摘要
从沙尘源区产生的沙尘气溶胶、来自生物质燃烧和化石燃料燃烧的黑碳和有机碳气溶胶是最主要的三类吸收性气溶胶。由吸收性气溶胶产生的辐射强迫是全球和区域气候变化不确定性最大的来源之一。识别吸收性气溶胶并估计其光学特性能够深入了解和准确估计吸收性气溶胶的直接、半直接和间接效应,进而对气候变化研究都有着非常重要的意义。本文首先通过卫星观测对沙尘气溶胶长距离传输和垂直结构特征进行分析,并发展了一套结合多卫星识别沙尘气溶胶的新算法。同时通过对地面观测AERONET资料的分析发展了一套地面识别吸收性气溶胶的方法。
在太平洋沙尘实验期间(PACDEX),用云-气溶胶偏振激光雷达(CALIOP)和地面标准数据来研究亚洲对流层中沙尘气溶胶的长距离传输和垂直分布特征。结果表明,在太平洋地区,气溶胶主要呈现两层结构,这主要同两个不同的沙尘源区有关系。从CALIOP观测的后向散射退偏比的垂直分布可以看出,从戈壁沙漠地区发生的沙尘一般都低于5千米,通常经过3天左右的时间到达太平洋,而从塔克拉玛干沙漠发生的沙尘有时能够达到9千米,这种情况一般需要5天或者更长的时间到达太平洋。说明进入到对流层上层西风急流的沙尘气溶胶可以被长距离传输达到更远。
我们发展了一套结合主动CALIOP和被动红外成像仪(IIR)识别沙尘气溶胶的算法。这种结合激光雷达和红外观测(CLIM)的方法主要是用IIR三波段红外亮温来区分冰云和厚沙尘层并用激光雷达识别薄沙尘和水云层。一般来说厚沙尘层的10.6和12.05微米的亮温差(BTD11-12)是负值,冰云层的亮温差是正值,对于薄沙尘层来说,亮温差会从负值到正值之间变化,这种情况正好可以用CALIOP准确识别。塔克拉玛干沙漠在2008年春季的结果表明,美国国家航天局第二版CALIOP的沙尘层识别方法会误判43%的沙尘层(几乎所有的厚沙尘层)为云层,而我们的CLIM新方法会显著的减小这种误判到7%。
我们用AERONET观测资料发展了一种获取吸收性气溶胶来源分类的方法。该方法主要是从AERONET观测资料得到散射和吸收Angstrom旨数,进而利用这些气溶胶光学参量把吸收性气溶胶来源分为以下六类:沙尘、生物质燃烧、化石燃料燃烧、沙尘和生物质燃烧混合、生物质和化石燃料燃烧混合和混合污染物。
为了从AERONET观测数据识别吸收性气溶胶,我们发展了一套结合吸收Angstrom指数(AAE)来识别沙尘、黑碳和有机碳气溶胶的方法(三波段方法)。通过对吸收性气溶胶混合数据进行分析,我们估算出沙尘气溶胶AAE1(440和675nm)和AAE2(675和870nm)分别是2.24和1.29,黑碳气溶胶AAE1和AAE2是0.33和0.69,有机碳气溶胶的AAE1是4.21。把沙尘、黑碳和有机碳的AAEs代入三波段方程中,从而估计出它们的光学特征,并把这些结果同GOCART模式结果和外场实验结果作比较。结果表明:用三波段方法得到的550nm波段的有机碳和黑碳气溶胶的光学厚度比是1.33和吸收光学厚度比是0.26,GOCART模式得到的结果分别为1.94和0.05,而外场试验INDOEX和SAFARI的结果是1.4~1.5和0.27,对比分析可知三波段的结果同外场实验结果一致。因此,通过本文我们可以更加准确的估计沙尘、黑碳和有机碳气溶胶的对气候的影响。
Dust aerosol from dust source region, black carbon (BC) and organic carbon (OC) aerosols from biomass burning and fossil fuel are the three main types of light-absorbing aerosols. The radiative forcing due to light-absorbing aerosols is one of the largest sources of uncertainties in global and regional climate change. To identify the light-absorbing aerosols and estimate their optical properties have very important significance for understanding and estimating direct, semi-direct, and indirect effects by light-absorbing aerosols and climate change research. In this study, we use satellite observations to obtain the long-range transport and vertical distribution of dust aerosol, then, developed a new dust aerosol detection method. We also developed another new method to partition the light-absorbing aerosols using the AERONET observations.
During the Pacific Dust Experiment (PACDEX), the Cloud-Aerosol Lidar with Orthogonal Polarization (CALIOP) and standard surface measurements are used to directly observe the long-range transport and vertical distribution of Asian dust aerosol in the free troposphere. The results show that two-layers dust aerosol structures in Pacific Ocean are often apparent, which may be associated with contributions from two major dust sources. The vertical distribution of the CALIOP backscattering/depolarization ratios indicate that non-spherically shaped dust aerosols floated from near the groud to an altitude of bellow5km in Gobi desert, which it usually takes three days to reach the Pacific Oceans and approximately9km around the Taklamakan desert, which need five or more days to arrive in the Pacific Oceans. This suggests the possible long-range transport of entrained dust aerosols via upper tropospheric westerly jets and it can be reached more distant.
A new dust aerosol detection method was developed by combining the active CALIOP and passive Infrared Imaging Radiometer (IIR) measurements. This combined lidar and IR measurement (hereafter, CLIM) method uses the IIR tri-spectral IR brightness temperatures to discriminate between ice cloud and dense dust layers, and lidar measurements to detect thin dust and water cloud layers. The brightness temperature difference between10.60and12.05μm (BTD11-12) is typically negative for dense dust layer and generally positive for ice cloud layer, but it varies from negative to positive for thin dust layers, which the CALIOP correctly identifies. Results show that the CLIM method could significantly reduce misclassification rates to as low as-7%for the active dust season of spring2008over the Taklamakan Desert, which the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) version2CALIOP dust layer detection method misclassified about43%dust layers (almost dense dust layers) as cloud layers.
Then, we developed a new method to partition the light-absorbing aerosols sources from AERONET observations. The aerosol spectral variations, scattering and absorption angstrom exponent from AERONET observations, are used to categorize6kinds of the absorption aerosols mixtures:Dust, Biomass Burning, Fossil Fuel, Mixed Dust with Biomass Burning, Mixed Biomass Burning with Fossil Fuel, and Mixed Pollution.
