctic sea routes demonstrates the driving forces of multiple actors behind multilateral mechanisms and highlights the key role of selective compromise in maintaining the willingness of multiple actors in their interaction.
As the advanced stage of Arctic governance, symbiotic governance, which is composed of symbiotic units and symbiotic patterns, remains largely in conceptual discussion and theoretical hypotheses. Symbiotic units have been fostered upon symbiotic actors, challenges and responsibilities. Following the path of symbiotic governance, a symbiotic pattern may be developed that features oriented intervention and complementary competition, and the ultimate goal of symbiotic development and co-evolution can be achieved. For now, symbiotic Arctic governance is only an idealistic tendency and can be seen occasionally in such public issues as environmental protection and climate governance; more empirical evidence is yet to be found to enrich related theories.
In general, the three approaches of Arctic governance have demonstrated a staged progression. Due to its institutional deficiencies and inertia, the traditional approach of regional Arctic governance cannot meet the demands of the Arctic today that has transformed from a strategically low-tension region to one with global impacts in many non-traditional issues. With the growing internalization of core ideas by related actors and with the changes of physical variables in the region, Arctic governance is developing from regional to multilateral approaches, showing a tendency toward an even higher stage of symbiotic governance. Thus, the changing relationships among different units, together with the necessary conditions that drive those relationships, are key to observing the mechanism of staged progression.
Nevertheless, such staged progression in Arctic governance does not always appear as linear advancement, but it may fluctuate or even retrogress depending on the level of internalization of core ideas, norms of behaviors of various actors and the changing physical environment. In other words, the future of Arctic issues and governance approaches may unfold different pictures; whether symbiotic governance or regional governance will dominate is mainly a function of those variables that influence the staged progression. How different countries enhance their own ideas and promote the internalization of core ideas of other actors, as well as how they help shape a more favorable physical environments, are key to the successful staged progression in Arctic governance.
区域治理范式是北极治理的初级阶段。北极区域治理范式强调区域内部的多元整合、良性互动和价值认同,在指标构成上以域内的客观共性与主观建构、现实联系与潜在纽带、外部挑战与合作性博弈三个层面作为标准。在治理框架上,以制度设计推动域内身份认同和域外利益排他,以环境塑造构建“自主治理”的互动模式。北极渔业治理作为区域治理案例之一,体现了制度设计和环境塑造对于北极区域治理范式的重要性,但也反映出跨区域性和集体原则缺失的制度困境。
多边治理范式是北极治理的中级阶段。北极多边治理范式以“三级主体”和“选择性妥协”为特征建构多层次制度性约束。将《斯瓦尔巴德条约》的“权利分离法”作为参考模式,可以看到权利分离原则对于促进多元行为体展开集体行动的作用,而选择性妥协则有利于普遍性准则的构建。北极航道问题是典型的多边治理案例,反映出多元行为体对于多边制度形成的推动作用,选择性妥协则是保障多边互动有效性的关键。
共生治理范式是北极治理的高级阶段,尚处于概念假设和可行性论证的层面。北极共生治理范式由共生单元和共生模式所构成,目前已经形成以主体共生、挑战共生和责任共生为主的共生单元。如继续按照共生治理的路径推演,建立以“导向介入”和“互补性竞争”为主要特征的共生模式,就可能实现共生发展与进化为终极目标的北极共生治理。目前,这种共生治理关系在实践中仅为一种趋势,在环境保护和气候治理等公共性较强的议题中有所体现,尚难以借助完整的案例加以论证。
总的来看,北极治理范式间存在一种“阶段性递进”关系。由于传统意义上的北极问题以初级的区域治理范式为指导,存在着一定的需求滞后和制度困境,无法适应北极从低等级战略区域转为具有全球属性的非传统区域的治理需求。随着治理主体对于身份观念、同化观念和自律观念的内化程度提高,以及北极物质变量因素中体系取向、权力结构和技术革新的客观发展,目前的北极治理正处于由区域向多边治理的范式递进过程中,而这种递进的趋势是朝着高级阶段的共生治理发展的。在这当中,阶段性递进结构形成的意义和单元关系,以及推动由这种递进发生的必要条件,形成了北极治理的“阶段性递进”机理。
但是,北极治理范式的“阶段性递进”并非单向线性发展,而是取决于以主观意识和主体行为为核心的观念内化程度,以及客观环境为核心的物质变量而波动甚至逆向发展。北极问题和其治理范式的发展趋势存在多种可能性,既有可能转向共生治理阶段,也有可能倒退至区域治理阶段,而这主要取决于影响这种“阶段式递进”进程的要素变量。各国在参与治理的过程中,如何提升自身并促进其他主体的观念内化程度,建构良性的客观物质环境,是促进范式阶段性递进的主要影响因子,也是北极治理的关键所在。
Arctic issues have attracted wide global attention in recent years largely due to the increasing ice-melting rate. Arctic issues consist of geographical, climatic and ecological issues in the region from the perspective of natural sciences; yet in social sciences, such issues are mainly related to the evolution of Arctic governance. During the long history of human exploration of the Earth's northmost region, the nature of Arctic issues has constantly varied with the changing external environment. Broadly speaking, Arctic governance has developed from total disorganization to gradual building of order, demonstrating the three steps from competition to disputes, and to cooperation. Such development is basically a function of the advancement of science and technologies, the changing natural environment as well as the strategic adjustments of related countries. The understanding of Arctic issues has shifted from a sensitive topic to discuss at the time of the Cold War to a new platform for multilateral cooperation today. With the growing number of diversified actors, the increasing trans-border challenges and ever more options for cooperation, the international society is taking strenuous efforts to explore various approaches of Arctic governance so as to resolve disputes, tackle challenges and foster new opportunities.
As the initial stage of Arctic governance, regional governance emphasizes the building of common values as well as positive interaction and integration of different parties within the region. Regional Arctic governance is evaluated by three criteria, namely objective commonality and deliberate construction of values, the actual interaction and potential platforms as well as external challenges and the maneuvers of related parties throughout their cooperation. With regard to the framework of governance, various institutions have been designed to promote common identity and ensure exclusive interests, with growing efforts to shape favorable environment for self-governance within the region. As a typical example, Arctic fishery governance not only manifests the importance of institution designing and environmental shaping, but also reflects a lack of institutions on collective actions and cross-regional interaction up to the present.
The intermediate stage of Arctic governance is multilateral governance, which is characterized by three levels of actors and selective compromise. With a reference to the principle of separation of rights constituted by The Svalbard Treaty, multilateral governance underscores the significance of such principle in promoting collective actions of multiple actors; it also features selective compromise that is conducive to the construction of universal norms. As a typical example, the governance of Arctic sea routes demonstrates the driving forces of multiple actors behind multilateral mechanisms and highlights the key role of selective compromise in maintaining the willingness of multiple actors in their interaction.
As the advanced stage of Arctic governance, symbiotic governance, which is composed of symbiotic units and symbiotic patterns, remains largely in conceptual discussion and theoretical hypotheses. Symbiotic units have been fostered upon symbiotic actors, challenges and responsibilities. Following the path of symbiotic governance, a symbiotic pattern may be developed that features oriented intervention and complementary competition, and the ultimate goal of symbiotic development and co-evolution can be achieved. For now, symbiotic Arctic governance is only an idealistic tendency and can be seen occasionally in such public issues as environmental protection and climate governance; more empirical evidence is yet to be found to enrich related theories.
In general, the three approaches of Arctic governance have demonstrated a staged progression. Due to its institutional deficiencies and inertia, the traditional approach of regional Arctic governance cannot meet the demands of the Arctic today that has transformed from a strategically low-tension region to one with global impacts in many non-traditional issues. With the growing internalization of core ideas by related actors and with the changes of physical variables in the region, Arctic governance is developing from regional to multilateral approaches, showing a tendency toward an even higher stage of symbiotic governance. Thus, the changing relationships among different units, together with the necessary conditions that drive those relationships, are key to observing the mechanism of staged progression.
Nevertheless, such staged progression in Arctic governance does not always appear as linear advancement, but it may fluctuate or even retrogress depending on the level of internalization of core ideas, norms of behaviors of various actors and the changing physical environment. In other words, the future of Arctic issues and governance approaches may unfold different pictures; whether symbiotic governance or regional governance will dominate is mainly a function of those variables that influence the staged progression. How different countries enhance their own ideas and promote the internalization of core ideas of other actors, as well as how they help shape a more favorable physical environments, are key to the successful staged progression in Arctic governance.
引文
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1 冰帽指覆盖不超过5000平方公里的巨型圆顶状冰。
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1 U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Information Administration, Arctic Oil and Natural Gas Potential, Report, October 2009.
2 该报告所涉及的资源评估包括永久海冰区和水深超过500米的海域,利用现有技术可被开采的油气资源。值得注意的是,并未涉及如煤层气、气体水合物、页岩气和页岩油等非传统资源。
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6 Ibid,pp.112-137.
7 Ibid,pp.138-163.
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4 根据苏联1926年提出的主张,以沿海国领土范围可以达到以东西两端界线为腰,以极点为圆心,以该毗邻国的东西海岸线为底而构成的扇形空间。
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7 Kevin McMahon, Arctic Twilight:Reflections on the Destiny of Canada's Northern Land and People, James Lorimer and Company publishers,1988, pp.22-25.
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3 Kennedy Michael, the Northwest Passage and Canadian Arctic Sovereignty, Santa Crus:GRIN Verlag GmbH, 2013, pp.12-13.
6 Westermeyer William and Shusterich Kurt, United States Arctic Interests:The 1980s and 1990s, New York: Springer-Verlag,2011, pp.7-8.
1 Gunter Weller, National Issues and Research Priorities in the Arctic, report of National Research Council,1985, pp.20-30.
2 U.S. Arctic Research Commission, Arctic Research in a Changing World, Research Report,1991.
3 U.S. Arctic Research Commission, an Arctic Obligation, Research Report,1992.
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5 Conley Heather and Kraut Jamie, U.S. Strategic Interests in the Arctic, Report of the CSIS Europe Program, 2010,pp.25-45.
6 Small Alan, Norway's Arctic Islands, University of Dundee, Department of Geography,1995, pp.17-20.
7 Burr Susan, Norway, A Consistent Polar Nation?, Oslo:Kolofon Press,2003, pp.25-27.
1 Petersen Nikolai, the Arctic as a New Arena for Danish Foreign Policy, Danish Foreign Policy Yearbook,2009.
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6 Manicom James and Lackenbauer Whitney, East Asian states, the Arctic Council and international relations in the Arctic, Lit.Hinw,2013, pp.25-28.
1 Japan Institute of International Affairs, Arctic Governance and Japan's Foreign Strategy, Research report,2012. https://www2.jiia.or.jp/en/pdf/research/2012_arctic_governance/002e-executive_simmery.pdf.
2 Tonami Aki, Japan's Arctic policy:the sum of many parts, Arctic Yearbook,2012, http:/www.academia.edu/2235263/Japans_Arctic_Policy_The_Sum_of_Many_Parts.
3 Park Young Kil, Arctic Prospects and Challenges from a Korean Perspective, East Asia-Arctic Relations: Boundary, Security and International Politics, CIGI, Paper No.3,2013. http://www.cigionline.org/publications/2013/12/arctic-prospects-and-challenges-korean-perspective.
4 Sakhuja Vijay, The Arctic Council:Is there a case for India?, Indian Council of World Affairs,2010, http://www.icwa.in/pdfs/policy%20briefs%20dr.pdf.
1 Watters Stewart and Tonami Aki, Singapore:An Emerging Arctic Actor, Arctic Yearbook 2012, pp.105-114.
2 王鸿刚：“北极将上演争夺战?”,《世界知识》,2004年第22期,第33页。
3 余天颖：“从海洋到海洋——加拿大经营北极地区”,《世界知识》,2006年第23期,第40页。
4 海纳：“北极是谁的?”,《青年科学》,2007年第6期,第20页。
5 赵毅：“争夺北极的新‘冷战’”,《瞭望》,2007年第33期,第10页。
6 李东：“俄北极‘插旗’引燃‘冰地热战’”,《世界知识》,2007年第17期,第20页。
1 郭培清：“北极争夺战”,《海洋世界》,2007年第9期,第15页。
2 刘中民：“北冰洋争夺的三大国际关系焦点”,《世界知识》,2007年第9期,第10页。
3 曾望：“北极争端的历史、现状及前景”,《国际资料信息》,2007年第10期,第34页。
4 郭培清：《北极航道的国际问题研究》,海洋出版社,2009年,第2-3页。
5 白佳玉、李静：“美国北极政策研究”,《中国海洋大学学报(社会科学版)》,2009年第5期。
6 陆俊元：《北极地缘政治与中国应对》,时事出版社,2010年,第7页。
7 曹升生：“加拿大的北极战略”,《国际资料信息》,2010年第7期,第7-10页。
1 程群：“浅议俄罗斯的北极战略及其影响”,《俄罗斯中亚东欧研究》,2010年第1期,第76-84页。
2 何齐松：“气候变化与欧盟的北极战略”,《欧洲研究》,2010年第6期,第59-73页。
3 曹升生：“挪威的北极战略”,《辽东学院学报(社会科学版)》,2011年第6期,第143-147页。
4 杨剑：“北极航道：欧盟的政策目标和外交实践”,《太平洋学报》,2013年第3期,第41-50页。
5 郭培清：“北极很难走通‘南极道路”,《瞭望》,2008年第15期,第64页。
6 郭培清：“摩尔曼斯克讲话与北极合作——北极进入合作时代”,《海洋世界》,2008年第5期,第67页。
7 尹承德：“世界新热点与全球治理新挑战”,《国际问题研究》,2008年第5期,第1-7页。
1 严双伍、李默：“北极争端的症结及其解决路径——公共物品的视角”,《武汉大学学报(哲学社会科学版)》,2009年第6期,第75页。
2 刘惠荣、杨凡：《北极生态保护法律问题研究》,知识产权出版社,2010年,第22-30页。
3 李伟芳、吴迪：“东亚主要国家与发展中的北极理事会关系分析”,《国际展望》,2010年第6期,第14页。
4 北极问题研究编写组：《北极问题研究》,海洋出版社,2011年,第12-30页。
5 王传兴：“论北极地区区域性国际制度的非传统安全特性——以北极理事会为例”,《中国海洋大学学报(社会科学版)》,2011年第3期,第1-6页。
6 夏立平：“北极环境变化对全球安全和中国国家安全的影响”,《世界经济与政治》,2011年第1期,第124页。
7 陈玉刚、陶平国、秦倩：“北极理事会与北极国际合作研究”,《国际观察》,2011年第4期,第17-23页。
1 潘敏、夏文佳：“近年来的加拿大北极政策——兼论中国在努纳武特地区合作的可能性”,《国际观察》,2011年第4期,第24-29页。
2 孙凯、郭培清：“北极治理机制的变迁及中国的参与战略研究”,《世界经济与政治论坛》,2012年第2期,第118-128页。
3 程保志：“北极治理论纲：中国学者的视角”,《太平洋学报》,2012年第10期,第62-71页。
4 吴雪明：“北极治理评估体系的构建思路与基本框架”,《国际关系研究》,2013年第3期,第38页。
5 叶江：“试论北极区域原住民非政府组织在北极治理中的作用与影响”,《西南民族大学学报(人文社会科学版)》,2013年第7期,第21-26页。
6 赵隆：“从渔业问题看北极治理的困境与路径”,《国际问题研究》,2013年第4期,第69-82页。
1 [美]不列颠百科全书公司编著,国际中文版编辑部编译：《不列颠百科全书》,中国大百科全书出版社,2007年,第255页。
1 Arctic Climate Assessment Programme, Assessment Report, Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2005, Chapter 2.
2 等温线指同一水平面上空气温度相同各点的连线,等温线曲线的分布受海陆、地势、洋流等因素的影响。
3 Linell Kenneth and Tedrow John, Soil and permafrost surveys in the Arctic, Oxford:Clarendon Press,1981, p.279.
4 Stonehouse Bernard, Polar Ecology, London:Springer,2013, p.222.
5 Arctic Climate Assessment Programme, Assessment Report, Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2005, Chapter 2.
6 Stonehouse Bernard, Polar Ecology, London:Springer,2013, p.223.
7 永久冻土带是地质学概念,指冻土层(Tundra)处于0摄氏度以下超过两年的状况。
1 Ives Jack and Barry Roger eds., Arctic and Alpine Environments, London:Methuen,1974, pp.1-13.
1 Arctic Climate Impact Assessment, Scientific Report, Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2005.
2 The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration,www.lme.noaa.gov/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=47&Itemid=41.
1 FAO, the State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2012, http://www.fao.org/docrep/016/i2727e/i2727e.pdf.
2 Linell Kenneth and Tedrow John, Soil and permafrost surveys in the Arctic, Oxford:Clarendon Press,1981, p.279.
3 Stonehouse Bernard, Polar Ecology, London:Springer,2013, p.222.
1 张侠：“北极地区人口数量、组成与分布”,《世界地理研究》,2008年第4期,第132-141页。
2 Lewinski Silke Von, Indigenous Heritage and Intellectual Property:Genetic Resources, Traditional Knowledge, and Folklore, Kluwer Law International,2004, pp.130-131.
1 Hitchcock Robert and Vinding Diana, Indigenous Peoples'Rights in Southern Africa, IWGIA,2004. p.8.
2 Nordic Council of Ministers, Arctic Social Indicators:a Follow-up to the Arctic Human Development Report, 2010, http://www.norden.org/en/publications/publikationer/2010-519.
3 Arctic Council, Sustainable Development Working Group, The Arctic Human Development Report,2004 http://www.svs.is/ahdr/.
1 张侠：“北极地区人口数量、组成与分布”,《世界地理研究》,2008年第4期,第132-141页。
2 Koivurova Timo, Indigenous Peoples in the Arctic, Arctic Centre,2008, http://www.arctic-transform.eu.
1 陆俊元：《北极地缘政治与中国应对》,时事出版社,2010年,第3页。
1 Nuttall Mark and Callaghan Terry, the Arctic:Environment. People. Policy, Amsterdam:Harwood Academic Publishers,2000, pp.601-620.
2 Young Oran, Governing the Arctic:From Cold War Theater to Mosaic of Cooperation, Global Governance, Vol.11, No.l,2005, pp.9-15.
3 Gorbachev Mikhail, Speech in Murmansk in at the Ceremonial Meeting on the Occasion of the presentation of the order of Lenin and the Gold Star to the City of Murmansk,1987, http://teacherweb.com/FL/CypressBayHS/JJolley/Gorbachev_speech.pdf.
4 Keskitalo Carina, International Region Building:Development of the Arctic as an International Region, Cooperation and Conflict, Vol.42, No.2,2007, p.195.
1 Joshi Mohan, International Business, New Delhi and New York:Oxford University Press,2009, p.31.
2 International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook 1997, http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/weo1097/weocon97.htm.
3 该报告所涉及的资源评估包括永久海冰区和水深超过500米的海域,利用现有技术可被开采的油气资源。值得注意的是,并未涉及如煤层气、气体水合物、页岩气和页岩油等非传统资源。
4 U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey, Circum-Arctic Resource Appraisal:Estimates of Undiscovered Oil and Gas North of the Arctic Circle May 2008.
1 Financial Times Research, Hard to Reach:Prospecting for oil and gas in the Arctic,2012, http://im.ft-static.com/content/images/68413922-f6b7-11e1-827f-0144feabdc0.img?width=850&height=782&titl e=&desc=Arctic-oil-graphic
1 United Nations, UN and Climate Change, http://www.un.org/zh/climatechange/regional.shtml.
2 National Snow and Ice Data Center, Arctic Sea Ice Extent 2014,http://nsidc.org/arcticseaicenews/.
1 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Climate Change 2013:the Physical Science Basis,2014, https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar5/wgl/.
1 National Snow and Ice Data Center, Arctic Sea Ice Extent 2014, Research report, http://nsidc.org/arcticseaicenews/.
3 杨洁勉：《世界气候外交和中国的应对》,时事出版社,2009年,第210页。
1 Geoffrey Till, Sea Power:a Guide for the Twenty-first Century, Portland:Frank Cass,2003, p.116.
2 赵隆：“海洋治理中的制度设计：反向建构的过程”,《国际关系学院学报》,2012年第3期,第36-42页。
1 Arctic Climate Impact Assessment, Policy Document, http://www.acia.uaf.edu/PDFs/ACIAPolicyDocument.pdf.
2 OECD, Strengthening Regional Fisheries Management Organizations,2009, p.17, http://browse.oecdbookshop.org/oecd/pdfs/product/5309031e.pdf.
1 赵隆：“议题设定和全球治理—危机中的价值观碰撞”,《国际论坛》,2011年第4期,第21-29页。
1 加拿大这一主张的根本考虑在于,由于《联合国海洋法公约》将内水认定为一国领土的一部分,并禁止外国船舶的无害通过权,加希望以此来拓展其对于西北航道的完全司法管辖,拓展自身权力范围。这种主张遭到多国的反对。
2 2013年5月15日,加拿大在北极理事会部长级会议上反对欧盟成为观察员,并提出需要欧盟对加拿大的海豹制品禁运取消后,才接受欧盟的再次申请。该消息经笔者与挪威驻沪总领事欧阳文((?)yvind Stokke座谈后得到证实。
3 赵隆：“全球治理中的议题设定：要素互动与模式适应”,《国际关系研究》,2013年第4期,第45-50页。
1 Treaty between Norway, The United States of America, Denmark, France, Italy, Japan, the Netherlands, Great Britain and Ireland and the British overseas Dominions and Sweden concerning Spitsberge signed in Paris 9th February 1920,http://dianawallismep.org.uk/en/document/spitsbergen-treaty-booklet.pdf.
2 Brooks Brian, News Reporting and Writing, Tenth Edition, Bedford:Missouri Group,2010, p.27.
3 Cohen Bernard, the Press and Foreign Policy, Princeton:Princeton University Press,1993. p.10.
1 俞可平：《治理与善治》,社会科学文献出版社,2000年,第245页。
1 Rowe Elana, Policy Aims and Political Realities in the Russian North, in Rowe Elana ed., Russia and the North, Ottawa:University of Ottawa Press,2009, p.2.
UN, United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, http://www.un.org/depts/los/convention_agreements/texts/unclos/UNCLOS-TOC.htm.
1 National Security Decision Directive (NSDD-90), United States Arctic Policy, April 14,1983, http:// www.fas.org/irp/offdocs/nsdd/nsdd-090.htm.
2 Presidential Decision Directive/National Security Council (PDD/NSC-26), United States Policy on the Arctic and Antarctic Regions, June 9,1994, http://www.fas.org/irp/offdocs/pdd/pdd-26.pdf.
3 National Security Presidential Directive and Homeland Security Presidential Directive, NSPD-66/HSPD-25, https://www.fas.org/irp/offdocs/nspd/nspd-66.htm.
4 The White House, National Strategy for Arctic Region, http://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/docs/nat_arctic_strategy.pdf.
5 Nides Thomas, The Future of the Arctic, remarks at the Arctic Imperative Summit, Alaska, August 26,2012, http://www.state.gov/s/dmr/former/nides/remarks/2012/197643.htm.
1 Government of Canada, Canada's Northern Strategy:Our North, Our Heritage, Our Future:Canada's Northern Strategy,2009, http://www.northernstrategy.gc.ca/index-eng.asp.
2 唐国强：“北极问题与中国的政策”,《国际问题研究》,2013年第1期,第15页。
3 Government of Canada, Statement on Canada's Arctic Foreign Policy:Exercising Sovereignty and Promoting Canada's Northern Strategy,2010, http://www.in ternational.gc.ca/arctic-arctique/assets/pdfs/canada_arc tic_foreign_policy-eng.pdf.
4 Griffiths Franklyn, Huebert Rob and Lackenbauer Whitney, Canada and the Changing Arctic Sovereignty, Security, and Stewardship, Wilfrid:Laurier University Press,2011, pp.13-15.
1 Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, The Norwegian Government's High North Strategy,2006, http://www.regj eringen.no/upload/UD/Vedlegg/strategien.pdf.
2 Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, New building blocks in the north-The next step in the government's high north strategy,2009, http://www.regjeringen.no/upload/UD/Vedlegg/Nordomradene/new_building_blocks_in_the_north.pdf.
3 Treaty between the Kingdom of Norway and the Russian Federation concerning Maritime Delimitation and Cooperation in the Barents Sea and the Arctic Ocean, http://www.regj eringen.no/upload/ud/vedlegg/folkerett/avtale_engelsk.pdf.
4 Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, The Arctic:Major Opportunities-Major Responsibilities,2013, http://www.regjeringen.no/nb/dep/ud/aktuelt/taler artikler/taler_og_artikler_av_ovrig_politisk_lede/ins_taler/2014 /arctic-dialogue.html?id=753638.
5 Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark, Kingdom of Denmark Strategy for the Arctic 2011-2020, http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/policies/raw-materials/files/docs/mss-denmark_en.pdf.
6 丹麦为欧盟成员,而其自治领土格陵兰和法罗群岛均不具备此身份。格陵兰的外交政策虽然由丹麦代管,但丹麦须考虑与欧盟政策的一致性。在北极问题上,可能与格陵兰在利益诉求上产生一定的差异性。
1 该观点根据笔者2014年与丹麦外交部北极事务大使埃里克·罗伦岑(Erik Lorenzen)、格陵兰外交部副部长凯·安徒生(Kai Andersen)座谈归纳整理。
2 Arctic Council, Marine Shipping Assessment, The Future of Arctic Marine Navigation in Mid-Century,2008, http:/www.institutenorth.org/servlet/content/reports.html.
1 郭培清：《北极航道的国际问题研究》,海洋出版社,2009年,第24页。
3 FAO, FAO Yearbook, Fishery and Aquaculture Statistics 2011, http://www.fao.org/docrep/019/i3507t/i3507t00.htm.
4 Stephan Macko, Potential change in the Arctic environment:not so obvious implications for fisheries, http://doc.nprb.org/web/nprb/afs 2009/IAFS%20Presentations/Day1_2009101909/IAFS Macko EnvironmentalI mplicationsForFisheries_101909.pdf.
1 Molenaar Erik and Corell Robert, Background Paper Arctic Fisheries, Ecologic Institute EU,2009, p.28.
2 Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark, Kingdom of Denmark Strategy for the Arctic 2011-2020, http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/policies/raw-materials/files/docs/mss-denmark_en.pdf.
3 根据《联合国海洋法公约规定》,外国船只有权在某国领海进行无害通过,也就是不损害沿海国的和平、安全和良好秩序的通过。
4 Yenikeyeff Shamil and Kresiek Timothy, the Battle for the Next Energy Frontier:The Russian Polar Expedition and the Future of Arctic Hydrocarbons, Oxford Institute for Energy Studies,2007, p.12.
1 Dosman Edgar, Sovereignty and Security in the Arctic, London and New York:Routledge,1989, p.9
2 Ibid, p.24.
3 National Security Decision Directive, NSDD-90, United States Arctic Policy, April 14,1983, http:// www.fas.org/irp/offdocs/nsdd/nsdd-090.htm.
'Statistics Norway, Statistical Yearbook of Norway 2013, https://www.ssb.no/en/befolkning/artikler-og-publikasjoner/statistical-yearbook-of-norway-2013.
1 Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Norway, The Norwegian Government's High North Strategy, http://www.regjeringen.no/upload/UD/Vedlegg/strategien.pdf.
2 Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark, Kingdom of Denmark Strategy for the Arctic 2011-2020. http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/policies/raw-materials/files/docs/mss-denmark en.pdf.
1 该结论根据2013年笔者与丹麦、挪威驻华大使的交流座谈中获得对方证实。
1 Achibani, Localism:A Philosophy of Government (New edition), The Ridge Publishing Group,2013.
2 Russett Bruce, International Regions and the International System. A Study in Political Ecology, Chicago:Rand and McNally,1967.;Cantori Louis and Spiegel Steven, International Regions:A Comparative to Five Subordinate Systems, International Studies Quarterly Vol.13, No.4,1969, pp.361-380; Cantori Louis and Spiegel Steven eds., the International Politics of Regions. A Comparative Approach, Englewood Cliffs:Prentice-Hall,1970.
1 Nye Joseph, Peace in Parts. Integration and Conflict in Regional Organization, Boston:Little, Brown and Company,1971, p.7.
2 Nikki Slocum and Luk Van Langenhove, The Meaning of Regional Integration:Introducing Positioning Theory in Regional Integration Studies, Journal of European Integration, Vol.26, No.3,2004, pp.227-252.
3 Ibid., pp.230.
4 Edward Mansfield and Etel Solingen, Regionalism, Annual Review of Political Science, Vol.13, No.1,2010 pp.145-163.
5 卢光盛：《地区主义与东盟经济合作》,上海辞书出版社,2008年,第12页。
1 Masters Roger, A Multi-Bloc Model of the International System, The American Political Science Review, Vol. 55, No.4,1961, pp.780-798.
1 Camroux David, Return to the Future of a Sino-Indic Asian Community, The Pacific Review, Vol.30, No.4, 2007, pp.551-575.
3 Schulzetal Michael eds., Regionalization in Globalizing World, Zed Book,2001, pp.22-23.
1 Mitrany David, the Functional approach to World Organization, International Affairs, Vol.24, No.3,1948, p. 359.
2 Wallace William ed., the Dynamics of European Integration, London:Printer,1990, p.285.
1 Haas Ernst, The Obsolescence of Regional Integration Theory, Berkeley:University of California,1975, p.124.
2 丁斗：《东亚地区的次区域经济合作》,北京大学出版社，2001年，第39页。
3 Norman Palmer, New Regionalism in Asia and the Pacific, The Free Press,1991, p.225.
4 Michael Burgess, Federalism and European Union:Political Ideas, Influences and Strategies in the European Community.1972-1987, Routledge,1989, p.51.
1 Louise Fawcett and Andrew Hurrell eds.. Regionalism in World Politics, Oxford University Press, pp.37-73.
2 Werner Feld and Gavin Boyd, eds., Comparative Regional Systems, Oxford:Pergamon Press,1979, p.472.
3 宿景祥：《亚洲意识与东亚经济合作》,时事出版社,2002年,第537-552页。
1 Russett Bruce, International Regions and the International System:A Study in Political Ecology. Chicago:Rand McNally,1967, pp.252.
2 Hurrell Andrew and Fawcett Louise eds., Regionalism in World Politics. Regional Organization and International Order, Oxford University Press,1995, p.129.
3 Soderbaum Frederik and Shaw Thimothy eds., Theories of New Regionalism, New York, Palgrave Macmillan, 2003, pp.28-29.
4 Mittelman James, the Globalization Syndrome:Transformation and Resistance, Princeton University Press, 2000, pp.25-28.
1 优惠贸易安排是经济一体化较低级和松散的一种形式,指在实行优惠贸易安排的成员国间,通过协议或其他形式,对全部商品或部分商品规定特别的优惠关税。
1 区域内聚性是区域内国家与域外国际社会间相互协调处理跨区域政策事务、区域间互动关系有组织化的内在因素。
1 Koremenos Barbara, Lipson Charles and Snidal Duncan.The Rational Design of International Institutions, International Organization, Vol.55, No.4,2001,pp.761-799.
2 Coglianese Cary, Globalization and the Design of International Institutions, Nye Joseph and Donahue John eds. Governance in a Globalizing World, Brookings Institution Press,2000, pp.297-318. Alexander Wendt, Driving with the Rearview Mirror:On the Rational Science of Institutional Design, International Organization, Vol.55, No.4,2001, pp.1019-1049. John Duffield, The limits of Rational Design, International Organization, Vol.57, No.2, 2003, pp.411-428.
3 Tallberg Jonas, The Design of International Institutions:Legitimacy, Effectiveness, and Distribution in Global Governance, Collaborative Project at Stockholm University, Funded by the European Research Council forthe Period 2009-2013.
4 朱杰进：“国际制度设计中的规范与理性”,《国际观察》,2008年第4期,第53-39页。
1 笔者将北极理事会奠基文件《北极环境保护宣言》的签署地芬兰罗瓦涅米,以及北冰洋外长机制奠基文件《伊卢丽萨特宣言》的签署地格陵兰伊卢利萨特归纳为两种不同的机制进程。
2 Declaration On The Protection Of Arctic Environment, http://iea.uoregon.edu/pages/view_treaty.php?t=1991-DeclarationProtectionArcticEnvironment.EN.txt&par=view_treaty_html.