For detecting the absorption aerosols from AERONET observations, another new method (three wavelengths method) was developed by using the absorption angstrom exponents (AAE) to indicate dust, black carbon, and organic carbon compositions. We found the dust AAE1(between440and675nm) and AAE2(between675and870nm) is2.24and1.29respectively, the black carbon AAE1is0.33and AAE2is0.69, and the organic carbon AAE1is4.21from the absorption aerosols mixtures data. Then we put the dust, black carbon, and organic carbon AAEs in the three wavelengths equations, to estimate their optical properties, and to compare the results with GOCART model results and field campaigns observations. The AODOC/AODBC and AAODOC/AAODBC ratios at550nm are1.33and0.26by using the three wavelengths method, and1.94and0.05from GOCART model. We found our results are more consistent with the field INDOEX and SAFARI campaigns, whose results show that the AODOC/AODBc at550nm is1.4-1.5, and AAODOC/AAODBC ratios is about0.27. These results allow a more accurate assessment of the effect of dust, black carbon, and organic carbon on climate.
引文
Albrecht, B. A.,1989:Aerosols, cloud microphysics, and fractional cloudiness, Science,245, 1227-1230.
Babu, S. S., K. K. Moorthy, and S. K. Satheesh,2004:Aerosol black carbon over Arabian Sea during intermonsoon and summer monsoon seasons. Geophys. Res. Lett.,31, L06104, doi:10.1029/2003GL018716.
Cao, G., Zhang, X., and Zheng, F.,2006:Inventory of black carbon and organic carbon emissions from China, Atmos. Environ.,40,6516-6527.
Castro, L. M., C. A. Pio, R. M. Harrison, and D. J. T. Smith,1999:Carbonaceous aerosol in urban and rural European atmospheres:Estimation of secondary organic carbon concentrations, Atmos. Environ.,33,2771-2781.
Cavazos, C, M. C. Todd, and K. Schepanski,2009:Numerical model simulation of the Saharan dust event of 6-11 March 2006 using the Regional Climate Model version 3 (RegCM3), J. Geophys. Res.,114, D12109, doi:10.1029/2008JD011078.
Chinnam, N., S. Dey, S. N. Tripathi, and M. Sharma,2006:Dust events in Kanpur, northern India: Chemical evidence for source and implications to radiative forcing, Geophys. Res. Lett.,33, L08803,doi:10.1029/2005GL025278.
Cooke, W.F., Liousse, C., Cachier, H., Feichter, J.,1999:Construction of a 1_C fossil fuel emission data set for carbonaceous aerosol andimplementatio n in the ECHAM4 model. Journal of Geophysical Research 104,22137-22162.
Flanner, M. G., Zender, C. S., Randerson, J. T. & Rasch, P. J.,1999:Present-day climate forcing and response from black carbon in snow. J. Geophys. Res.112, D11202.
Habib, G., Venkataraman, C., Shrivastava, M., Banerjee, R., Stehr, J., and Dickerson, R.,2004: New methodology for estimating biofuel consumption in India:atmospheric emissions of black carbon and sulfur dioxide", Global Biogeochemical Cycles, doi:10.1029/2003GB002157.
Hadley, O. L., Ramanathan, V., Carmichael, G. R., Tang, Y., Corrigan, C. E., Roberts, G. C., and Mauger, G. S.,2007:Trans-Pacific transport of black carbon and fine aerosols (D<2.5 mm) into North America, J. Geophys. Res.,112, D05309, doi:10.1029/2006JD007632.
Han, Y., Fang, X., Kang, S., Wang, H., and Kang, F.,2008:Shifts of dust source regions over central Asia and the Tibetan Plateau:Connections with the Arctic oscillation and the westerly jet, Atmos. Environ.,42,10,2358-2368.
Hansen, A. D. A., B. A. Bodhaine, E. G. Dutton, and R. C. Schnell,1988:Aerosol black carbon measurement at the South Pole:Initial results,1986-1987, Geophys. Res. Lett.,15, 1193-1196.
Haywood, J.M., and K.P. Shine,1995:The Effect of Anthropogenic Sulfate and Soot Aerosol On The Clear Sky Planetary Radiation Budget, Geophy. Res. Lett.,22,603-606.
Hendricks, J., B. Karcher, A. Dopelheur, J. Feichter, U. Lohmann, and D. Baumgardner,2004: Simulating the global atmospheric black carbon cycle:A revisit to the contribution of aircraft emissions, Atmos. Chem. Phys.,4,2521-2541.
Hendricks, J., B. Karcher, U. Lohmann, M. Ponater,2005:Do aircraft black carbon emissions affect cirrus clouds on the global scale? Geophys. Res. Lett.,32 p. L12814 http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2005GL022740.
Huang, J., Lin, B., Minnis, P., Wang, T., Wang, X., Hu, Y., Yi, Y., and Ayers, J. K.,2006a: Satellite-based assessment of possible dust aerosols semidirect effect on cloud water path over East Asia, Geophys. Res. Lett.,33, L19802, doi:10.1029/2006GL026561.
Huang, J., Minnis, P., Lin, B., Wang, T., Yi, Y., Hu, Y., Sun-Mack, S., and Ayers, K.,2006b: Possible influences of Asian dust aerosols on cloud properties and radiative forcing observed from MODIS and CERES, Geophys. Res. Lett.,33, L06824, doi:10.1029/2005GL024724.
Huang, J., P. Minnis, Y.Yi, Q.Tang, X. Wang, Y. Hu, Z. Liu, K. Ayers, C. Trepte, and D. Winker, 2007:Summer dust aerosols detected from CALIPSO over the Tibetan Plateau, Geophys. Res. Lett.,34, L18805, doi:10.1029/2007GL029938.
Huang J., Q. Fu, J. Su, Q. Tang, P. Minnis, Y. Hu, Y. Yi, and Q. Zhao,2009:Taklimakan dust aerosol radiative heating derived from CALIPSO observations using the Fu-Liou radiation model with CERES constraints, Atmos. Chem. Phys.,9,4011-4021.
Huang J., Q. Fu, W. Zhang, X. Wang, R. Zhang, H. Ye, and S. Warren,2011:Dust and Black Carbon in Seasonal Snow Across Northern China, Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc.,92,175-181. doi: 10.1175/2010BAMS3064.1
Kaufman, Y. J., and R. S. Farser,1997:The effect of smoke particles on clouds and climate forcing. Science,277,1636-1639.
Kirkevag, A., T. Iversen, and A. Dahlback,1999:On radiative effects of black carbon and sulphate aerosols, Atmos. Environ.,33,2621-2635.
Koch, D., et al.,2009:Evaluation of black carbon estimations in global aerosol models, Atmos. Chem. Phys. Discuss.,9,15,769-15,825.
Li, F., P. Ginoux, and V. Ramaswamy,2008:Distribution, transport, and deposition of mineral dust in the Southern Ocean and Antarctica:Contribution of major sources, J. Geophys. Res.,113, D10207,doi:10.1029/2007JD009190.
Liu, D., Wang, Z., Liu, Z., Winker, D., and Trepte, C.,2008:A height resolved global view of dust aerosols from the first year CALIPSO lidar measurements, J. Geophys. Res.,113, D16214, doi:10.1029/2007JD009776.
McConnell, J. R., R. Edwards, G. L. Kok, M. G. Flanner, C. S. Zender, E. S. Saltzman, J. R. Banta, D. R. Pasteris, M. M. Carter, and J. D. W. Kahl,2007:20th-century industrial black carbon emissions altered arctic climate forcing, Science,317,1381-1384, doi:10.1126/science.1144856.
Novakov, T., Hansen, J.E.,2004:Black carbon emission in the United Kingdom during the past four decades:an empirical analysis. Atmos. Environ.38,4155-4163.
Pakkanen, A., V.-M Kerminen, C.H Ojanen, R.E Hillamo, P Aarnio, T Koskentalo,2000: Atmospheric black carbon in Helsinki. Atmospheric Environment,34, pp.1497-1506.
Parungo, F., C. Nagamoto, M.-Y. Zhou, A. D. A. Hansen, and J. Harris,1994:Aeolian transport of aerosol black carbon from China to the ocean, Atmos. Environ.,27,3251-3260.
Penner, J. E., H. Eddleman, and T. Novakov,1993:Towards the development of a global inventory for black carbon emissions, Atmos. Environ., Part A,27,1277-1295.
Petzold, A. M. Schonlinner,2004:Multi-angle absorption photometry—a new method for the measurement of aerosol light absorption and atmospheric black carbon. Journal of Aerosol Science,35, pp.421-441.
Prospero, J., and P. Lamb,2003:African droughts and dust transport to the Caribbean:Climate change implications, Science,302,1024-1027.
Ramanathan, V., Ramana, M. V., Roberts, G., Kim, D., Corrigan, C., Chung, C., andWinker, D., 2007:Warming trends in Asia amplified by brown cloud solar absorption, Nature,448, 575-578, doi:10.1038/nature06019.
Reddy, M. S., and O. Boucher,2007:Climate impact of black carbon emitted from energy consumption in the world's regions, Geophys. Res. Lett.,34, L11802, doi:10.1029/2006GL028904.
Sato, M., J. Hansen, D. Koch, A. Lacis, R. Ruedy, O. Dubovik, B. Holben, M. Chin, and T. Novakov,2003:Global atmospheric black carbon inferred from AERONET, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.,100(11),6319-6324.
Seinfeld, J. H.,2008:Black carbon and brown clouds, Nature Geoscience,1,15.
Slingo, A., Ackerman, T. P., Allan, R. P., Kassianov, E. I., McFarlane, S. A., Robinson, G. J., Barnard, J. C, Miller, M. A., Harries, J. E., Russell, J. E., and Dewitte, S.,2006: Observations of the impact of a major Saharan dust storm on the atmospheric radiation balance, Geophys. Res. Lett.,33, L24817, doi:10.1029/2006GL027869.
Streets, D.G., Gupta, S., Waldhoff, S.T., Wang, M.Q., Bond, T.C., Yiyun, B.,2001:Black carbon emissions in China. Atmospheric Environment 35,4281-4296.
Su, J., Huang, J., Fu, Q., Minnis, P., Ge, J., and Bi, J.,2008:Estimation of Asian dust aerosol effect on cloud radiation forcing using Fu-Liou radiative model and CERES measurements, Atmos. Chem. Phys.,8,2763-2771.
Sun, J., M. Zhang, and T. Liu,2001:Spatial and temporal characteristics of dust storms in China and its surrounding regions,1960-1999:Relations to source area and climate, J. Geophys. Res.,106(D10),10,325-10,333.
Tanaka, T. Y., and M. Chiba,2006:A numerical study of the contributions of dust source regions to the global dust budgets, Global Planet. Changes,52,88-104.
Tegen, I.,2003:Modeling the mineral dust aerosol cycle in the climate system, Quat. Sci. Rev.,22, 19,1821-1834.
Tripathi, S. N., S. Dey, V. Tare, and S. K. Satheesh,2005:Aerosol black carbon radiative forcing at an industrial city in northern India, Geophys. Res. Lett.,32, L08802, doi:10.1029/2005GL022515.
Twomey, S. A., Piepgrass, M., and Wolfe, T. L.,1984:An assessment of the impact of pollution on global cloud albedo, Tellus B,36,356-366.
Wang, C.,2007:Impact of direct radiative forcing of black carbon aerosols on tropical convective precipitation, Geophys. Res. Lett.,34, L05709, doi:10.1029/2006GL028416.
Yang, M., Howell, S. G., Zhuang, J., and Huebert, B. J.,2009:Attribution of aerosol light absorption to black carbon, brown carbon, and dust in China-interpretations of atmospheric measurements during EAST-AIRE, Atmos. Chem. Phys.,9,2035-2050.
Zender, C.S.,2004:Quantifying mineral dust mass budgets:terminology, constraints, and current estimates. Eos.,85,509-512.
Zhang X. Y., Arimoto R., Asl Z. S.,1997:Dust emissions from Chinese desert sources linked to variations in atmospheric circulation. J. Geophys. Res.,102 (D23):18707-18726.
陈颖军,姜晓华,支国瑞,冯艳丽,盛国英,傅家谟,2009:中国民用燃煤的黑碳排放及控制减排[J].我国科学,39(11):1554-1559.
曹国良,张小曳,王亚强,2006:中国大陆黑碳气溶胶排放清单[J].气候变化研究进展,2(6):259-264.
方宗义,张运刚,郑新江,曹云昌,2001:用气象卫星遥感监测沙尘暴的方法和初步结果[J].第四纪研究,21(1):48-55.
冯建东,陈长和,陈勇航,张武,黄艇,张镭,郭铌,2006:利用多通道MODIS遥感资料反演沙尘气溶胶尺度分布的个例试验[J].高原气象,25(2):242-248.