1 Nuuk Declaration 2011 of Arctic Council, http://www.arctic-council.org/index.php/en/document-archive/category/5-declarations?download=37:nuuk-declara tion-2011.
2 Senior Arctic Officials Report to Ministers, May 2011, http://Arctic-council.npolar.no/accms/export/sites/default/en/meetings/2011-nuuk-ministerial/docs/SAO Report to_Ministers_-_Nuuk_Ministerial_Meeting_May_2011.pdf.
1 Senior Arctic Officials Report to Ministers, May 2011, http://Arctic-council.npolar.no/accms/export/sites/default/en/meetings/2011-nuuk-ministerial/docs/SAO_Report_to Ministers_-_Nuuk_Ministerial_Meeting_May_2011.pdf.
2 Arctic Ocean Conference, The Ilulissat Declaration,2008, http://www.oceanlaw.org/downloads/arctic/Ilulissat_Declaration.pdf.
1 Government of Canada, Statement on Canada's Arctic Foreign Policy:Exercising Sovereignty and Promoting Canada's Northern Strategy,2010, http://www.international.gc.ca/arctic-arctique/assets/pdfs/canada_arctic_foreign_policy-eng.pdf.
1 这一理论认为,由于组织成员之间以及组织成员与公共资源之间利益的高度相关性,他们比任何外部的权力中心更关心资源的良性发展和存续问题,以及如何对公共资源进行治理才能保证这种良性发展和存续的实现,这种多中心的自主制度是解决“公地困境”的最好选择。
2 [美]埃莉诺·奥斯特罗姆著,徐逊达译：《公共事物的治理之道——集体行动制度的演进》,上海三联书店,2000年,第51页。
3 Anderies John, Janssen Marco and Ostrom Elinor, A Framework to Analyze the Robustness of Social-ecological Systems from an Institutional Perspective, Ecology And Society, Vol.9, No.1,2004, p.l 8.
1 Buck Susan, Book Reviews on Elinor Ostrom's Governing the Commons:The Evolution of Institutions for Collective Action, Natural Resources Journal, Vol.32, No.2,1992, pp.415-417.
2 Ostrom Elinor, Understanding Institutional Diversity, Princeton NJ:Princeton University Press,2005, pp.35-37.
3 Rudloff Bettina, The EU as Fishing Actor in the Arctic:Stocktaking of institutional involvement and existing conflicts, Working Paper, German Institute for International and Security Affairs SWP,2010, http://www.swp-berlin.org/fileadmin/conten ts/products/arbeitspapiere/Rff_WP_2010_02_ks.pdf.
4 Arctic Climate Impact Assessment, Scientific Report, Cambridge et al.:Cambridge University Press,2005, p.11.
5 NOOA, http://www.lme.noaa.gov/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=47&Itemid=41.
1 FAO, Fishstat software, http://www.fao.org/fishery/publications/yearbooks/en.
1 Asche Frank and Smith Martin, Trade and Fisheries:Key Issues for the World Trade, Staff Working Paper ERSD,2010,p.3.
2 FAO, Fishery and Aquaculture Statistics Yearbook,2011, p.19, http://www.fao.org/docrep/019/i3507t/i3507t00.htm.
3 OECD, Strengthening Regional Fisheries Management Organizations, OECD Publishing,2009, p.17.
Rudloff Bettina, The EU as Fishing Actor in the Arctic:Stocktaking of Institutional Involvement and Existing Conflicts, Working Paper, German Institute for International and Security Affairs SWP,2010, p.5.
2 [英]罗伯特·詹宁斯、亚瑟·瓦茨著,王铁崖等译：《奥本海国际法》,中国大百科全书出版社,1998年,第182页。
Stephan Macko, Potential change in the Arctic environment:Not so obvious implications for fisheries. William W.L.Chueung, Climate change and Arctic Fish Stocks:Now and Future. Reports of International Arctic Fisheries Symposium,2009, http://www.nprb.org/iafs2009/.
1 Molenaar Erik and Corell Robert, Background Paper Arctic Fisheries, Ecologic Institute EU,2009, p.12.
2 VanderZwaag David, Koivurova Timo and Molenaar Erik, Canada, the EU and Arctic Ocean Governance:a Tangled and Shifting Seascape and Future Directions, Journal of Transnational Law and Policy, Vol.18, No.2, 2009,p.247.
3 联合国环境规划署：《全球环境展望年鉴》,中国环境出版社,2006年,第70页。
4 Stokke Olav, Barents Sea Fisheries:the IUU struggle, Arctic Review on Law and Politics, Vol.1, No.2, 2010,pp.207-224.
3 WWF, the Barents Sea Cod-the Last of the Large Cod Stocks,2004, http://wwf.panda.org/?uNewsID=12982.
1 International Council for the Exploration of the Sea, Catch Statistics 2010, http://www.ices.dk/marine-data/dataset-collections/Pages/Fish-catch-and-stock-assessment.aspx.
2 Stokke Olav, Barents Sea Fisheries:the IUU struggle, Arctic Review on Law and Politics, Vol.1, No.2,2010, pp.207-224.
3 Erceg Diane, Deterring IUU Fishing through State Control over Nationals, Marine Policy, Vol.30, No.2,2006, pp.173-179.
4 Ibid., p.174.
1 Arctic Council, Arctic Marine Shipping Assessment Report,2009, www.nrf.is/index.php/news/15-2009/60-Arctic-marine-shipping-assessment-report-2009.
2 Mann K.H., Environmental influences on fish and shellfish production in the Northwest Atlantic, Environmental Reviews, Vol.2, No.1,1994, pp.16-32.
3 冷池是气象学中的概念,主要指相对的冷空气区域范围。
4 Wyllie-Echeverriat Tina and Wooster W.S., Year-to-year variations in Bering Sea ice cover and some consequences for fish distributions, Fisheries Oceanography, Vol.7, No.2,2002, pp.159-170.
5 WTO Dispute Settlements, European Communities—Anti-Dumping Measure on Farmed Salmon from Norway (DS337),See:http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/dispu_e/cases_e/ds337_e.htm.
WTO Dispute Settlements, European Communities—Definitive Safeguard Measure on Salmon (DS328), See:http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/dispu_e/cases_e/ds328_e.htm.
1 渔船监测系统是一项渔业监视计划,渔船上安装的设备能够提供渔船位置和活动的信息。它有别于传统的监测方法,如海面和空中巡视、船上观察员、航海日志或码头审查。
2 Chadwick Bruce, Fisheries, Sovereignties and Red Herrings, Journal of International Affairs, Vol.48, No.2, 1995, pp.558-584.
1 Jabour Julia and Weber Melissa, Is it Time to Cut the Gordian Knot of Polar Sovereignty?, Reciel, Vol.17, No.1, 2008, pp.29-33.
2 许立阳：《国际海洋渔业资源法研究》,中国海洋大学出版社,2008年,第135页。
3 Burke William, The New International Law of Fisheries:UNCLOS 1982 and Beyond, Oxford:Clarendon,1994, pp.34-37.
4 苏长和：《全球公共问题与国际合作：一种制度的分析》,上海人民出版社,2000年,第113-116页。
5 严双伍、李默：“北极争端的症结及其解决路径——公共物品的视角”,《武汉大学学报(哲学社科版)》,2009年第6期,第75页。
6 联合国：《联合国海洋法公约》,“公海上捕鱼的权利”,第116条,http://www.un.org/zh/law/sea/los/.
1 FAO, Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries, http://www.fao.org/docrep/005/v9878c/v9878c00.HTM.
2 国际海洋法庭根据《联合国海洋法公约》,对于两种情况具有强制性管辖权：关于迅速释放船只和船员的程序(《公约》第292条)和在组成仲裁法庭之前制定临时措施的程序(《公约》第290条第5款),详见https://www.itlos.org/fileadmin/itlos/documents/brochure/ITLOS_Brochure_chinese.pdf.
3 2010年5月6日,国际海底管理局理事会决定请海底争端分庭就“区域”内活动的个人和实体的担保国的责任和义务提出咨询意见。“区域”系指《联合国海洋法公约》确立的国家管辖范围以外海床洋底及其底土。《公约》宣布,“区域”及其资源是人类共同继承财产。“区域”内的资源,例如多金属结核和多金属硫化物,由国际海底管理局管理。
1 United Nations, Agreement for the Implementation of the Provisions of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982 relating to the Conservation and management of Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks, http://www.un.org/depts/los/convention_agreements/texts/fish_stocks_agreement/CONF164_37.htm.
2 许立阳：《国际海洋渔业资源法研究》,中国海洋大学出版社,2008年,第107页。
1 AGP International Steering Committee:The Arctic Governance Project, Arctic Governance in an Era of Transformative Change:Critical Questions, Governance Principles, Ways Forward,2010, p.12.
1 Caporaso James, International Relations Theory and Multilateralism:The Search for Foundations, International Organization, Vol.46, No.3,1992, pp.600-601.
2 Kahler Miles, Multilateralism with Small and Large Numbers, International Organization, Vol.46, No.3,1992, p.681.
3 Keohane Robert, Multilateralism:An Agenda for Research, International Journal, Vol.45, No.3,1990, p.731.
4 Ruggie John, Multilateralism:The Anatomy of an Institution, International Organization, Vol.46, No.3,1992, pp.66-68.
1 [美]约翰·鲁杰著,苏长河等译：《多边主义》,浙江人民出版社,2003年,第13页。
2 Caporaso James, International Relations Theory and Multilateralism:The Search for Foundations, International Organization, Vol.46, No.3,1992, pp.600-601.
3 Hemmer Christopher and Katzenstein Peter, Why Is There No NATO in Asia? Collective Identity, Regionalism, and the Origins of Multilateralism, International Organization, Vol.56, No.3,2002, pp.575-576.
4 Ruggie John, Third Try at World Order? America and Multilateralism After the Cold War, Political Science Quarterly, Vol.109, No.4,1994, p.556.
5 Ruggie John, Multilateralism:The Anatomy of an Institution, International Organization, Vol.46, No.3,1992, p.574.
1 Keohane Robert, Reciprocity in International Relations, International Organization, Vol.40, No.1,1986, p.20.
2 Ibid., pp.21-22.
1 Morgenthau Hans, Politics among Nations,6th Edition, New York:Knopf:Random House,1985, pp.451-500.
2 秦亚青：“多边主义研究：理论与方法”,《世界经济与政治》,2001年第10期,第20页。
1 Keohane Robert, Governance in Partially Globalized World, The American Political Science Review, Vol.95, No.1,2001, p.1-13.
2 Commission on Global Governance, Our Global Neighborhood, Oxford University Press,1995, pp.2-3.
1 Kahler Miles, Multilateralism with Small and Large Numbers, International Organization, Vol.46, No.3,1992, pp.681-708.
2 Zacher Mark, Multilateralism Organizations and the Institution of Multilateralism:The Development of Regimes for the Non-Terrestrial Spaces, in Ruggie Gerard, Multilateralism Matters:The Theory and Praxis of an Institutional Form, Columbia University Press,1993, pp.399-442.
3 Kratchwil Friedrich and Ruggie Gerard, International Organization:A State of the Art on an Art of the State, International Organization, Vol.40, No.4,1986, p.770.
1 Van Oudenaren John, What Is'Multilateral'?, Policy Review, No.117,2003, pp.39-42.
2 Ruggie John, Multilateralism:The Anatomy of an Institution, International Organization, Vol.46, No.3,1992, p.572.
3 Kal Raustiala, Sovereignty and Multilateralism, Chicago Journal of international Law, Vol.1, No.2,2000, p. 402.
1 加权投票制度指按照会员国缴纳会费的额度来决定,缴纳会费越多其相应的投票加权就越大。
2 Brenner Michael ed., Multilateralism and Western Strategy, Palgrave Macmillan,1994, pp.217-220.
1 Sewell James ed., Multilateralism in Multinational Perspective, St. Martin's Press,2000, pp.175-189.
2 Ibid, pp.114-144.
3 Martin Lisa, Multilateral Organizations after the U.S.-lraq War of 2003, p.40, http://fiIes.wcfia.harvard.edu/747_Multilateral_organizations.pdf.
1 [英]戴维·赫尔德著,胡伟等译：《民主与全球秩序——从现代国家到世界主义治理》,上海人民出版社,2003年,第5页。
2 参见陆俊元：《北极地缘政治与中国应对》,时事出版社,2010年；柳思思：“近北极机制的提出与中国参与北极”,《社会科学》,2012年第10期。
2 合作剩余指合作者通过合作所得到的纯收益,也就是扣除合作成本后的收益(包括减少损失额),相较于不合作或竞争所能得到的纯收益即扣除竞争成本后的收益(也包括减少损失额)之间的差额。
1 Borgerson Scott, Arctic Meltdown, Foreign Affairs, Vol.87, No.2,2008, pp.63-77.
1 Nordquist Myron and Heidar Tomas, Changes in the Arctic Environmental and the Law of the Sea, Brill 2010, p.552-553.
2 Avango Dag and Hacquebord Louwrens, Between Markets and Geopolitics:Natural Resource Exploitation on Spitsbergen From 1600 to the Present Day, Polar Record Vol.47, No.1,2011, pp.30-32.
3 Ibid, p.32.
1 Wrakberg Urban, Nature Conservationism and the Arctic Commons of Spitsbergen 1900-1920. Acta Borealia, Vol.23, No.1,2006, pp.7-8.
2 (?)ystein Jensen and Rottem Svein, The Politics of Security and International Law in Norway's Arctic Waters, Polar Record, Vol.46, No.1,2010, p.79.
1 Molenaar Erik, Corell Robert, Koivurova Timo and Cavalieri Sandra, Introduction to the Background Papers, Arctic Transform,2008, p.17. www.arctic-tranform.eu.
1 Treaty Between Norway, The United States of America, Denmark, France, Italy, Japan, the Netherlands, Great Britain and Ireland and the British overseas Dominions and Sweden concerning Spitsbergen signed in Paris 9th February 1920, http://www.ub.uio.no/ujur/ulovdata/lov-19250717-011-eng.pdf.
2 ?ystein Jensen and Rottem Svein, The Politics of Security and International Law in Norway's Arctic Waters, Polar Record, Vol.46, No.1,2010, pp.75-83.
3 Torbj?rn Pedersen, Denautical milesark's Policies Toward the Svalbard Area, Ocean Development and International Law, Vol.40, No.4,2009, pp.319-332.
1 Nordauist Mvron and Heidar Tomas. Changes in the Arctic Environmental and the Law of the Sea. Brill 2010. n 555-556.
2 Torbj?rn Pedersen, the Svalbard Continental Shelf Controversy:Legal Disputes and Political Rivalries. Ocean Development and International Law, Vol.37, No.2,2006, pp.339-358.
3 Figenschou Raaen, Hydrocarbons and Jurisdictional Disputes in the High North:Explaining the Rationale of Norway's High North Policy. Fridtjof Nansen Institute,2008, p80.
4 Torbj?rn Pedersen, the Svalbard Continental Shelf Controversy:Legal Disputes and Political Rivalries. Ocean Development and International Law, Vol.37, No.2,2006, pp.339-358.
5 Ibid,p.345.
6 Ibid,p.350.
1 边缘海又称陆缘海(Marginal Sea),是位于大陆和大洋的边缘的海洋。其一侧以大陆为界,另一侧以半岛、岛屿或岛弧与大洋分隔。
2 陆间海也称地中海或自然内海,在海洋学上指具有海洋的特质,但被陆地环绕,形成一个形似湖泊但具海洋特质的海洋,一般与大洋之间仅以较窄的海峡相连。
1 ?streng Willy.The International Northern Sea Route Programme:Applicable Lessons Learned, Polar Record, Vol.42, No.1,2006, pp.71-81.
1 Northern Sea Route Information Office, http://www.arctic-lio.com/NSR.
2 Northern Sea Route Information Office, http://arctic-lio.com/images/nsr/nsr_1020x631.jpg.
1 Kolodkin A.L. and Volosov M.E., The Legal Regime of the Soviet Arctic:Major Issues, Marine policy, Vol.14, No.2,1990,pp.158-169.
2 郭培清、管清蕾：“探析俄罗斯对北方海航道的控制问题”,《中国海洋大学学报(社会科学版)》,2010年第2期,第7页。
3 Franckx Erik, Maritime Claims in the Arctic:Canadian and Russian Perspectives, Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1993, pp.156.