高庆先,任阵海,张运刚,李占青,普布次人,2004:利用静止卫星资料跟踪沙尘天气的发生、发展及其传输[J].资源科学,26(5):35-40.
韩涛,李耀辉,郭铌,2005:基于EoS/MODIS资料的沙尘遥感监测模型研究[J].高原气象,24(5):757-764.
郝丽,杨文,吴统文,石广玉,赵剑琦,谭燕,2010:黑碳-硫酸盐混合气溶胶的辐射特性分析[J].高原气象,29(5):1238-1245
胡秀清,卢乃锰,张鹏,2007:利用静止气象卫星红外通道遥感监测.中国沙尘暴[J].应用气象学报,18(3):266-275.
黄虹,李顺诚,曹军骥,邹长伟,陈新庚,2006:大气气溶胶中有机碳和元素碳监测方法的进展[J].分析科学学报,22(2):225-229.
黄美元,王自发,1998:东亚地区黄沙长距离输送模式设计[J].大气科学,22(4):625-637.
栾胜基,毛节泰,1986:大气气溶胶吸收系数的测量[J].气象学报,44(3):321-327.
李杨,曹军骥,张小曳,车慧正,2005:2003年秋季西安大气中黑碳气溶胶的演化特征及其来源解析[J].气候与环境研究,10(2):229-237.
刘东,戚福弟,金传佳,岳古明,周军,2003:合肥上空卷云和沙尘气溶胶退偏振比的激光雷达探测[J].大气科学,27(6):1093-1100.
李建云,张杰,田密,2009:中国地区黑碳气溶胶直接辐射效应的数值模拟研究[J].气象与减灾研究,32(1),17-24.
罗敬宁,范一大,史培军,陆文杰,周俊华,2003:多源遥感数据沙尘暴强度监测的信息可比方法[J].自然灾害学报,12(2):28-34.
吕萍,董治宝,张克存,2011:黑碳和有机碳气溶胶对大气温度影响的数值模拟[J].中国沙漠,31(2):500-504.
康凤琴,银燕,张逸轩,2009:中国北方沙尘气溶胶对云和降水影响的数值模拟研究[J].气象,35(6):36-45.
马井会,张华,郑有飞,孙治安,2007:沙尘气溶胶光学厚度的全球分布及分析[J].气候与环境研究,12(2):156-164.
马井会,郑有飞,张华,2007:黑碳气溶胶光学厚度的全球分布及分析[J].气象科学,27(5):549-556.
明镜,秦大河,效存德,2005:雪冰中的黑炭记录研究的历史回顾[J].冰川冻土,27(4):539-544.
牛生杰,孙照渤,2005:春末中国西北沙漠地区沙尘气溶胶物理特性的飞机观测[J].高原气象, 24(4):35-42.
钱云,符淙斌,王淑瑜,1999:沙尘气溶胶与气候变化[J].地球科学进展,14(4):391-394
石广“玉,王标,张华,赵剑琦,檀赛春,温天雪,2008:大气气溶胶的辐射与气候效应[J].大气科学,32(4):826-840.
石广玉,赵思雄,2003:沙尘暴研究中的若干科学问题[J].大气科学,27(4):591-606.
孙家仁,刘煜,2008:中国区域气溶胶对东亚夏季风的可能影响(Ⅰ):硫酸盐气溶胶的影响[J].气候变化研究进展,6(002):111-116.
汤洁,温玉璞,周凌晞,祁栋林,郑明,1999:中国西部大气清洁区黑碳气溶胶的观测研究[J].应用气象学报,10:160-170.
王宏,石广玉,王标,李伟,李书严,GONG Sun-Ling,赵天良,2007:中国沙漠沙尘气溶胶对沙漠源区及北太平洋地区大气辐射加热的影响[J].大气科学,31(3):515-526.
王志立,张华,郭品文,2009:南亚地区黑碳气溶胶对亚洲夏季风的影响[J].高原气象,28(2):419-424.
吴兑,毛节泰,邓雪娇,铁学熙,张远航,曾立民,李菲,谭浩波,毕雪岩,黄晓莹,陈静,邓涛,2009:珠江三角洲黑碳气溶胶及其辐射特性的观测研究[J].中国科学D辑:地球科学,39(11):1542-1553.
夏俊荣,张镭,2006:Mie散射激光雷达探测大气气溶胶的进展[J].干旱气象,24(4):68-72.
熊利亚,李海萍,庄大方,2002:应用MODIS数据研究沙尘信息定量化方法探讨[J].地理科学进展,21(4):327-332.
延昊,侯英雨,刘桂清,何延波,2004:利用热红外温差识别沙尘[J].遥感学报,8(5):471-474.
延昊,矫梅燕,王建林,周勇,2005:热红外通道沙尘识别及敏感性分析[J].应用气象学报,16(2):238-242.
银燕,崔振雷,张华,辛金元,王莉莉,2009:2006年中国地区大气气溶胶浓度分布特征的模拟研究[J].大气科学学报,32(5):595-603.
张华,马井会,郑有飞,2008:黑碳气溶胶辐射强迫全球分布的模拟研究[J].大气科学,32(5):1147-1158.
张靖,银燕,2008:黑碳气溶胶对我国区域气候影响的数值模拟[J].南京气象学院学报,31(6):852-859.
张蕾,王宝庆,2011:黑碳对气候的影响和中国黑碳减排措施[J].环境科学与管理,36(05):29-32.
张美根,徐永福,张仁健,韩志伟,2005:东亚地区春季黑碳气溶胶源排放及其浓度分布[J].地球物理学报,48(1):46-51.
张鹏,张兴赢,胡秀清,齐瑾,董超华,2007:2006年一次沙尘活动的卫星定量遥感和分析研究[J].气候与环境研究,12(3):302-308.
张瑞军,何清,孔丹,杨兴华,2007:近几年国内沙尘暴研究的初步评述[J].干旱气象,25(3):88-94.
支国瑞,张小曳,胡秀莲,陈颖军,薛敏,张养梅,张晓春,盛国英,傅家,2009:可持续发展背景下的黑碳减排[J].气候变化研究进展,5(6):318-327.
Carlson, T. N., and S. G. Benjamin,1980:Radiative heating rates for Saharan dust, J. Atmos. Sci., 37(1),193-213.
Claquin, T., M. Schulz, Y. J. Balkanski, and O. Boucher,1998:Uncertainties in assessing radiative forcing by mineral dust, Tellus, Ser. B,50,491-505.13.
Draxler, R.R. and Rolph, G.D.,2012:HYSPLIT (HYbrid Single-Particle Lagrangian Integrated Trajectory) Model access via NOAA ARL READY Website (http://ready.arl.noaa.gov/HYSPLIT.php). NOAA Air Resources Laboratory, Silver Spring, MD.
Forster, P., V. Ramaswamy, P. Artaxo, T. Berntsen, R. Betts, D.W. Fahey, J. Haywood, J. Lean, D.C. Lowe, G. Myhre, J. Nganga, R. Prinn,G. Raga, M. Schulz and R. Van Dorland,2007: Changes in Atmospheric Constituents and in Radiative Forcing. In:Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Solomon, S., D. Qin, M. Manning, Z. Chen, M. Marquis, K.B. Averyt, M.Tignor and H.L. Miller (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA.
Huang, J., P. Minnis, Y. Yi, Q. Tang, X. Wang, Y. Hu, Z. Liu, K. Ayers, C. Trepte, and D. Winker, 2007:Summer dust aerosols detected from CALIPSO over the Tibetan Plateau, Geophys. Res. Lett.,34, L18805, doi:10.1029/2007GL029938.
Liao, H. and J.H. Seinfeild,1998:Radiative forcing by mineral dust aerosols:Sensitivity to key variables, J. Geophys. Res.,103(D24),31,637-31,645.15
Liu, D., Wang, Z., Liu, Z., Winker, D., and Trepte, C.,2008:A height resolved global view of dust aerosols from the first year CALIPSO lidar measurements, J. Geophys. Res.,113, D16214, doi:10.1029/2007JD009776.
Liu, Z., Omar, A., Vaughan, M., et al.:CALIPSO lidar observations of optical properties of Saharan dust,2008:A case study of long range transport, J. Geophys. Res.,113, D07207, doi:10.1029/2007JD008878.
Meloni, D., A. D. Sarra, T. D. Iotio, and G. Fiocco,2005:Influence of the vertical profile of Saharan dust on the visible direct radiative forcing, Journal of Quantitative Spectroscopy Radiative Transfer,93,497-413.21.
Minnis, P., and S. K. Cox,1978:Magnitude of the radiative effects of the Sahara dust layer, Atmos. Sci. Pap.283,111 pp., Colo. State Univ., Ft. Collins, Colo.
Platt C. M. R., D. M. Winker, M. A. Vaughan, and S. D. Miller,1999:Backscatter-to-extinction ratios in the top layer of tropical mesoscale convective systems and in isolated cirrus from LITE observations", Journal of Applied Meteorology,38, pp.1330-1345.
Ramanathan, V., et al.,2001:Indian Ocean experiment:An integrated analysis of the climate forcing and effects of the great Indo-Asian haze, J. Geophys. Res.,106(D22),28,371 28,398.
Rolph, G.D.,2012:Real-time Environmental Applications and Display sYstem (READY) Website (http://ready.arl.noaa.gov). NOAA Air Resources Laboratory, Silver Spring, MD.
Satheesh, S. K.,2002:Aerosol radiative forcing over land:Effect of surface and cloud reflection, Ann. Geophys.,20(12),2105-2109.
Satheesh, S. K., and V. Ramanathan,2000:Large difference in tropical aerosol forcing at the top of the atmosphere and Earth's surface, Nature,405,60-63.
Sun, J., M. Zhang, and T. Liu,2001:Spatial and temporal characteristics of dust storms in China and its surrounding regions,1960-1999:Relations to source area and climate, J. Geophys. Res.,106,10,325-10,333.
Sun, J.,2002:Provenance of loess material and formation of loess deposits on the Chinese Loess Plateau, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett.,203,845-859.
Tsunematsu, N., Kai, K., Matsumoto, T.,2005:The influence of synopticscale air flow and local circulation on the dust layer height in the north of the Taklimakan Desert. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution:Focus 5,175-193.
Wang, S., J. Wang, Z. Zhou, and K. Shang,2005:Regional characteristics of three kinds of dust storm events in China, Atmospheric Environment,39,509-520.
Young, S. A.,1995:Lidar analysis of lidar backscatter profiles in optically thin clouds, Appl.Opt, 34, pp 7019-7031.
Zhu, A., V. Ramanathan, F. Li, and D. Kim,2007:Dust plumes over the Pacific, Indian, and Atlantic oceans:Climatology and radiative impact, J. Geophys. Res.,112, D16208, doi:10.1029/2007JD008427.
Ackerman, S. A.,1997:Remote sensing aerosols using satellite infrared observations, J. Geophys. Res.,102(D14),doi:10.1029/96JD03066,17069-17079.
Albrecht, B. A.,1989:Aerosols, cloud microphysics, and fractional cloudiness, Science,245, 1227-1230.
Chen, W., Dong, Z., Yang, Z., Han, Z., Zhang, J., Zhang, M.,1995:The threshold wind velocity in the Taklamakan Desert, Acta Geographica Sinica,7,361-367.
El-Askary, H., Gautam, R., Singh, R. P., and Kafatos, M.,2006:Dust storms detection over the Indo-Gangetic basin using multi sensor data, Adv. Space Res.,37,4,728-733.
Generoso, S., Bey, I., Labonne, M., and Br'eon, F. M.,2008:Aerosol vertical distribution in dust outflow over the Atlantic:comparisons between GEOS-Chem and Cloud-Aerosol Lidar and Infrared Pathfinder Satellite Observation (CALIPSO), J. Geophys. Res.,113, D24209, doi:10.1029/2008JD010154.
Huang, J., Lin, B., Minnis, P., Wang, T., Wang, X., Hu, Y., Yi, Y., and Ayers, J. K.,2006a: Satellite-based assessment of possible dust aerosols semidirect effect on cloud water path over East Asia, Geophys. Res. Lett.,33, L19802, doi:10.1029/2006GL026561.
Huang, J., Minnis, P., Lin, B., Wang, T., Yi, Y., Hu, Y., Sun-Mack, S., and Ayers, K.,2006b: Possible influences of Asian dust aerosols on cloud properties and radiative forcing observed from MODIS and CERES, Geophys. Res. Lett.,33, L06824, doi:10.1029/2005GL024724.