1 Northern Sea Route Information Office, Transit Statistics, http://www.arctic-lio.com/nsr_transits.
" Kramer Andrew and Revkin Andrew, Arctic Shortcut Beckons Shippers as ice Thaws, New York Times, September 11,2009, http://www.nytimes.com/2009/09/11/science/earth/11passage.html?_r=l.
3 Northern Sea Route Information Office, NSR Transit 2013, http://www.arctic-lio.com/docs/nsr/transits/Transits_2013_final.pdf.
1 Wilson K.J., Falkingham J., Melling H. and De Abreu R., Shipping in the Canadian Arctic:Other Possible Climate Change Scenarios, in International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium,20-24 September 2004, Anchorage, Alaska, Proceedings, vol.3, IEEE International, New York,2004, pp. 1853-1856.http://arctic.noaa.gov/detect/KW IGARSS04 NWP.pdf.
2 张侠：“北极航道海运货流类型及其规模研究”,《极地研究》,2013年第2期,第25页。
1 无害通过权不包括涉及科研、捕鱼、间谍侦察、走私、污染和武器试验等活动。
2 ?streng Willy, The Ignored Arctic, Northern Perspectives, Vol.27, No.2,2002, pp.1-17.
3 张侠：“北极航线的海运经济潜力评估及其对我国经济发展的战略意义”,《中国软科学》,2009年第2期,第35页。
1 [英]罗伯特·詹宁斯、亚瑟·瓦茨著,王铁崖等译：《奥本海国际法》,中国大百科全书出版社,1998年,第47页。
2 刘惠荣：《海洋法视角下的北极法律问题研究》,中国政法大学出版社,2012年,第142-145页。
3 Government of Canada, Arctic Waters Pollution Prevention Act,part 2, https://www.tc.gc.ca/eng/marinesafety/debs-arctic-acts-regulations-awppa-494.htm.
4 Ibid, Part 11-1.
1 Government of Canada, Arctic Waters Pollution Prevention Act, Part 12-1, a-b, https://www.tc.gc.ca/eng/marinesafety/debs-arctic-acts-regulations-awppa-494.htm.
2 Ibid, Part 12-1, c.
3 Press Release of the Prime Minister of Canada, Extending the Jurisdiction of Canadian Environment and Shipping Laws in the Arctic,27 August 2008, www.pm.gc.ca/eng/media.asp?id=2246.
4 郭培清：《北极航道的国际问题研究》,海洋出版社,2009年,第77页。
5 Reid Robert, the Canadian claim to sovereignty over the waters of the Arctic, The Canadian Yearbook of International Law,1974, pp.111-136.
6 Pharand Donat, Canada's Arctic Waters in International Law, Polar Research, Ottawa:University of Ottawa Press,1985, p.185.
1 A Tnint Rennrt from Fridtiof Nansen Institute and DNV. Arctic Resource Development:Risk and Responsible Management, http://www.dnv.com/binaries/arctic_resource_development_tcm4-532195.pdf.
1 联合国：《联合国海洋法公约》,第234条,http://www.un.org/zh/law/sea/los/articlel2.shtml.
1 IMO, About IMO, http://www.imo.org/Pages/home.aspx.
2 IMO, http://www.imo.org/About/Pages/Default.aspx.
1 Port Research Centre, the Possibilities of Container Transit shipping via the Northern Sea Route:Using Backcasting to Gain Insight in the Path stat Lead to a Feasible Arctic Shipping Route, Delft University of Technology,2009.
1 主要包括：1966年的《国际载重线公约》(International Convention on Load Lines)、1969年的《国际油污损害民事责任公约》(International Convention on Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage)、1971年的《设立国际油污损害赔偿基金公约的1976年议定书》(Protocol of 1976 to the International Convention on the Establishment of An International Fund for Compensation for Oil Pollution Damage)、1972年的《防止因倾倒废物及其它物质污染海洋的公约》(Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter)、1972年的《国际海上避碰规则公约》(Convention on the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea, COLREGS),1973年的《防止船舶造成污染的国际公约》、1974年的《国际海上人命安全公约》、1978年的《国际海员培训、发证和值班标准公约》(International Convention on Standards of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping for Seafarers, STCW)、1979年的《国际海上搜寻救助公约》等(International Convention on Maritime Search and Rescue, SAR Convention)、1990年的《油污防备反应和合作国际公约》(International Convention on Oil Pollution Preparedness, Response and Co-operation)、2000年的《有害和有毒物质污染事故的防备、反应与合作议定书》(The Protocol on Preparedness, Response and Co-operation to pollution Incidents by Hazardous and Noxious Substances)。
2 Van der Zwaag David, Governance of Arctic Marine Shipping, Dalhousie University:Halifax,2008, p.14.
3 IMO, International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea, Technical Provisions,1974, http://www.imo.org/About/Conventions/ListOfConventions/Pages/International-Convention-for-the-Safety-of-Life-at-Sea-(SOLAS),-l 974.aspx.
4 ?ystein Jensen, The IMO Guidelines for Ships Operating in Arctic Ice-covered Waters. From Voluntary to Mandatory Tool for Navigation Safety and Environmental Protection? Fridtjof Nansen Institute Report,2007. pp. 8-11.http://www.fni.no/doc&pdf/FNI-R0207.pdf.
5 IMO, Maritime Safety Committee,59/30/32,1991, http://www.imo.org/MediaCentre/MeetingSummaries/MSC/Pages/Default.aspx.
1 IMO, International Code of Safety for Ships in Polar Waters, Ship Design and Equipment 41-10, Annex 1, p.3.
2 IMO, Guidelines for Ships Operating in Arctic Ice-covered waters,http://www.imo.org/Publications/Documents/Attachments/Pages%20from%20E190E.pdf.
3 Ibid,G-3.2.
4 ?ystein Jensen, Arctic Shipping Guidelines:Towards a Legal Regime for Navigational Safety and Environmental Protection? Polar Record, Vol.44, No.2,2008, p.109.
5 ?ystein Jensen, The IMO Guidelines for Ships Operating in Arctic Ice-covered Waters:From Voluntary to Mandatory Tool for Navigation Safety and Environmental Protection? Fridtjof Nansen Institute Report,2007, p.17. http://www.fni.no/doc&pdf/FNI-R0207.pdf.
6 IMO, Guidelines for Ships Operating in Polar Waters, Resolution A,1024-26,2009, http://www.imo.org/Publications/Documents/Attachments/Pages%20from%20E190E.pdf.
7 IACS, Polar Class:Requirements concerning, Req.2011, http://www.iacs.org.uk/document/public/Publications/Unified_requirements/PDF/UR_I_pdf410.pdf.
1 The Structural Design and Engine Output Required of Ships for Navigation in Ice, Finnish-Swedish Ice Class Rules, http://www.sjofartsverket.se/pages/40584/b100_1.pdf.
1 联合国：《联合国海洋法公约》,第234条,http://www.un.org/zh/law/sea/los/articlel2.shtml.
1 夏征农、陈至立：《辞海》,上海辞书出版社,2010年,第3516页。
2 Douglas Angela, Symbiotic Interactions, Oxford:Oxford University Press,1994, p.1-11.
3 杨玲丽：“共生理论在社会科学领域的应用”,《社会科学论坛》,2010年第16期,149-157页。
4 洪黎民：“共生概念发展的历史、现状及展望”,《中国微生态学杂志》,1996年第4期,第50页。
1 [日]黑川纪章著,覃力译：《新共生思想》,中国建筑工业出版社,2009年,第10页。
2 Engberg Holger, Industrial Symbiosis in Denmark, Stern School of Business Press,1993, pp.25-26.
3 李思强：《共生建构说：论纲》,中国社会科学出版社,2004年,第15-20页。
4 胡守钧：《走向共生》,上海文化出版社,2002年,第30页。
5 吴飞驰：《企业的共生理论：我看见了看不见的手》,人民出版社,2002年,第82页。
1 胡守钧：《社会共生论》,复旦大学出版社,2006年,第22页。
2 包括两主体间资源交换模型的共生关系、多主体间资源交换模型的共生关系、多主体同一资源分享型共生关系、两主体间同一资源竞争型的共生关系、多主体间同一资源竞争型的共生关系。详见胡守钧：“国际共生论”,《国际观察》,2012年第4期,第36页。
3 金应忠：“国际社会共生论——和平发展时代国际关系理论”,《社会科学》,2011年第10期,第13页。
1 Moor James, Predators and Prey:A New Ecology of Competition, Harvard Business Review, Vol.73, No.5, 1993, pp.22-31.
2 Kogut Bruce, The Stability of Joint Ventures:Reciprocity and Competitive Rivalry, Journal of Industrial Economics, Vol.38, No.2,1989, pp.183-198.
3 Park Seung Ho and Russo Michael, When Competition Eclipses Cooperation:An Event History Analysis of Joint Venture Failure, Management Science, Vol.42, No.6,1996, pp.875-890.
1 袁纯清：《共生理论——兼论小型经济》,经济科学出版社,1998年,第25页。
2 徐学军：《助推新世纪的经济腾飞》,科学出版社,2008年,第120页。
3 偏利共生这一概念最早出现于生物学的中,又称为偏利共栖现象。指某两物种间的共生关系,其中一种的生物会因这个关系而获得生存上的利益,另一方的生物在这一关系中没有获得任何益处,也没有获得任何害处,只是带动对方去获取利益。
1 金应忠：“共生性国际社会与中国的和平发展”,《国际观察》,2012年第4期,第44页。
2 这里的价值凝聚力主要指建立在共同的理想信念、价值追求、统一意志上的精神力量,并由此形成多民族国家赖以生存和发展的精神支撑。
1 李思强：《共生建构说：论纲》,中国社会科学出版社,2004年,第188-189页。
2 袁纯清：《共生理论——兼论小型经济》,经济科学出版社,1998年,第48-73页。
3 笔者认为,共生治理是北极治理范式中的高级阶段,是根据现有治理基础设定的可行性目标,并不意味着解决北极问题或其他全球性问题的终极形式。
1 Stokke Olav, International Institutions and Arctic Governance, in Stokke Olav and Geir Honneland eds., International Cooperation and Arctic Governance:Regime Effectiveness and Northern Region Building, London and New York:Routledge,2006, pp.175-177.
2 United Nations, UN and Climate Change, http://www.un.org/zh/climatechange/regional.shtml.
1 ACIA, Arctic Climate Impact Assessment. New York:Cambridge University Press,2005, pp.95-155.
2 Antholis William, A Changing Climate:The Road Ahead for the United States, The Washington Quarterly, Vol. 31, No.1,2007, p.176.
3 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Climate Change 2013:the Physical Science Basis,2014, https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar5/wgl/.
4 Orheim Olav, Protecting the Environment of the Arctic Ecosystem, Proceeding of a Conference on United Nations Open-ended Informal Consultative Process on Oceans and the Law of the Sea, Fourth Meeting, New York: UN Headquarters,2003, pp.2-5.
5 Roderfeld Hedwig et.al, Potential Impact of Climate Change on Ecosystems of the Barents Sea Region, Climate Change, Vol.87, No.2,2008, pp.283-285.
6 Young Oran, Arctic Governance:Preparing for the Next Phase,2002, http://www.arcticparl.org/_res/site/File/images/conf5_scpar20021.pdf.
7 Rayfuse Rosemary, Protecting Marine Biodiversity in Polar Areas beyond National Jurisdiction, Review of European Community and International Environmental Law, Vol.17, No.1,2008, pp.5-6.
8 Rayfuse Rosemary, Melting Moments:The Future of Polar Oceans Governance in a Warming World, Review of European Community and International Environmental Law, Vol.16, No.2,2007,pp.210-211.
1 Fridtjof Nansen Institute and DNV, Arctic Resource Development:Risks and Responsible Management, Joint Report,2012, http://www.dnv.com/binaries/arctic_resource_development_tcm4-532195.pdf.
2 杨洁勉：《国际危机泛化与中美共同应对》,时事出版社,2010年,第37页。
1 治理碎片化主要指在权力分散、组织界限模糊和问题全球化和地区化并存的条件下,治理主体之间很难建立起有效的协调配合机制,单一式的治理模式将被个性化的特定模式所代替,呈现出更为个性化、多元化、异质化和去中心化等特征。
2 Hawkins Darren ed., Delegation and Agency in International Organizations, Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2006,pp.11-20.
1 这种反向退化指由于反向回流效应造成范式递进减缓、停滞和逆向发展的内部或外部作用力,与正向流入效应相对应。
2 Young Oran, Governing the Arctic:From Cold War Theater to Mosaic of Cooperation, Global Governance, Vol. 11, No.1,2005, pp.9-15.
1 刘光溪：《互补性竞争论——区域集团与多边贸易体制》,经济日报出版社,2006年,第22页。
2 Aggarwal Vinod, the Unraveling f the Multi-Fiber Arrangement:An Examination of International Regime Change, International Organization, Vol.37, No.4,1983, pp.617-645.
1 俞可平：《治理与善治》,社会科学文献出版社,2000年,第1页。
2 [法]皮埃尔·戈丹著,钟震宇译：《何谓治理》,社会科学文献出版,2010年,第15页。
3 Czempiel Ernst-Otto, Governance and Democratization, in Rosenau James and Czempiel Ernst-Otto eds., Governance without Government:Order and Change in World Politics, Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 1992, p.250.
4 Kooiman Jan, Social-Political Governance:Introduction, in Jan Kooiman ed., Modern Governance:New Government-Society Interactions, London:Sage Publications Ltd.,1993, p.2.
1 Rhodes R. A. W., the New Governance:Governing without Government, Political Studies, Vol.44, No.4,1996, pp.652-653.
2 [美]约瑟夫·奈、约翰·唐纳胡著,王勇等译：《全球化世界的治理》,世界知识出版社,2003年,第10-11页。
3 Rosenau James, Strong Demand, Huge Supply:Governance in an Emerging Epoch, in Ian Bache and Matthew Flinders eds., Multi-Level Governance, Oxford:Oxford University Press,2004, p.31.
4 Peters Guy and Pierre Jon, Governance Approaches, in Antje Wiener and Thomas Diez eds., European Integration Theory, Oxford:Oxford University Press,2009, p.92.
5 Commission on Global Governance, Our Global Neighborhood, Oxford:Oxford University Press,1995, pp.2-3.
6 [美]罗伯特·吉尔平著,武军等译：《世界政治中的战争与变革》,中国人民大学出版社,1994年,第20 页。
1 [美]迈克尔·哈特、安东尼·内格里著,杨建国、范一亭译：《帝国：全球化的政治秩序》,江苏人民出版社,2003年,第120页。
2 Hoffmann Matthew and Ba Alice eds., Contending Perspectives on Global Governance, London and New York: Rutledge Taylor and Francis Group,2005, p.91.
3 Arighi Giovanni, Global governance and hegemony in the modern world system, in Mathew Hoffmann and Alice Ba, Introduction:Coherence and Contestation. London:Routledge,2005, pp.75-79.
4 Hoffmann Mathew and Ba Alice, Introduction:Coherence and Contestation. London:Routledge,2005, pp. 45-47.
5 Rosenau James, Along the Domestic-foreign Frontier, Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1997, p.7.
1 易文彬：“全球治理模式述评”,《世界经济与政治论坛》,2005年第4期,第118页。
2 Keohane Robert, Governance in a Partially Globalized World, American Political Science Review, Vol.95, No. l,2001,p.2.
3 Keohane Robert, International Relations and International Law:Two Optics, Harvard International Law Journal, Vol.38, No.2, Spring 1997, pp.487-502.
4 [美]罗伯特·基欧汉著,门洪华译：《局部全球化世界中的自由主义、权力与治理》,北京大学出版社,2004年,第18—19页,第273—274页。
5 Young Oran, Regime theory and the quest for global governance, in Hoffmann Matthew and Ba Alice eds., Contending Perspectives on Global Governance, London and New York:Rutledge Taylor and Francis Group, 2005, pp.90-91.
1 俞可平：《全球化：全球治理》,社会科学文献出版社,2003年,第151页。
2 倪世雄：《当代西方国际关系理论》,复旦大学出版社,2001年,第227-228页。
3 [英]戴维·赫尔德著,胡伟等译：《民主与全球秩序——从现代国家到世界主义治理》,上海人民出版社,2003年,第5页。
4 [英]戴维·赫尔德著,杨冬雪等译：《全球大变革》,社会科学文献出版社,2001年,第70页。
Pierre Jon ed., Debating Governance, Oxford:Oxford University Press,2000, pp.3-4.
1 Pierre Jon and Guy Peters, Governance, Politics and the State, Basingstoke:Macmillan,2000, pp.193-209.
2 Rosenau James, Change, Complexity, and Governance in Globalizing Space, in Pierre Jon ed., Debating Governance, Oxford:Oxford University Press,2000, p.172.
3 Lykke Friis and Murphy Anna, The European Union and Central and Eastern Europe:Governance and Boundaries, Journal of Common Market Studies, Vol.37, No.2,1999, p.214.
1 [英]卡尔·波普尔著,傅季重译：《猜想与反驳：科学知识的增长》,上海译文出版社,2005年,第45页。
2 Sale Richar and Potapov Eugene, The Scramble for the Arctic, London:Frances Lincoln Limited Publishers, 2010, p.134.
3 王秀英：“国际法视阈下的北极争端”,《海洋开发与管理》,2007年第6期,第15页。
4 Rothwell Donald, The Arctic in International Affairs:Time for a New Regime?, Brown Journal of World Affairs, Vol.15, No.1,2008, pp.248-250.
1 The Antarctic Treaty, http://www.ats.aq/documents/ats/trcaty original.pdf.
2 《南极条约》50个缔约国中,只有28个协商国有权表决和通过决议,而其他22个非协商国则只能列席会议,不能参与表决。协商国包括12个起草国及16个在南极开展实质性科学考察活动的国家。
1 附件六《环境紧急状况下的责任》于2005年6月在瑞典斯德哥尔摩通过,正待各国批准。
1 Wallis Kenneth and Poulton James, Internalization:The Origins and Construction of Internal Reality, Buckingham and Philadelphia:Open University Press,2001, pp.76-78.
2 Baldwin David, Neoliberalism, Neorealism and World Politics, in Baldwin David ed., Neorealism and Neoliberalism:The Contemporary Debate, New York:Columbia University Press,1993, pp.3-25.
1 反向回流效应主要指造成范式递进减缓、停滞和逆向发展的内部或外部作用力。正向流入效应则指促进范式向更高级别递进和发展的内部或外部作用力。
2 Hogg Michael, Deborah Terry and Katherine White, A Tale of Two Theories:A Critical Comparison of Identity Theory with Social Identity Theory, Social Psychology Quarterly, Vol.58, No.4,1995, p.256.
3 季玲：“重新思考体系建构主义身份理论的概念与逻辑”,《世界经济与政治》,2012年第6期,第76页。
4 [美]亚历山大·温特：《国际政治的社会理论》,北京大学出版社,2005年,第287页。
5 Wendt Alexander, Collective Identity Formation and the International State, The American Political Science Review, Vol.88, No.2,1994, p.385.
6 Kay Deaux, Social Identification, City University of New York, p.778, http://www.tiftonfumc.org/Content/11200/389646.pdf.
1 这里的同化并非指个体在地理和物质上的客观融合,而主要指文化、传统、价值观等意识上的主观融合。
2 主要指在机会主义动机的驱动下,个体参与公共物品的消费,但不愿承担组织与管理公共物品的成本。这种做法使公共物品在组织与管理上陷入困境,最终对公共物品形成侵害。
1 Crawford Neta, The Passion of World Politics:Propositions on Emotions and Emotional Relationships, International Security, Vol.24, No.4,2000, p.116.
1 Busekist Astrid, Uses and Misuses of the Concept of Identity, Security Dialogue, Vol.35, No.1,2004, p.84.
2 Mearsheimer John, The False Promise of International Institutions, International Security, Vol.19, No.3,1994, pp.45-49.
3 [美]罗伯特·吉尔平：“温和现实主义视角下的国际关系研究”,《世界经济与政治》,2006年第4期,第61-67页。
1 [英]赫德利·布尔著,张小明译：《无政府社会》,世界知识出版社,2003年,第7页。
2 杨洁勉：《大体系：多极多体的新组合》,天津人民出版社,2008年,第1页。
Stanley Hoffmann, Janus and Minerva:Essays in the Theory and Practice of International politics, Boulder: Westview Press,1987. Pp.308-314.
4 王雅红、王文：“从理想主义到建构主义—一试论国际体系转换的理论嬗变”,《经纪人学报》,2005年第1期,第32页。
1 Palosaari Teemu and Mo Her Frank, Security and Marginality:Arctic Europe after the Double Enlargement, Cooperation and Conflict, Vol.39, No.3,2003, p.259.
2 陆俊元：《北极地缘政治与中国应对》,时事出版社,2010年,第3页。
3 Young Oran, Governing the Arctic:From Cold War Theater to Mosaic of Cooperation, Global Governance, Vol.11, No.1,2005, pp.9-15.
1 [美]约翰·米尔斯海默著,王义桅、唐小松译：《大国政治的悲剧》,上海人民出版社,2003年,第2页。
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2 Mohan Joshi, International Business, Oxford University Press, New Delhi and New York,2009, pp.54-58.
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2 Arctic Climate Impact Assessment, Impacts of a Warming Arctic, Synthesis Report, Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2004.
1 冰帽指覆盖不超过5000平方公里的巨型圆顶状冰。
2 Howard Roger, The Arctic Gold Rush:the New Race for Tomorrow's Natural Resources, London and New York: Continuum,2009.
3 National Intelligence Council, Global Trends 2025:A Transformed World,2008, http://www.aicpa.org/research/cpahorizons2025/globalforces/downloadabledocuments/globaltrends.pdf
4 Lawson Brigham, Thinking about the Arctic's Future:Scenarios for 2040, The Futurist, September-October 2007, p.27.
5 U.S. Arctic Research Commission and International Arctic Science Committee, Arctic Marine Transport Workshop,2004, http://www.arctic.gov/publications/other/arctic_marine_transport.pdf.
1 U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Information Administration, Arctic Oil and Natural Gas Potential, Report, October 2009.
2 该报告所涉及的资源评估包括永久海冰区和水深超过500米的海域,利用现有技术可被开采的油气资源。值得注意的是,并未涉及如煤层气、气体水合物、页岩气和页岩油等非传统资源。
3 U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey, Circum-Arctic Resource Appraisal:Estimates of Undiscovered Oil and Gas North of the Arctic Circle, Report, May 2008.
1 [美]托马斯·库恩著,金吾伦、胡新和译：《科学革命的结构》,北京大学出版社,2003年,第20页。
1 弗里乔夫·南森(1861-1930)是挪威著名的探险家、科学家和外交家。1922年,他由于担任国际联盟高级专员所做的工作而获得诺贝尔和平奖。
2 Nansen Fridtjof and Chater Arthur, In Northern Mists:Arctic Exploration in Early Times, London:Nabu Press, 2010.
3 Stefansson Vilhjalmur, My Life with the Eskimo (New Edition), London:The Book Jungle,2007.
4 Stefansson Vilhjalmur, the Friendly Arctic:The Story of Five Years in Polar Regions, London:Nabu Press, 2010.
5 Berton Pierre, the Arctic Grail:The Quest for the Northwest Passage and the North Pole 1818-1909 (New Edition), Toronto:McClelland and Stewart,2000.
1 Vaughan Richard, The Arctic:A History, London:The History Press,2008.
2 McGhee Robert, The Last Imaginary Place:A Human History of the Arctic World, Chicago:University Of Chicago Press,2007.
3 Osherenko Gail and Young Oran, the Age of the Arctic:Hot Conflicts and Cold Realities, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,2005, pp.35-37.
4 Dosman Edgar, Sovereignty and Security in the Arctic, London and New York:Routledge,1989, pp.78-80.
5 Young Oran, Arctic Politics:Conflict and Cooperation in the Circumpolar North, Hanover and London, University Press of New England,1992, p.10.
1 Young Oran, Arctic Politics:Conflict and Cooperation in the Circumpolar North, Hanover and London, University Press of New England,1992, pp.6-7.
2 Ebinger Charles and Zambetakis Evie, The geopolitics of Arctic melt, International affairs, Vol.85, No.6, November 2009, pp.1215-1232.
3 Byers Michael, Who Owns the Arctic? Understanding Sovereignty Disputes in the North, Vancouver:Douglas and Mclntyre Publishers,2009, p.128.
4 Howard Roger, The Arctic Gold Rush:the New Race for Tomorrow's Natural Resources, London and New York: Continuum,2009, pp.218-219.
5 Grant Shelagh, Polar Imperative:A History of Arctic Sovereignty in North America, Vancouver:Douglas and Mclntyre Publishers,2010, pp.20-25.
6 Emmerson Charles, The Future History of the Arctic, New York:Public Affairs,2010, pp.10-16.
1 Ostrom Elinor, Governing the Commons:The Evolution of Institutions for Collective Action, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,1990, pp.20-32. 2 Young Oran, Governing the Arctic:From Cold War Theater to Mosaic of Cooperation, Global Governance:A Review of Multilateralism and International Organizations, Vol.11, No.1,2005, pp.9-15.
1 Rothwell Donald, the Polar Regions and the Development of International Law, Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1996.
2 Young Oran, Creating Regimes:Arctic accords and International Governance, Ithaca and London:Cornell University Press,1998, pp.5-6.
3 Bloom Evan, Establishment of the Arctic Council, American Journal of International Law, Vol.93, No.2,1999, pp.712-716.
4 Koivurova Timo, Environmental Impact Assessment in the Arctic:A Study of International Legal Norms, Aldershot:Ashgate Publishing,2002.
Stokke Olav, International Cooperation and Arctic Governance:Regime Effectiveness and Northern Region Building, London and New York:Routledge,2007, pp.3-4.
6 Ibid,pp.112-137.
7 Ibid,pp.138-163.
1 Sale Richar and Potapov Eugene, The Scramble for the Arctic, London:Frances Lincoln Limited Publishers, 2010, p.134.
2 Berkman Paul, Environmental Security in the Arctic Ocean:Promoting Co-operation and Preventing Conflict, London and New York:Routledge,2012.
3 Humrich Christoph and Klaus Wolf, From Meltdown to Showdown? PRIF-Report, No.113,2012, pp.14-15.
4 根据苏联1926年提出的主张,以沿海国领土范围可以达到以东西两端界线为腰,以极点为圆心,以该毗邻国的东西海岸线为底而构成的扇形空间。
5 Leonid Timtchenko, The Russian Arctic Sectoral Concept:Past and Present, Arctic journal, Vol.50, No.1,1997, pp.29-35.
4 Atland Kristian and Pedersen Torbjorn, the Svalbard Archipelago in Russian Security Policy:Overcoming the Legacy of Fear or Reproducing It? European Security Vol.17, No.2,2008, pp.227-251.
5 Elana Rowe, ed., Russia and the North, Ottawa:University of Ottawa Press,2009, pp.75-76.
6 Roman Kolodkin, The Russian-Norwegian treaty:Delimitation for Cooperation, International Affairs Vol.57, No.2,2011,pp.116-131.
7 Kevin McMahon, Arctic Twilight:Reflections on the Destiny of Canada's Northern Land and People, James Lorimer and Company publishers,1988, pp.22-25.
1 Donat Pharand. Canada's Arctic Waters in International Law. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.1988. pp. 12-15.
2 Elizabeth Elliot-Meisel, Arctic Diplomacy:Canada and the United States in the Northwest Passage, New York: Peter Lang,1998, pp.24-26.
3 Coates Ken and Lackenbauer Whitney, Arctic Front:Defending Canada in the Far North, Toronto:Thomas Allen,2008, pp.15-17.
4 Whitney Lackenbauer, From Polar Race to Polar Saga:An Integrated Strategy for Canada and the Circumpolar World, CIC,2009, pp.7-8.
3 Kennedy Michael, the Northwest Passage and Canadian Arctic Sovereignty, Santa Crus:GRIN Verlag GmbH, 2013, pp.12-13.
6 Westermeyer William and Shusterich Kurt, United States Arctic Interests:The 1980s and 1990s, New York: Springer-Verlag,2011, pp.7-8.
1 Gunter Weller, National Issues and Research Priorities in the Arctic, report of National Research Council,1985, pp.20-30.
2 U.S. Arctic Research Commission, Arctic Research in a Changing World, Research Report,1991.
3 U.S. Arctic Research Commission, an Arctic Obligation, Research Report,1992.
4 U.S. Arctic Research Commission, Goals and Priorities to Guide United States Arctic Research, Research Report,1993.
5 Conley Heather and Kraut Jamie, U.S. Strategic Interests in the Arctic, Report of the CSIS Europe Program, 2010,pp.25-45.
6 Small Alan, Norway's Arctic Islands, University of Dundee, Department of Geography,1995, pp.17-20.
7 Burr Susan, Norway, A Consistent Polar Nation?, Oslo:Kolofon Press,2003, pp.25-27.
1 Petersen Nikolai, the Arctic as a New Arena for Danish Foreign Policy, Danish Foreign Policy Yearbook,2009.
2 Nord Douglas, Creating a Framework for Consensus Building and Governance:An Appraisal of the Swedish Arctic Council Chairmanship and the Kiruna Ministerial Meeting, Arctic Yearbook,2013, pp.249-263.
3 Maurer Andreas, the Arctic Region-Perspectives from Member States and Institutions of the EU, Working Paper, SWP Berlin,2010, pp.120-140.
4 Depledge Duncan and Klaus Dodds, The UK and the Arctic, The RUSI Journal, Vol.156, No.2,2013, pp.72-79.
3 Maurer Andreas and Steinicke Stefan, the EU as an Arctic Actor? Interests and Governance Challenges, Report on the 3rd Annual Geopolitics in the High North-GeoNor-Conference and joint GeoNor workshops, SWP Berlin, 2012, pp.2-3.
6 Manicom James and Lackenbauer Whitney, East Asian states, the Arctic Council and international relations in the Arctic, Lit.Hinw,2013, pp.25-28.
1 Japan Institute of International Affairs, Arctic Governance and Japan's Foreign Strategy, Research report,2012. https://www2.jiia.or.jp/en/pdf/research/2012_arctic_governance/002e-executive_simmery.pdf.
2 Tonami Aki, Japan's Arctic policy:the sum of many parts, Arctic Yearbook,2012, http:/www.academia.edu/2235263/Japans_Arctic_Policy_The_Sum_of_Many_Parts.
3 Park Young Kil, Arctic Prospects and Challenges from a Korean Perspective, East Asia-Arctic Relations: Boundary, Security and International Politics, CIGI, Paper No.3,2013. http://www.cigionline.org/publications/2013/12/arctic-prospects-and-challenges-korean-perspective.
4 Sakhuja Vijay, The Arctic Council:Is there a case for India?, Indian Council of World Affairs,2010, http://www.icwa.in/pdfs/policy%20briefs%20dr.pdf.