Huang, J., Minnis, P., Yi, Y., Tang, Q., Wang, X., Hu, Y., Liu, Z., Ayers, K., Trepte, C., and Winker, D.,2007:Summer dust aerosols detected from CALIPSO over the Tibetan Plateau, Geophys. Res. Lett.,34, L18805, doi:10.1029/2007GL029938.
Huang, J., Minnis, P., Chen, B., Huang, Z., Liu, Z., Zhao, Q., Yi, Y., and Ayers, J.,2008: Long-range transport and vertical structure of Asian dust from CALIPSO and surface, J. Geophys. Res.,113, D23212, doi:10.1029/2008JD010620.
Huang, J., Fu, Q., Su, J., Tang, Q., Minnis, P., Hu, Y., Yi., Y, and Zhao, Q.,2009:Taklamakan dust aerosol radiative heating derived from CALIPSO observations using the Fu-Liou radiation model with CERES constraints, Atmos. Chem. Phys.,9,4011-4021.
Husar, R. B., Tratt, D. M., Schichtel, B. A., Falke, S. R., Li, F., Jaffe, D., Gasso, S., Gill, T., Laulainen, N. S., Lu, F., Reheis, M. C., Chun, Y., Westphal, D., Holben, B. N., Gueymard, C., McKendry, I., Kuring, N., Feldman, G. C., McClain, C., Frouin, R. J., Merrill, J., DuBois, D., Vignola, F., Murayama, T., Nickovic, S., Wilson, W. E., Sassen, K., Sugimoto, N. and Malm, W. C.,2001:Asian dust events of Aprilf 1998, J. Geophys. Res.,106(D16),18317-18330, doi:10.1029/2000JD900788.
Iwasaka, Y., Minoura, H., and Nagaya, K.,1983:The transport and spatial scale of Asian dust-storm clouds:a case study of the dust-storm event of April 1979, Tellus B,35,189-196.
Kim, S.-W., Berthier, S., Raut, J.-C., Chazette, P., Dulac, F., and Yoon, S.-C.,2008:Validation of aerosol and cloud layer structures from the space-borne lidar CALIOP using a ground-based lidar in Seoul, Korea, Atmos. Chem. Phys.,8,3705-3720.
Legrand, M., Bertrand, J., and Desbois, M.,1985:Dust clouds over West Africa:a characterization by satellite data, Ann. Geophys.,3,777-784.
Legrand, M., and N'doume, C.,2001:Satellite detection of dust using the IR imagery of Meteosat: 1. Infrared difference dust index., J. Geophys. Res.,106(D16),18251-18274, doi:10.1029/2000JD900749.
Liu, D., Wang, Z., Liu, Z., Winker, D., and Trepte, C.,2008:A height resolved global view of dust aerosols from the first year CALIPSO lidar measurements, J. Geophys. Res.,113, D16214, doi:10.1029/2007JD009776,2008.
Liu, Z., Vaughan, M. A., Winker, D. M., Hostetler, C. A., Poole, L. R., Hlavka, D., Hart, W. and McGill, M.,2004:Use of probability distribution functions for discriminating between cloud and aerosol in lidar backscatter data, J. Geophys. Res.,109, D15202, doi:10.1029/2004JD004732.
Liu, Z., Omar, A., Vaughan, M., Hair, J., Kittaka, C., Hu, Y., Powell, K., Trepte, C., Winker, D., Hostetler, C., Ferrare, R., and Pierce, R.,2008:CALIPSO lidar observations of the optical properties of Saharan dust:a case study of long-range transport, J. Geophys. Res.,113, D07207, doi:10.1029/2007JD008878.
Liu, Z., Vaughan, M., Winker, D., Kittaka, C., Getzewich, B., Kuehn, R., Omar, A., Powell, K., Trepte, C., and Hostetler, C.,2009:The CALIPSO lidar cloud and aerosol discrimination: version 2 algorithm and initial assessment of performance, J. Atmos. Ocean. Techn.,26,7, 1198-1213.
Murayama, T., Sugimoto, N., Uno, I., Kinoshita, K., Aoki, K., Hagiwara, N., Liu, Z., Matsui, I., Sakai, T., Shibata, T., Arao, K., Sohn, B., Won, J.-G. Yoon, S.-C,, Li, T., Zhou, J., Hu, H., Abo, M., Iokibe, K., Koga, R. and Iwasaka, Y.,2001:Ground-based network observation of Asian dust events of April 1998 in east Asia, J. Geophys. Res.,106(D16),18345-18359, doi:10.1029/2000JD900554.
Natsagdorj, L., Jugder, D., and Chung, Y. S.,2003:Analysis of dust storms observed in Mongolia during 1937-1999, Atmos. Environ.,37,1401-1411.
Platt, C. M. R., Winker, D. M., Vaughan, M. A., and Miller, S. D.,1999:Backscatter-to-extinction ratios in the top layer of tropical mesoscale convective systems and in isolated cirrus from LITE observations, J. Appl. Meteorol.,38(9),1330-1345.
Roskovensky, J. K., and Liou, K. N.,2003:Detection of thin cirrus from 1.38 μm/0.65 μm reflectance ratio combined with 8.6-11 μm brightness temperature difference, Geophys. Res. Lett.,30,1985, doi:10.1029/2003GL018135.
Roskovensky, J. K., and Liou, K. N.,2005:Differentiating airborne dust from cirrus clouds using MODIS data, Geophys. Res. Lett.,32, L12809, doi:10.1029/2005GL022798.
Sassen, K.,2002:Indirect climate forcing over the western US from Asian dust storms, Geophys. Res. Lett.,29,1465, doi:10.1029/2001GL014051.
Shenk, W. E., and Curran, R. J.,1974:The detection of dust storms over land and water with satellite visible and infrared measurements, Mon. Weather Rev.,102,830-837.
Slingo, A., Ackerman, T. P., Allan, R. P., Kassianov, E. I., McFarlane, S. A., Robinson, G. J., Barnard, J. C., Miller, M. A., Harries, J. E., Russell, J. E., and Dewitte, S.,2006: Observations of the impact of a major Saharan dust storm on the atmospheric radiation balance, Geophys. Res. Lett.,33, L24817, doi:10.1029/2006GL027869.
Su, J., Huang, J., Fu, Q., Minnis, P., Ge, J., and Bi, J.,2008:Estimation of Asian dust aerosol effect on cloud radiation forcing using Fu-Liou radiative model and CERES measurements, Atmos. Chem. Phys.,8,2763-2771.