1 Watters Stewart and Tonami Aki, Singapore:An Emerging Arctic Actor, Arctic Yearbook 2012, pp.105-114.
2 王鸿刚：“北极将上演争夺战?”,《世界知识》,2004年第22期,第33页。
3 余天颖：“从海洋到海洋——加拿大经营北极地区”,《世界知识》,2006年第23期,第40页。
4 海纳：“北极是谁的?”,《青年科学》,2007年第6期,第20页。
5 赵毅：“争夺北极的新‘冷战’”,《瞭望》,2007年第33期,第10页。
6 李东：“俄北极‘插旗’引燃‘冰地热战’”,《世界知识》,2007年第17期,第20页。
1 郭培清：“北极争夺战”,《海洋世界》,2007年第9期,第15页。
2 刘中民：“北冰洋争夺的三大国际关系焦点”,《世界知识》,2007年第9期,第10页。
3 曾望：“北极争端的历史、现状及前景”,《国际资料信息》,2007年第10期,第34页。
4 郭培清：《北极航道的国际问题研究》,海洋出版社,2009年,第2-3页。
5 白佳玉、李静：“美国北极政策研究”,《中国海洋大学学报(社会科学版)》,2009年第5期。
6 陆俊元：《北极地缘政治与中国应对》,时事出版社,2010年,第7页。
7 曹升生：“加拿大的北极战略”,《国际资料信息》,2010年第7期,第7-10页。
1 程群：“浅议俄罗斯的北极战略及其影响”,《俄罗斯中亚东欧研究》,2010年第1期,第76-84页。
2 何齐松：“气候变化与欧盟的北极战略”,《欧洲研究》,2010年第6期,第59-73页。
3 曹升生：“挪威的北极战略”,《辽东学院学报(社会科学版)》,2011年第6期,第143-147页。
4 杨剑：“北极航道：欧盟的政策目标和外交实践”,《太平洋学报》,2013年第3期,第41-50页。
5 郭培清：“北极很难走通‘南极道路”,《瞭望》,2008年第15期,第64页。
6 郭培清：“摩尔曼斯克讲话与北极合作——北极进入合作时代”,《海洋世界》,2008年第5期,第67页。
7 尹承德：“世界新热点与全球治理新挑战”,《国际问题研究》,2008年第5期,第1-7页。
1 严双伍、李默：“北极争端的症结及其解决路径——公共物品的视角”,《武汉大学学报(哲学社会科学版)》,2009年第6期,第75页。
2 刘惠荣、杨凡：《北极生态保护法律问题研究》,知识产权出版社,2010年,第22-30页。
3 李伟芳、吴迪：“东亚主要国家与发展中的北极理事会关系分析”,《国际展望》,2010年第6期,第14页。
4 北极问题研究编写组：《北极问题研究》,海洋出版社,2011年,第12-30页。
5 王传兴：“论北极地区区域性国际制度的非传统安全特性——以北极理事会为例”,《中国海洋大学学报(社会科学版)》,2011年第3期,第1-6页。
6 夏立平：“北极环境变化对全球安全和中国国家安全的影响”,《世界经济与政治》,2011年第1期,第124页。
7 陈玉刚、陶平国、秦倩：“北极理事会与北极国际合作研究”,《国际观察》,2011年第4期,第17-23页。
1 潘敏、夏文佳：“近年来的加拿大北极政策——兼论中国在努纳武特地区合作的可能性”,《国际观察》,2011年第4期,第24-29页。
2 孙凯、郭培清：“北极治理机制的变迁及中国的参与战略研究”,《世界经济与政治论坛》,2012年第2期,第118-128页。
3 程保志：“北极治理论纲：中国学者的视角”,《太平洋学报》,2012年第10期,第62-71页。
4 吴雪明：“北极治理评估体系的构建思路与基本框架”,《国际关系研究》,2013年第3期,第38页。
5 叶江：“试论北极区域原住民非政府组织在北极治理中的作用与影响”,《西南民族大学学报(人文社会科学版)》,2013年第7期,第21-26页。
6 赵隆：“从渔业问题看北极治理的困境与路径”,《国际问题研究》,2013年第4期,第69-82页。
1 [美]不列颠百科全书公司编著,国际中文版编辑部编译：《不列颠百科全书》,中国大百科全书出版社,2007年,第255页。
1 Arctic Climate Assessment Programme, Assessment Report, Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2005, Chapter 2.
2 等温线指同一水平面上空气温度相同各点的连线,等温线曲线的分布受海陆、地势、洋流等因素的影响。
3 Linell Kenneth and Tedrow John, Soil and permafrost surveys in the Arctic, Oxford:Clarendon Press,1981, p.279.
4 Stonehouse Bernard, Polar Ecology, London:Springer,2013, p.222.
5 Arctic Climate Assessment Programme, Assessment Report, Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2005, Chapter 2.
6 Stonehouse Bernard, Polar Ecology, London:Springer,2013, p.223.
7 永久冻土带是地质学概念,指冻土层(Tundra)处于0摄氏度以下超过两年的状况。
1 Ives Jack and Barry Roger eds., Arctic and Alpine Environments, London:Methuen,1974, pp.1-13.
1 Arctic Climate Impact Assessment, Scientific Report, Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2005.
2 The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration,www.lme.noaa.gov/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=47&Itemid=41.
1 FAO, the State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2012, http://www.fao.org/docrep/016/i2727e/i2727e.pdf.
2 Linell Kenneth and Tedrow John, Soil and permafrost surveys in the Arctic, Oxford:Clarendon Press,1981, p.279.
3 Stonehouse Bernard, Polar Ecology, London:Springer,2013, p.222.
1 张侠：“北极地区人口数量、组成与分布”,《世界地理研究》,2008年第4期,第132-141页。
2 Lewinski Silke Von, Indigenous Heritage and Intellectual Property:Genetic Resources, Traditional Knowledge, and Folklore, Kluwer Law International,2004, pp.130-131.
1 Hitchcock Robert and Vinding Diana, Indigenous Peoples'Rights in Southern Africa, IWGIA,2004. p.8.
2 Nordic Council of Ministers, Arctic Social Indicators:a Follow-up to the Arctic Human Development Report, 2010, http://www.norden.org/en/publications/publikationer/2010-519.
3 Arctic Council, Sustainable Development Working Group, The Arctic Human Development Report,2004 http://www.svs.is/ahdr/.
1 张侠：“北极地区人口数量、组成与分布”,《世界地理研究》,2008年第4期,第132-141页。
2 Koivurova Timo, Indigenous Peoples in the Arctic, Arctic Centre,2008, http://www.arctic-transform.eu.
1 陆俊元：《北极地缘政治与中国应对》,时事出版社,2010年,第3页。
1 Nuttall Mark and Callaghan Terry, the Arctic:Environment. People. Policy, Amsterdam:Harwood Academic Publishers,2000, pp.601-620.
2 Young Oran, Governing the Arctic:From Cold War Theater to Mosaic of Cooperation, Global Governance, Vol.11, No.l,2005, pp.9-15.
3 Gorbachev Mikhail, Speech in Murmansk in at the Ceremonial Meeting on the Occasion of the presentation of the order of Lenin and the Gold Star to the City of Murmansk,1987, http://teacherweb.com/FL/CypressBayHS/JJolley/Gorbachev_speech.pdf.
4 Keskitalo Carina, International Region Building:Development of the Arctic as an International Region, Cooperation and Conflict, Vol.42, No.2,2007, p.195.
1 Joshi Mohan, International Business, New Delhi and New York:Oxford University Press,2009, p.31.
2 International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook 1997, http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/weo1097/weocon97.htm.
3 该报告所涉及的资源评估包括永久海冰区和水深超过500米的海域,利用现有技术可被开采的油气资源。值得注意的是,并未涉及如煤层气、气体水合物、页岩气和页岩油等非传统资源。
4 U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey, Circum-Arctic Resource Appraisal:Estimates of Undiscovered Oil and Gas North of the Arctic Circle May 2008.
1 Financial Times Research, Hard to Reach:Prospecting for oil and gas in the Arctic,2012, http://im.ft-static.com/content/images/68413922-f6b7-11e1-827f-0144feabdc0.img?width=850&height=782&titl e=&desc=Arctic-oil-graphic
1 United Nations, UN and Climate Change, http://www.un.org/zh/climatechange/regional.shtml.
2 National Snow and Ice Data Center, Arctic Sea Ice Extent 2014,http://nsidc.org/arcticseaicenews/.
1 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Climate Change 2013:the Physical Science Basis,2014, https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar5/wgl/.
1 National Snow and Ice Data Center, Arctic Sea Ice Extent 2014, Research report, http://nsidc.org/arcticseaicenews/.
3 杨洁勉：《世界气候外交和中国的应对》,时事出版社,2009年,第210页。
1 Geoffrey Till, Sea Power:a Guide for the Twenty-first Century, Portland:Frank Cass,2003, p.116.
2 赵隆：“海洋治理中的制度设计：反向建构的过程”,《国际关系学院学报》,2012年第3期,第36-42页。
1 Arctic Climate Impact Assessment, Policy Document, http://www.acia.uaf.edu/PDFs/ACIAPolicyDocument.pdf.
2 OECD, Strengthening Regional Fisheries Management Organizations,2009, p.17, http://browse.oecdbookshop.org/oecd/pdfs/product/5309031e.pdf.
1 赵隆：“议题设定和全球治理—危机中的价值观碰撞”,《国际论坛》,2011年第4期,第21-29页。
1 加拿大这一主张的根本考虑在于,由于《联合国海洋法公约》将内水认定为一国领土的一部分,并禁止外国船舶的无害通过权,加希望以此来拓展其对于西北航道的完全司法管辖,拓展自身权力范围。这种主张遭到多国的反对。
2 2013年5月15日,加拿大在北极理事会部长级会议上反对欧盟成为观察员,并提出需要欧盟对加拿大的海豹制品禁运取消后,才接受欧盟的再次申请。该消息经笔者与挪威驻沪总领事欧阳文((?)yvind Stokke座谈后得到证实。
3 赵隆：“全球治理中的议题设定：要素互动与模式适应”,《国际关系研究》,2013年第4期,第45-50页。
1 Treaty between Norway, The United States of America, Denmark, France, Italy, Japan, the Netherlands, Great Britain and Ireland and the British overseas Dominions and Sweden concerning Spitsberge signed in Paris 9th February 1920,http://dianawallismep.org.uk/en/document/spitsbergen-treaty-booklet.pdf.
2 Brooks Brian, News Reporting and Writing, Tenth Edition, Bedford:Missouri Group,2010, p.27.
3 Cohen Bernard, the Press and Foreign Policy, Princeton:Princeton University Press,1993. p.10.
1 俞可平：《治理与善治》,社会科学文献出版社,2000年,第245页。
1 Rowe Elana, Policy Aims and Political Realities in the Russian North, in Rowe Elana ed., Russia and the North, Ottawa:University of Ottawa Press,2009, p.2.
UN, United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, http://www.un.org/depts/los/convention_agreements/texts/unclos/UNCLOS-TOC.htm.
1 National Security Decision Directive (NSDD-90), United States Arctic Policy, April 14,1983, http:// www.fas.org/irp/offdocs/nsdd/nsdd-090.htm.
2 Presidential Decision Directive/National Security Council (PDD/NSC-26), United States Policy on the Arctic and Antarctic Regions, June 9,1994, http://www.fas.org/irp/offdocs/pdd/pdd-26.pdf.
3 National Security Presidential Directive and Homeland Security Presidential Directive, NSPD-66/HSPD-25, https://www.fas.org/irp/offdocs/nspd/nspd-66.htm.
4 The White House, National Strategy for Arctic Region, http://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/docs/nat_arctic_strategy.pdf.
5 Nides Thomas, The Future of the Arctic, remarks at the Arctic Imperative Summit, Alaska, August 26,2012, http://www.state.gov/s/dmr/former/nides/remarks/2012/197643.htm.
1 Government of Canada, Canada's Northern Strategy:Our North, Our Heritage, Our Future:Canada's Northern Strategy,2009, http://www.northernstrategy.gc.ca/index-eng.asp.
2 唐国强：“北极问题与中国的政策”,《国际问题研究》,2013年第1期,第15页。
3 Government of Canada, Statement on Canada's Arctic Foreign Policy:Exercising Sovereignty and Promoting Canada's Northern Strategy,2010, http://www.in ternational.gc.ca/arctic-arctique/assets/pdfs/canada_arc tic_foreign_policy-eng.pdf.
4 Griffiths Franklyn, Huebert Rob and Lackenbauer Whitney, Canada and the Changing Arctic Sovereignty, Security, and Stewardship, Wilfrid:Laurier University Press,2011, pp.13-15.
1 Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, The Norwegian Government's High North Strategy,2006, http://www.regj eringen.no/upload/UD/Vedlegg/strategien.pdf.
2 Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, New building blocks in the north-The next step in the government's high north strategy,2009, http://www.regjeringen.no/upload/UD/Vedlegg/Nordomradene/new_building_blocks_in_the_north.pdf.
3 Treaty between the Kingdom of Norway and the Russian Federation concerning Maritime Delimitation and Cooperation in the Barents Sea and the Arctic Ocean, http://www.regj eringen.no/upload/ud/vedlegg/folkerett/avtale_engelsk.pdf.
4 Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, The Arctic:Major Opportunities-Major Responsibilities,2013, http://www.regjeringen.no/nb/dep/ud/aktuelt/taler artikler/taler_og_artikler_av_ovrig_politisk_lede/ins_taler/2014 /arctic-dialogue.html?id=753638.
5 Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark, Kingdom of Denmark Strategy for the Arctic 2011-2020, http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/policies/raw-materials/files/docs/mss-denmark_en.pdf.
6 丹麦为欧盟成员,而其自治领土格陵兰和法罗群岛均不具备此身份。格陵兰的外交政策虽然由丹麦代管,但丹麦须考虑与欧盟政策的一致性。在北极问题上,可能与格陵兰在利益诉求上产生一定的差异性。
1 该观点根据笔者2014年与丹麦外交部北极事务大使埃里克·罗伦岑(Erik Lorenzen)、格陵兰外交部副部长凯·安徒生(Kai Andersen)座谈归纳整理。
2 Arctic Council, Marine Shipping Assessment, The Future of Arctic Marine Navigation in Mid-Century,2008, http:/www.institutenorth.org/servlet/content/reports.html.
1 郭培清：《北极航道的国际问题研究》,海洋出版社,2009年,第24页。
3 FAO, FAO Yearbook, Fishery and Aquaculture Statistics 2011, http://www.fao.org/docrep/019/i3507t/i3507t00.htm.
4 Stephan Macko, Potential change in the Arctic environment:not so obvious implications for fisheries, http://doc.nprb.org/web/nprb/afs 2009/IAFS%20Presentations/Day1_2009101909/IAFS Macko EnvironmentalI mplicationsForFisheries_101909.pdf.
1 Molenaar Erik and Corell Robert, Background Paper Arctic Fisheries, Ecologic Institute EU,2009, p.28.
2 Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark, Kingdom of Denmark Strategy for the Arctic 2011-2020, http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/policies/raw-materials/files/docs/mss-denmark_en.pdf.
3 根据《联合国海洋法公约规定》,外国船只有权在某国领海进行无害通过,也就是不损害沿海国的和平、安全和良好秩序的通过。
4 Yenikeyeff Shamil and Kresiek Timothy, the Battle for the Next Energy Frontier:The Russian Polar Expedition and the Future of Arctic Hydrocarbons, Oxford Institute for Energy Studies,2007, p.12.
1 Dosman Edgar, Sovereignty and Security in the Arctic, London and New York:Routledge,1989, p.9
2 Ibid, p.24.
3 National Security Decision Directive, NSDD-90, United States Arctic Policy, April 14,1983, http:// www.fas.org/irp/offdocs/nsdd/nsdd-090.htm.
'Statistics Norway, Statistical Yearbook of Norway 2013, https://www.ssb.no/en/befolkning/artikler-og-publikasjoner/statistical-yearbook-of-norway-2013.
1 Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Norway, The Norwegian Government's High North Strategy, http://www.regjeringen.no/upload/UD/Vedlegg/strategien.pdf.
2 Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark, Kingdom of Denmark Strategy for the Arctic 2011-2020. http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/policies/raw-materials/files/docs/mss-denmark en.pdf.
1 该结论根据2013年笔者与丹麦、挪威驻华大使的交流座谈中获得对方证实。
1 Achibani, Localism:A Philosophy of Government (New edition), The Ridge Publishing Group,2013.
2 Russett Bruce, International Regions and the International System. A Study in Political Ecology, Chicago:Rand and McNally,1967.;Cantori Louis and Spiegel Steven, International Regions:A Comparative to Five Subordinate Systems, International Studies Quarterly Vol.13, No.4,1969, pp.361-380; Cantori Louis and Spiegel Steven eds., the International Politics of Regions. A Comparative Approach, Englewood Cliffs:Prentice-Hall,1970.
1 Nye Joseph, Peace in Parts. Integration and Conflict in Regional Organization, Boston:Little, Brown and Company,1971, p.7.
2 Nikki Slocum and Luk Van Langenhove, The Meaning of Regional Integration:Introducing Positioning Theory in Regional Integration Studies, Journal of European Integration, Vol.26, No.3,2004, pp.227-252.
3 Ibid., pp.230.
4 Edward Mansfield and Etel Solingen, Regionalism, Annual Review of Political Science, Vol.13, No.1,2010 pp.145-163.
5 卢光盛：《地区主义与东盟经济合作》,上海辞书出版社,2008年,第12页。
1 Masters Roger, A Multi-Bloc Model of the International System, The American Political Science Review, Vol. 55, No.4,1961, pp.780-798.
1 Camroux David, Return to the Future of a Sino-Indic Asian Community, The Pacific Review, Vol.30, No.4, 2007, pp.551-575.
3 Schulzetal Michael eds., Regionalization in Globalizing World, Zed Book,2001, pp.22-23.
1 Mitrany David, the Functional approach to World Organization, International Affairs, Vol.24, No.3,1948, p. 359.
2 Wallace William ed., the Dynamics of European Integration, London:Printer,1990, p.285.
1 Haas Ernst, The Obsolescence of Regional Integration Theory, Berkeley:University of California,1975, p.124.
2 丁斗：《东亚地区的次区域经济合作》,北京大学出版社，2001年，第39页。
3 Norman Palmer, New Regionalism in Asia and the Pacific, The Free Press,1991, p.225.
4 Michael Burgess, Federalism and European Union:Political Ideas, Influences and Strategies in the European Community.1972-1987, Routledge,1989, p.51.
1 Louise Fawcett and Andrew Hurrell eds.. Regionalism in World Politics, Oxford University Press, pp.37-73.
2 Werner Feld and Gavin Boyd, eds., Comparative Regional Systems, Oxford:Pergamon Press,1979, p.472.
3 宿景祥：《亚洲意识与东亚经济合作》,时事出版社,2002年,第537-552页。
1 Russett Bruce, International Regions and the International System:A Study in Political Ecology. Chicago:Rand McNally,1967, pp.252.
2 Hurrell Andrew and Fawcett Louise eds., Regionalism in World Politics. Regional Organization and International Order, Oxford University Press,1995, p.129.
3 Soderbaum Frederik and Shaw Thimothy eds., Theories of New Regionalism, New York, Palgrave Macmillan, 2003, pp.28-29.
4 Mittelman James, the Globalization Syndrome:Transformation and Resistance, Princeton University Press, 2000, pp.25-28.
1 优惠贸易安排是经济一体化较低级和松散的一种形式,指在实行优惠贸易安排的成员国间,通过协议或其他形式,对全部商品或部分商品规定特别的优惠关税。
1 区域内聚性是区域内国家与域外国际社会间相互协调处理跨区域政策事务、区域间互动关系有组织化的内在因素。
1 Koremenos Barbara, Lipson Charles and Snidal Duncan.The Rational Design of International Institutions, International Organization, Vol.55, No.4,2001,pp.761-799.
2 Coglianese Cary, Globalization and the Design of International Institutions, Nye Joseph and Donahue John eds. Governance in a Globalizing World, Brookings Institution Press,2000, pp.297-318. Alexander Wendt, Driving with the Rearview Mirror:On the Rational Science of Institutional Design, International Organization, Vol.55, No.4,2001, pp.1019-1049. John Duffield, The limits of Rational Design, International Organization, Vol.57, No.2, 2003, pp.411-428.
3 Tallberg Jonas, The Design of International Institutions:Legitimacy, Effectiveness, and Distribution in Global Governance, Collaborative Project at Stockholm University, Funded by the European Research Council forthe Period 2009-2013.
4 朱杰进：“国际制度设计中的规范与理性”,《国际观察》,2008年第4期,第53-39页。
1 笔者将北极理事会奠基文件《北极环境保护宣言》的签署地芬兰罗瓦涅米,以及北冰洋外长机制奠基文件《伊卢丽萨特宣言》的签署地格陵兰伊卢利萨特归纳为两种不同的机制进程。
2 Declaration On The Protection Of Arctic Environment, http://iea.uoregon.edu/pages/view_treaty.php?t=1991-DeclarationProtectionArcticEnvironment.EN.txt&par=view_treaty_html.
1 Nuuk Declaration 2011 of Arctic Council, http://www.arctic-council.org/index.php/en/document-archive/category/5-declarations?download=37:nuuk-declara tion-2011.
2 Senior Arctic Officials Report to Ministers, May 2011, http://Arctic-council.npolar.no/accms/export/sites/default/en/meetings/2011-nuuk-ministerial/docs/SAO Report to_Ministers_-_Nuuk_Ministerial_Meeting_May_2011.pdf.
1 Senior Arctic Officials Report to Ministers, May 2011, http://Arctic-council.npolar.no/accms/export/sites/default/en/meetings/2011-nuuk-ministerial/docs/SAO_Report_to Ministers_-_Nuuk_Ministerial_Meeting_May_2011.pdf.
2 Arctic Ocean Conference, The Ilulissat Declaration,2008, http://www.oceanlaw.org/downloads/arctic/Ilulissat_Declaration.pdf.
1 Government of Canada, Statement on Canada's Arctic Foreign Policy:Exercising Sovereignty and Promoting Canada's Northern Strategy,2010, http://www.international.gc.ca/arctic-arctique/assets/pdfs/canada_arctic_foreign_policy-eng.pdf.
1 这一理论认为,由于组织成员之间以及组织成员与公共资源之间利益的高度相关性,他们比任何外部的权力中心更关心资源的良性发展和存续问题,以及如何对公共资源进行治理才能保证这种良性发展和存续的实现,这种多中心的自主制度是解决“公地困境”的最好选择。
2 [美]埃莉诺·奥斯特罗姆著,徐逊达译：《公共事物的治理之道——集体行动制度的演进》,上海三联书店,2000年,第51页。
3 Anderies John, Janssen Marco and Ostrom Elinor, A Framework to Analyze the Robustness of Social-ecological Systems from an Institutional Perspective, Ecology And Society, Vol.9, No.1,2004, p.l 8.
1 Buck Susan, Book Reviews on Elinor Ostrom's Governing the Commons:The Evolution of Institutions for Collective Action, Natural Resources Journal, Vol.32, No.2,1992, pp.415-417.
2 Ostrom Elinor, Understanding Institutional Diversity, Princeton NJ:Princeton University Press,2005, pp.35-37.
3 Rudloff Bettina, The EU as Fishing Actor in the Arctic:Stocktaking of institutional involvement and existing conflicts, Working Paper, German Institute for International and Security Affairs SWP,2010, http://www.swp-berlin.org/fileadmin/conten ts/products/arbeitspapiere/Rff_WP_2010_02_ks.pdf.
4 Arctic Climate Impact Assessment, Scientific Report, Cambridge et al.:Cambridge University Press,2005, p.11.
5 NOOA, http://www.lme.noaa.gov/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=47&Itemid=41.
1 FAO, Fishstat software, http://www.fao.org/fishery/publications/yearbooks/en.
1 Asche Frank and Smith Martin, Trade and Fisheries:Key Issues for the World Trade, Staff Working Paper ERSD,2010,p.3.
2 FAO, Fishery and Aquaculture Statistics Yearbook,2011, p.19, http://www.fao.org/docrep/019/i3507t/i3507t00.htm.
3 OECD, Strengthening Regional Fisheries Management Organizations, OECD Publishing,2009, p.17.
Rudloff Bettina, The EU as Fishing Actor in the Arctic:Stocktaking of Institutional Involvement and Existing Conflicts, Working Paper, German Institute for International and Security Affairs SWP,2010, p.5.
2 [英]罗伯特·詹宁斯、亚瑟·瓦茨著,王铁崖等译：《奥本海国际法》,中国大百科全书出版社,1998年,第182页。
Stephan Macko, Potential change in the Arctic environment:Not so obvious implications for fisheries. William W.L.Chueung, Climate change and Arctic Fish Stocks:Now and Future. Reports of International Arctic Fisheries Symposium,2009, http://www.nprb.org/iafs2009/.
1 Molenaar Erik and Corell Robert, Background Paper Arctic Fisheries, Ecologic Institute EU,2009, p.12.
2 VanderZwaag David, Koivurova Timo and Molenaar Erik, Canada, the EU and Arctic Ocean Governance:a Tangled and Shifting Seascape and Future Directions, Journal of Transnational Law and Policy, Vol.18, No.2, 2009,p.247.
3 联合国环境规划署：《全球环境展望年鉴》,中国环境出版社,2006年,第70页。
4 Stokke Olav, Barents Sea Fisheries:the IUU struggle, Arctic Review on Law and Politics, Vol.1, No.2, 2010,pp.207-224.
3 WWF, the Barents Sea Cod-the Last of the Large Cod Stocks,2004, http://wwf.panda.org/?uNewsID=12982.
1 International Council for the Exploration of the Sea, Catch Statistics 2010, http://www.ices.dk/marine-data/dataset-collections/Pages/Fish-catch-and-stock-assessment.aspx.
2 Stokke Olav, Barents Sea Fisheries:the IUU struggle, Arctic Review on Law and Politics, Vol.1, No.2,2010, pp.207-224.
3 Erceg Diane, Deterring IUU Fishing through State Control over Nationals, Marine Policy, Vol.30, No.2,2006, pp.173-179.
4 Ibid., p.174.
1 Arctic Council, Arctic Marine Shipping Assessment Report,2009, www.nrf.is/index.php/news/15-2009/60-Arctic-marine-shipping-assessment-report-2009.
2 Mann K.H., Environmental influences on fish and shellfish production in the Northwest Atlantic, Environmental Reviews, Vol.2, No.1,1994, pp.16-32.
3 冷池是气象学中的概念,主要指相对的冷空气区域范围。
4 Wyllie-Echeverriat Tina and Wooster W.S., Year-to-year variations in Bering Sea ice cover and some consequences for fish distributions, Fisheries Oceanography, Vol.7, No.2,2002, pp.159-170.
5 WTO Dispute Settlements, European Communities—Anti-Dumping Measure on Farmed Salmon from Norway (DS337),See:http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/dispu_e/cases_e/ds337_e.htm.
WTO Dispute Settlements, European Communities—Definitive Safeguard Measure on Salmon (DS328), See:http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/dispu_e/cases_e/ds328_e.htm.
1 渔船监测系统是一项渔业监视计划,渔船上安装的设备能够提供渔船位置和活动的信息。它有别于传统的监测方法,如海面和空中巡视、船上观察员、航海日志或码头审查。
2 Chadwick Bruce, Fisheries, Sovereignties and Red Herrings, Journal of International Affairs, Vol.48, No.2, 1995, pp.558-584.
1 Jabour Julia and Weber Melissa, Is it Time to Cut the Gordian Knot of Polar Sovereignty?, Reciel, Vol.17, No.1, 2008, pp.29-33.
2 许立阳：《国际海洋渔业资源法研究》,中国海洋大学出版社,2008年,第135页。
3 Burke William, The New International Law of Fisheries:UNCLOS 1982 and Beyond, Oxford:Clarendon,1994, pp.34-37.
4 苏长和：《全球公共问题与国际合作：一种制度的分析》,上海人民出版社,2000年,第113-116页。
5 严双伍、李默：“北极争端的症结及其解决路径——公共物品的视角”,《武汉大学学报(哲学社科版)》,2009年第6期,第75页。
6 联合国：《联合国海洋法公约》,“公海上捕鱼的权利”,第116条,http://www.un.org/zh/law/sea/los/.
1 FAO, Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries, http://www.fao.org/docrep/005/v9878c/v9878c00.HTM.
2 国际海洋法庭根据《联合国海洋法公约》,对于两种情况具有强制性管辖权：关于迅速释放船只和船员的程序(《公约》第292条)和在组成仲裁法庭之前制定临时措施的程序(《公约》第290条第5款),详见https://www.itlos.org/fileadmin/itlos/documents/brochure/ITLOS_Brochure_chinese.pdf.
3 2010年5月6日,国际海底管理局理事会决定请海底争端分庭就“区域”内活动的个人和实体的担保国的责任和义务提出咨询意见。“区域”系指《联合国海洋法公约》确立的国家管辖范围以外海床洋底及其底土。《公约》宣布,“区域”及其资源是人类共同继承财产。“区域”内的资源,例如多金属结核和多金属硫化物,由国际海底管理局管理。
1 United Nations, Agreement for the Implementation of the Provisions of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982 relating to the Conservation and management of Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks, http://www.un.org/depts/los/convention_agreements/texts/fish_stocks_agreement/CONF164_37.htm.
2 许立阳：《国际海洋渔业资源法研究》,中国海洋大学出版社,2008年,第107页。
1 AGP International Steering Committee:The Arctic Governance Project, Arctic Governance in an Era of Transformative Change:Critical Questions, Governance Principles, Ways Forward,2010, p.12.
1 Caporaso James, International Relations Theory and Multilateralism:The Search for Foundations, International Organization, Vol.46, No.3,1992, pp.600-601.
2 Kahler Miles, Multilateralism with Small and Large Numbers, International Organization, Vol.46, No.3,1992, p.681.
3 Keohane Robert, Multilateralism:An Agenda for Research, International Journal, Vol.45, No.3,1990, p.731.
4 Ruggie John, Multilateralism:The Anatomy of an Institution, International Organization, Vol.46, No.3,1992, pp.66-68.
1 [美]约翰·鲁杰著,苏长河等译：《多边主义》,浙江人民出版社,2003年,第13页。
2 Caporaso James, International Relations Theory and Multilateralism:The Search for Foundations, International Organization, Vol.46, No.3,1992, pp.600-601.
3 Hemmer Christopher and Katzenstein Peter, Why Is There No NATO in Asia? Collective Identity, Regionalism, and the Origins of Multilateralism, International Organization, Vol.56, No.3,2002, pp.575-576.
4 Ruggie John, Third Try at World Order? America and Multilateralism After the Cold War, Political Science Quarterly, Vol.109, No.4,1994, p.556.
5 Ruggie John, Multilateralism:The Anatomy of an Institution, International Organization, Vol.46, No.3,1992, p.574.
1 Keohane Robert, Reciprocity in International Relations, International Organization, Vol.40, No.1,1986, p.20.
2 Ibid., pp.21-22.
1 Morgenthau Hans, Politics among Nations,6th Edition, New York:Knopf:Random House,1985, pp.451-500.
2 秦亚青：“多边主义研究：理论与方法”,《世界经济与政治》,2001年第10期,第20页。
1 Keohane Robert, Governance in Partially Globalized World, The American Political Science Review, Vol.95, No.1,2001, p.1-13.
2 Commission on Global Governance, Our Global Neighborhood, Oxford University Press,1995, pp.2-3.
1 Kahler Miles, Multilateralism with Small and Large Numbers, International Organization, Vol.46, No.3,1992, pp.681-708.
2 Zacher Mark, Multilateralism Organizations and the Institution of Multilateralism:The Development of Regimes for the Non-Terrestrial Spaces, in Ruggie Gerard, Multilateralism Matters:The Theory and Praxis of an Institutional Form, Columbia University Press,1993, pp.399-442.
3 Kratchwil Friedrich and Ruggie Gerard, International Organization:A State of the Art on an Art of the State, International Organization, Vol.40, No.4,1986, p.770.
1 Van Oudenaren John, What Is'Multilateral'?, Policy Review, No.117,2003, pp.39-42.
2 Ruggie John, Multilateralism:The Anatomy of an Institution, International Organization, Vol.46, No.3,1992, p.572.
3 Kal Raustiala, Sovereignty and Multilateralism, Chicago Journal of international Law, Vol.1, No.2,2000, p. 402.
1 加权投票制度指按照会员国缴纳会费的额度来决定,缴纳会费越多其相应的投票加权就越大。
2 Brenner Michael ed., Multilateralism and Western Strategy, Palgrave Macmillan,1994, pp.217-220.
1 Sewell James ed., Multilateralism in Multinational Perspective, St. Martin's Press,2000, pp.175-189.
2 Ibid, pp.114-144.
3 Martin Lisa, Multilateral Organizations after the U.S.-lraq War of 2003, p.40, http://fiIes.wcfia.harvard.edu/747_Multilateral_organizations.pdf.
1 [英]戴维·赫尔德著,胡伟等译：《民主与全球秩序——从现代国家到世界主义治理》,上海人民出版社,2003年,第5页。
2 参见陆俊元：《北极地缘政治与中国应对》,时事出版社,2010年；柳思思：“近北极机制的提出与中国参与北极”,《社会科学》,2012年第10期。
2 合作剩余指合作者通过合作所得到的纯收益,也就是扣除合作成本后的收益(包括减少损失额),相较于不合作或竞争所能得到的纯收益即扣除竞争成本后的收益(也包括减少损失额)之间的差额。
1 Borgerson Scott, Arctic Meltdown, Foreign Affairs, Vol.87, No.2,2008, pp.63-77.
1 Nordquist Myron and Heidar Tomas, Changes in the Arctic Environmental and the Law of the Sea, Brill 2010, p.552-553.
2 Avango Dag and Hacquebord Louwrens, Between Markets and Geopolitics:Natural Resource Exploitation on Spitsbergen From 1600 to the Present Day, Polar Record Vol.47, No.1,2011, pp.30-32.