Stephens, G. L., Vane, D. G., Boain, R. J., Mace, G. G., Sassen, K., Wang, Z., Illingworth, A. J., O'Connor, E. J., Rossow, W. B., Durden, S. L., Miller, S. D., Austin, R. T., Benedetti, A., Mitrescu, C., and Team, T. C. S.,2002:The CLOUDSAT mission and the A-train, B. Am. Meteorol. Soc.,83,1771-1790.
Tegen, I.,2003:Modeling the mineral dust aerosol cycle in the climate system, Quat. Sci. Rev., 22,19,1821-1834.
Twomey, S. A., Piepgrass, M., and Wolfe, T. L.,1984:An assessment of the impact of pollution on global cloud albedo, Tellus B,36,356-366.
Uno, I., Amano, H., Emori, S., Kinoshita, K., Matsui, I., and Sugimoto, N.,2001:Trans- Pacific yellow sand transport observed in April 1998:a numerical simulation, J. Geophys. Res., 106(D16),18331-18344, doi:10.1029/2000JD900748.
Uno, I., Eguchi, K., Yumimoto, K., Takemura, T., Shimizu, A., Uematsu, M., Liu, Z., Wang, Z., Hara, Y., and Sugimoto, N.,2009:Asian dust transported one full circuit around the globe, Nat. Geosci.,2,557-560, doi:10.1038/ngeo583.
Vaughan, M., Young, S., Winker, D., Powell, K., Omar, A., Liu, Z., Hu, Y., and Hostetler, C.,2004: Fully automated analysis of space-based lidar data:an overview of the CALIPSO retrieval algorithms and data products, Proc. SPIE Int. Soc. Opt. Eng.,5575,16-30.
Winker, D. M. and Vaughan, M. V.,1994:Vertical distribution of clouds over Hampton, Virginia observed by lidar under the ECLIPS and FIRE ETO programs, Atmos. Res.,34,117-133.
Winker, D. M., Couch, R. H., and McCormick, M. P.,1996:An overview of LITE:NASA's Lidar In-Space Technology Experiment, Proc. IEEE,84(2),164-180.
Winker, D. M., Hunt, W. H., and Hostetler, C. A.,2004:Status and performance of the CALIOP lidar, Proc. SPIE Int. Soc. Opt. Eng.,5575,8-15.
Winker, D., Pelon, J., and McCormick, M.,2006:Initial results from CALIPSO,23rd International Laser Radar Conference, Nara, Japan.
Winker, D., Hunt, W., and McGill, M.,2007:Initial performance assessment of CALIOP, Geophys. Res. Lett.,34, L19803, doi:10.1029/2007GL030135.
Zender, C.S.,2004:Quantifying mineral dust mass budgets:terminology, constraints, and current estimates. Eos,85,509-512.
Zhang, P., Lu, N. M., Hu, X. Q. and Dong, C. H.,2006:Identification and physical retrieval of dust storm using three MODIS thermal IR channels, Global Planet. Change,52(1-4), 197-206.
Zhang, X. Y., Arimoto, R., and An, Z. S.,1997:Dust emission from Chinese desert sources linked to variations in atmospheric circulation, J. Geophys. Res.,102(D23),28041-28047, doi:10.1029/97JD02300.
Albrecht, B. A.,1989:Aerosols, cloud microphysics, and fractional cloudiness, Science,245, 1227-1230.
Angstrom, A.,1929:On the atmospheric transmission of Sun radiation and on the dust in the air. Geografis. Ann.,11, pp.156-166.
Angstrom, A.,1930:On the atmospheric transmission of Sun radiation. Geografis. Ann.,12, pp. 130-159.
Arola, A., Schuster, G., Myhre, G., Kazadzis, S., Dey, S., Tripathi, S.N.,2011:Inferring absorbing organic carbon contents from AERONET data. Atmos. Chem. Phys.11,215-225.
Bates, T. S., Quinn, P. K., Coffman, D., et al.,2008:Boundary layer aerosol chemistry during TexAQS/GoMACCS 2006:Insights into aerosol sources and transformation processes, J. Geophys. Res.,113, D00F01, doi:10.1029/2008JD010023.
Barnard, J. C., Volkamer, R., and Kassianov, E. I.,2008:Estimation of the mass absorption cross section of the organic carbon component of aerosols in the Mexico CityMetropolitan Area, Atmos. Chem. Phys.,8,6665-6679.
Bergstrom, R. W., Pilewskie, P., Schmid, B., and Russell, P. B.,2003:Estimates of the spectral aerosol single scattering albedo and aerosol radiative effects during SAFARI 2000, J. Geophys. Res.,108(D13),8474, doi:10.1029/2002JD002435.
Bergstrom, R. W., Pilewskie, P., Pommier, J., Rabbette, M., Russell, P. B., Schmid, B., Redemann, J., Higurashi, A., Nakajima, T., and Quinn, P. K.,2004:Spectral absorption of solar radiation by aerosols during ACE-Asia, J. Geophys. Res.,109, D19S15, doi:10.1029/2003 JD004467.
Clarke, A., McNaughton, C., Kapustin, V., Shinozuka, Y., Howell, S., Dibb, J., Zhou, J., Anderson, B., Brekhovskikh, V., Turner, H., and Pinkerton, M.,2007:Biomass Burning and Pollution Aerosol over North America:Organic Components and their influence on Spectral Optical Properties and Humidification Response, J. Geophys. Res.,112, D12S18, doi:10.1029/2006JD007777.
Dubovik, O., A. Smirnov, B. N. Holben, M. D. King, Y.J. Kaufman, T. F. Eck, and I. Slutsker, 2000:Accuracy assessments of aerosol optical properties retrieved from AERONET sun and sky-radiance measurements, J. Geophys. Res.,105,9791-9806.
Dubovik, O., B.N.Holben, T.F.Eck, A.Smirnov, Y.J.Kaufman, M.D.King, D.Tanre, and I.Slutsker, 2002:Variability of absorption and optical properties of key aerosol types observed in worldwide locations, J.Atm.Sci.,59,590-608.
Eck, T.F., B.N. Holben, J.S. Reid, O. Dubovik, A. Smirnov, N.T. O'Neill, I. Slutsker, S. Kinne., 1999:The wavelength dependence of the optical depth of biomass burning, urban and desert dust aerosols. J. Geoph. Res.,104, pp.31,333-31,350.
Fialho, P., Hansen, A. D. A., and Honrath, R. E.:Absorption coefficients by aerosols in remote areas,2005:A new approach to decouple dust and black carbon absorption coefficients using seven-wavelength Aethalometer data, J. Aerosol Sci.,36(2),267-282.