3 Ibid, p.32.
1 Wrakberg Urban, Nature Conservationism and the Arctic Commons of Spitsbergen 1900-1920. Acta Borealia, Vol.23, No.1,2006, pp.7-8.
2 (?)ystein Jensen and Rottem Svein, The Politics of Security and International Law in Norway's Arctic Waters, Polar Record, Vol.46, No.1,2010, p.79.
1 Molenaar Erik, Corell Robert, Koivurova Timo and Cavalieri Sandra, Introduction to the Background Papers, Arctic Transform,2008, p.17. www.arctic-tranform.eu.
1 Treaty Between Norway, The United States of America, Denmark, France, Italy, Japan, the Netherlands, Great Britain and Ireland and the British overseas Dominions and Sweden concerning Spitsbergen signed in Paris 9th February 1920, http://www.ub.uio.no/ujur/ulovdata/lov-19250717-011-eng.pdf.
2 ?ystein Jensen and Rottem Svein, The Politics of Security and International Law in Norway's Arctic Waters, Polar Record, Vol.46, No.1,2010, pp.75-83.
3 Torbj?rn Pedersen, Denautical milesark's Policies Toward the Svalbard Area, Ocean Development and International Law, Vol.40, No.4,2009, pp.319-332.
1 Nordauist Mvron and Heidar Tomas. Changes in the Arctic Environmental and the Law of the Sea. Brill 2010. n 555-556.
2 Torbj?rn Pedersen, the Svalbard Continental Shelf Controversy:Legal Disputes and Political Rivalries. Ocean Development and International Law, Vol.37, No.2,2006, pp.339-358.
3 Figenschou Raaen, Hydrocarbons and Jurisdictional Disputes in the High North:Explaining the Rationale of Norway's High North Policy. Fridtjof Nansen Institute,2008, p80.
4 Torbj?rn Pedersen, the Svalbard Continental Shelf Controversy:Legal Disputes and Political Rivalries. Ocean Development and International Law, Vol.37, No.2,2006, pp.339-358.
5 Ibid,p.345.
6 Ibid,p.350.
1 边缘海又称陆缘海(Marginal Sea),是位于大陆和大洋的边缘的海洋。其一侧以大陆为界,另一侧以半岛、岛屿或岛弧与大洋分隔。
2 陆间海也称地中海或自然内海,在海洋学上指具有海洋的特质,但被陆地环绕,形成一个形似湖泊但具海洋特质的海洋,一般与大洋之间仅以较窄的海峡相连。
1 ?streng Willy.The International Northern Sea Route Programme:Applicable Lessons Learned, Polar Record, Vol.42, No.1,2006, pp.71-81.
1 Northern Sea Route Information Office, http://www.arctic-lio.com/NSR.
2 Northern Sea Route Information Office, http://arctic-lio.com/images/nsr/nsr_1020x631.jpg.
1 Kolodkin A.L. and Volosov M.E., The Legal Regime of the Soviet Arctic:Major Issues, Marine policy, Vol.14, No.2,1990,pp.158-169.
2 郭培清、管清蕾：“探析俄罗斯对北方海航道的控制问题”,《中国海洋大学学报(社会科学版)》,2010年第2期,第7页。
3 Franckx Erik, Maritime Claims in the Arctic:Canadian and Russian Perspectives, Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1993, pp.156.
1 Northern Sea Route Information Office, Transit Statistics, http://www.arctic-lio.com/nsr_transits.
" Kramer Andrew and Revkin Andrew, Arctic Shortcut Beckons Shippers as ice Thaws, New York Times, September 11,2009, http://www.nytimes.com/2009/09/11/science/earth/11passage.html?_r=l.
3 Northern Sea Route Information Office, NSR Transit 2013, http://www.arctic-lio.com/docs/nsr/transits/Transits_2013_final.pdf.
1 Wilson K.J., Falkingham J., Melling H. and De Abreu R., Shipping in the Canadian Arctic:Other Possible Climate Change Scenarios, in International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium,20-24 September 2004, Anchorage, Alaska, Proceedings, vol.3, IEEE International, New York,2004, pp. 1853-1856.http://arctic.noaa.gov/detect/KW IGARSS04 NWP.pdf.
2 张侠：“北极航道海运货流类型及其规模研究”,《极地研究》,2013年第2期,第25页。
1 无害通过权不包括涉及科研、捕鱼、间谍侦察、走私、污染和武器试验等活动。
2 ?streng Willy, The Ignored Arctic, Northern Perspectives, Vol.27, No.2,2002, pp.1-17.
3 张侠：“北极航线的海运经济潜力评估及其对我国经济发展的战略意义”,《中国软科学》,2009年第2期,第35页。
1 [英]罗伯特·詹宁斯、亚瑟·瓦茨著,王铁崖等译：《奥本海国际法》,中国大百科全书出版社,1998年,第47页。
2 刘惠荣：《海洋法视角下的北极法律问题研究》,中国政法大学出版社,2012年,第142-145页。
3 Government of Canada, Arctic Waters Pollution Prevention Act,part 2, https://www.tc.gc.ca/eng/marinesafety/debs-arctic-acts-regulations-awppa-494.htm.
4 Ibid, Part 11-1.
1 Government of Canada, Arctic Waters Pollution Prevention Act, Part 12-1, a-b, https://www.tc.gc.ca/eng/marinesafety/debs-arctic-acts-regulations-awppa-494.htm.
2 Ibid, Part 12-1, c.
3 Press Release of the Prime Minister of Canada, Extending the Jurisdiction of Canadian Environment and Shipping Laws in the Arctic,27 August 2008, www.pm.gc.ca/eng/media.asp?id=2246.
4 郭培清：《北极航道的国际问题研究》,海洋出版社,2009年,第77页。
5 Reid Robert, the Canadian claim to sovereignty over the waters of the Arctic, The Canadian Yearbook of International Law,1974, pp.111-136.
6 Pharand Donat, Canada's Arctic Waters in International Law, Polar Research, Ottawa:University of Ottawa Press,1985, p.185.
1 A Tnint Rennrt from Fridtiof Nansen Institute and DNV. Arctic Resource Development:Risk and Responsible Management, http://www.dnv.com/binaries/arctic_resource_development_tcm4-532195.pdf.
1 联合国：《联合国海洋法公约》,第234条,http://www.un.org/zh/law/sea/los/articlel2.shtml.
1 IMO, About IMO, http://www.imo.org/Pages/home.aspx.
2 IMO, http://www.imo.org/About/Pages/Default.aspx.
1 Port Research Centre, the Possibilities of Container Transit shipping via the Northern Sea Route:Using Backcasting to Gain Insight in the Path stat Lead to a Feasible Arctic Shipping Route, Delft University of Technology,2009.
1 主要包括：1966年的《国际载重线公约》(International Convention on Load Lines)、1969年的《国际油污损害民事责任公约》(International Convention on Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage)、1971年的《设立国际油污损害赔偿基金公约的1976年议定书》(Protocol of 1976 to the International Convention on the Establishment of An International Fund for Compensation for Oil Pollution Damage)、1972年的《防止因倾倒废物及其它物质污染海洋的公约》(Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter)、1972年的《国际海上避碰规则公约》(Convention on the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea, COLREGS),1973年的《防止船舶造成污染的国际公约》、1974年的《国际海上人命安全公约》、1978年的《国际海员培训、发证和值班标准公约》(International Convention on Standards of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping for Seafarers, STCW)、1979年的《国际海上搜寻救助公约》等(International Convention on Maritime Search and Rescue, SAR Convention)、1990年的《油污防备反应和合作国际公约》(International Convention on Oil Pollution Preparedness, Response and Co-operation)、2000年的《有害和有毒物质污染事故的防备、反应与合作议定书》(The Protocol on Preparedness, Response and Co-operation to pollution Incidents by Hazardous and Noxious Substances)。
2 Van der Zwaag David, Governance of Arctic Marine Shipping, Dalhousie University:Halifax,2008, p.14.
3 IMO, International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea, Technical Provisions,1974, http://www.imo.org/About/Conventions/ListOfConventions/Pages/International-Convention-for-the-Safety-of-Life-at-Sea-(SOLAS),-l 974.aspx.
4 ?ystein Jensen, The IMO Guidelines for Ships Operating in Arctic Ice-covered Waters. From Voluntary to Mandatory Tool for Navigation Safety and Environmental Protection? Fridtjof Nansen Institute Report,2007. pp. 8-11.http://www.fni.no/doc&pdf/FNI-R0207.pdf.
5 IMO, Maritime Safety Committee,59/30/32,1991, http://www.imo.org/MediaCentre/MeetingSummaries/MSC/Pages/Default.aspx.
1 IMO, International Code of Safety for Ships in Polar Waters, Ship Design and Equipment 41-10, Annex 1, p.3.
2 IMO, Guidelines for Ships Operating in Arctic Ice-covered waters,http://www.imo.org/Publications/Documents/Attachments/Pages%20from%20E190E.pdf.
3 Ibid,G-3.2.
4 ?ystein Jensen, Arctic Shipping Guidelines:Towards a Legal Regime for Navigational Safety and Environmental Protection? Polar Record, Vol.44, No.2,2008, p.109.
5 ?ystein Jensen, The IMO Guidelines for Ships Operating in Arctic Ice-covered Waters:From Voluntary to Mandatory Tool for Navigation Safety and Environmental Protection? Fridtjof Nansen Institute Report,2007, p.17. http://www.fni.no/doc&pdf/FNI-R0207.pdf.
6 IMO, Guidelines for Ships Operating in Polar Waters, Resolution A,1024-26,2009, http://www.imo.org/Publications/Documents/Attachments/Pages%20from%20E190E.pdf.
7 IACS, Polar Class:Requirements concerning, Req.2011, http://www.iacs.org.uk/document/public/Publications/Unified_requirements/PDF/UR_I_pdf410.pdf.
1 The Structural Design and Engine Output Required of Ships for Navigation in Ice, Finnish-Swedish Ice Class Rules, http://www.sjofartsverket.se/pages/40584/b100_1.pdf.
1 联合国：《联合国海洋法公约》,第234条,http://www.un.org/zh/law/sea/los/articlel2.shtml.
1 夏征农、陈至立：《辞海》,上海辞书出版社,2010年,第3516页。
2 Douglas Angela, Symbiotic Interactions, Oxford:Oxford University Press,1994, p.1-11.
3 杨玲丽：“共生理论在社会科学领域的应用”,《社会科学论坛》,2010年第16期,149-157页。
4 洪黎民：“共生概念发展的历史、现状及展望”,《中国微生态学杂志》,1996年第4期,第50页。
1 [日]黑川纪章著,覃力译：《新共生思想》,中国建筑工业出版社,2009年,第10页。
2 Engberg Holger, Industrial Symbiosis in Denmark, Stern School of Business Press,1993, pp.25-26.
3 李思强：《共生建构说：论纲》,中国社会科学出版社,2004年,第15-20页。
4 胡守钧：《走向共生》,上海文化出版社,2002年,第30页。
5 吴飞驰：《企业的共生理论：我看见了看不见的手》,人民出版社,2002年,第82页。
1 胡守钧：《社会共生论》,复旦大学出版社,2006年,第22页。
2 包括两主体间资源交换模型的共生关系、多主体间资源交换模型的共生关系、多主体同一资源分享型共生关系、两主体间同一资源竞争型的共生关系、多主体间同一资源竞争型的共生关系。详见胡守钧：“国际共生论”,《国际观察》,2012年第4期,第36页。
3 金应忠：“国际社会共生论——和平发展时代国际关系理论”,《社会科学》,2011年第10期,第13页。
1 Moor James, Predators and Prey:A New Ecology of Competition, Harvard Business Review, Vol.73, No.5, 1993, pp.22-31.
2 Kogut Bruce, The Stability of Joint Ventures:Reciprocity and Competitive Rivalry, Journal of Industrial Economics, Vol.38, No.2,1989, pp.183-198.
3 Park Seung Ho and Russo Michael, When Competition Eclipses Cooperation:An Event History Analysis of Joint Venture Failure, Management Science, Vol.42, No.6,1996, pp.875-890.
1 袁纯清：《共生理论——兼论小型经济》,经济科学出版社,1998年,第25页。
2 徐学军：《助推新世纪的经济腾飞》,科学出版社,2008年,第120页。
3 偏利共生这一概念最早出现于生物学的中,又称为偏利共栖现象。指某两物种间的共生关系,其中一种的生物会因这个关系而获得生存上的利益,另一方的生物在这一关系中没有获得任何益处,也没有获得任何害处,只是带动对方去获取利益。
1 金应忠：“共生性国际社会与中国的和平发展”,《国际观察》,2012年第4期,第44页。
2 这里的价值凝聚力主要指建立在共同的理想信念、价值追求、统一意志上的精神力量,并由此形成多民族国家赖以生存和发展的精神支撑。
1 李思强：《共生建构说：论纲》,中国社会科学出版社,2004年,第188-189页。
2 袁纯清：《共生理论——兼论小型经济》,经济科学出版社,1998年,第48-73页。
3 笔者认为,共生治理是北极治理范式中的高级阶段,是根据现有治理基础设定的可行性目标,并不意味着解决北极问题或其他全球性问题的终极形式。
1 Stokke Olav, International Institutions and Arctic Governance, in Stokke Olav and Geir Honneland eds., International Cooperation and Arctic Governance:Regime Effectiveness and Northern Region Building, London and New York:Routledge,2006, pp.175-177.
2 United Nations, UN and Climate Change, http://www.un.org/zh/climatechange/regional.shtml.
1 ACIA, Arctic Climate Impact Assessment. New York:Cambridge University Press,2005, pp.95-155.
2 Antholis William, A Changing Climate:The Road Ahead for the United States, The Washington Quarterly, Vol. 31, No.1,2007, p.176.
3 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Climate Change 2013:the Physical Science Basis,2014, https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar5/wgl/.
4 Orheim Olav, Protecting the Environment of the Arctic Ecosystem, Proceeding of a Conference on United Nations Open-ended Informal Consultative Process on Oceans and the Law of the Sea, Fourth Meeting, New York: UN Headquarters,2003, pp.2-5.
5 Roderfeld Hedwig et.al, Potential Impact of Climate Change on Ecosystems of the Barents Sea Region, Climate Change, Vol.87, No.2,2008, pp.283-285.
6 Young Oran, Arctic Governance:Preparing for the Next Phase,2002, http://www.arcticparl.org/_res/site/File/images/conf5_scpar20021.pdf.
7 Rayfuse Rosemary, Protecting Marine Biodiversity in Polar Areas beyond National Jurisdiction, Review of European Community and International Environmental Law, Vol.17, No.1,2008, pp.5-6.
8 Rayfuse Rosemary, Melting Moments:The Future of Polar Oceans Governance in a Warming World, Review of European Community and International Environmental Law, Vol.16, No.2,2007,pp.210-211.
1 Fridtjof Nansen Institute and DNV, Arctic Resource Development:Risks and Responsible Management, Joint Report,2012, http://www.dnv.com/binaries/arctic_resource_development_tcm4-532195.pdf.
2 杨洁勉：《国际危机泛化与中美共同应对》,时事出版社,2010年,第37页。
1 治理碎片化主要指在权力分散、组织界限模糊和问题全球化和地区化并存的条件下,治理主体之间很难建立起有效的协调配合机制,单一式的治理模式将被个性化的特定模式所代替,呈现出更为个性化、多元化、异质化和去中心化等特征。
2 Hawkins Darren ed., Delegation and Agency in International Organizations, Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2006,pp.11-20.
1 这种反向退化指由于反向回流效应造成范式递进减缓、停滞和逆向发展的内部或外部作用力,与正向流入效应相对应。
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1 The Antarctic Treaty, http://www.ats.aq/documents/ats/trcaty original.pdf.
2 《南极条约》50个缔约国中,只有28个协商国有权表决和通过决议,而其他22个非协商国则只能列席会议,不能参与表决。协商国包括12个起草国及16个在南极开展实质性科学考察活动的国家。
1 附件六《环境紧急状况下的责任》于2005年6月在瑞典斯德哥尔摩通过,正待各国批准。
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2 主要指在机会主义动机的驱动下,个体参与公共物品的消费,但不愿承担组织与管理公共物品的成本。这种做法使公共物品在组织与管理上陷入困境,最终对公共物品形成侵害。
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