Gillespie, J. B., and J. D. Lindberg,1992:Ultraviolet and visible imaginary refractive-index of strongly absorbing atmospheric particulate matter, Appl. Opt,31(12),2112-2115.
Gyawali, M., Arnott, W. P., Lewis, K., and Moosm"uller, H.,2009:In situ aerosol optics in Reno, NV, USA during and after the summer 2008 California wildfires and the influence of absorbing and non-absorbing organic coatings on spectral light absorption, Atmos. Chem. Phys.,9,8007-8015, doi:10.5194/acp-9-8007-2009.
Holben B.N., T.F.Eck, I.Slutsker, D.Tanre, J.P.Buis, A.Setzer, E.Vermote, J.A.Reagan, Y.Kaufman, T.Nakajima, F.Lavenu, I.Jankowiak, and A.Smirnov,1998:AERONET-A federated instrument network and data archive for aerosol characterization, Rem. Sens. Environ.,66, 1-16.
Holben, B.N., D.Tanre, A.Smirnov, T.F.Eck, I.Slutsker, N.Abuhassan, W.W.Newcomb, J.Schafer, B.Chatenet, F.Lavenue, Y.J.Kaufman, J.Vande Castle, A.Setzer, B.Markham, D.Clark, R.Frouin, R.Halthore, A.Karnieli, N.T.O'Neill, C.Pietras, R.T.Pinker, K.Voss, and GZibordi, 2001:An emerging ground-based aerosol climatology:Aerosol Optical Depth from AERONET, J. Geophys. Res.,106,12067-12097.
Huang, J., B. Lin, P. Minnis, T. Wang, X. Wang, Y. Hu, Y. Yi, and J. R. Ayers,2006: Satellite-based assessment of possible dust aerosols semi-direct effect on cloud water path over East Asia, Geophys. Res. Lett.,33, doi:10.1029/2006GL026561.
Kirchstetter, T. W., Novakov, T., and Hobbs, P. V.,2004:Evidence that the spectral dependence of light absorption by aerosols is affected by organic carbon, J. Geophys. Res.,109, D21208, doi:10.1029/2004 JD004999.
Koven, C. D. and Fung, I.,2006:Inferring dust composition from wavelength-dependent absorption in Aerosol Robotic Network (AERONET) data, J. Geophys. Res., 111, D14205, doi:10.1029/2005JD006678.
Krekov, G. M.,1992:Models of atmospheric aerosols, in Aerosol Effects on Climate, edited by S. G. Jennings, pp.9-72, Univ. of Ariz. Press, Tucson.
Lack, D. A. and Cappa, C. D.,2010:Impact of brown and clear carbon on light absorption enhancement, single scatter albedo and absorption wavelength dependence of black carbon, Atmos. Chem. Phys.,10,4207-4220, doi:10.5194/acp-10-4207-2010.
Lewis, K., Arnott, W. P., Moosmuller, H., and Wold, C. E.,2008:Strong spectral variation of biomass smoke light absorption and single scattering albedo observed with a novel dual-wavelength photoacoustic instrument, J. Geophys. Res.,113, D16203, doi:10.1029/2007JD009699.
Massoli, P., Bates, T. S., Quinn, P. K., Lack, D. A., Baynard, T., Lerner, B. M., Tucker, S. C, Brioude, J., Stohl, A., and Williams, E. J.,2009:Aerosol optical and hygroscopic properties during TexAQS-GoMACCS 2006 and their impact on aerosol direct radiative forcing, J. Geophys. Res.,114, DOOF07, doi:10.1029/2008JD011604.
Qin, Y., and R. M. Mitchell,2009:Characterisation of episodic aerosol types over the Australian continent, Atmos. Chem. Phys.,9,1943-1956.
Ramanathan, V., P. J. Crutzen, J. T. Kiehl and D. Rosenfeld,2001:Aerosols, Climate, and The Hydrological Cycle. Science,294,2119-2124.
Ramanathan, V., C. Chung, D. Kim, T. Bettge, L. Buja, J. T. Kiehl, W. M. Washington, Q. Fu, D. R. Sikka, and M. Wild,2005:Atmospheric Brown Clouds:Impacts on South Asian Climate and Hydrological Cycle. PNAS, Vol.102, No.15,5326-5333.
Ramanathan V, M.V. Ramana, G. Roberts, D. Kim, C.E. Corrigan, C.E. Chung & D. Winker,2007: Warming trends in Asia amplified by brown cloud solar absorption. Nature,448,575-578 doi:10.1038/nature06019.
Ramanathan, V. and G. Carmichael,2008:Global and regional climate changes due to black carbon. Nature Geoscience,1,221-227.
Ramana, M.V., Ramanathan, V, Feng, Y., Yoon, S-C., Kim, S-W., Carmichael, G., and Schauer, J.J.,2010:Warming influenced by the ratio of black carbon to sulphate and the black-carbon source., Nature Geoscience,3,542-545.
Ramanathan, V. and Y. Xu,2010:The Copenhagen Accord for limiting global warming:criteria, constraints, and available avenues Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America,107 (18), pp.8055-8062.
Russell, P. B., Bergstrom, R. W., Shinozuka, Y., Clarke, A. D., De-Carlo, P. F., Jimenez, J. L. Livingston, J. M., Redemann, J., Dubovik, O., and Strawa, A.,2010:Absorption Angstrom Exponent in AERONET and related data as an indicator of aerosol composition, Atmos. Chem. Phys.,10,1155-1169, doi:10.5194/acp-10-1155-2010.
Sokolik, I. N., and O. B. Toon,1999:Incorporation of mineralogical composition into models of the radiative properties of mineral aerosol from UV to IR wavelengths, J. Geophys. Res., 104(D8),9423-9444.
Twomey, S. A., Piepgrass, M., and Wolfe, T. L.,1984:An assessment of the impact of pollution on global cloud albedo, Tellus B,36,356-366.
Wild, M., Gilgen, H., Roesch, A., et al.,2005:Fssrom dimming to brightening:Decadal changes in solar radiation at Earth's surface, Science,308,847-850.
Wild, M., A. Ohmura, and K. Makowski,2007:Impact of global dimming and brightening on global warming, Geophys. Res. Lett.,34, L04702, doi:10.1029/2006GL028031.
Yang, M., Howell, S. G., Zhuang, J., and Huebert, B. J.,2009:Attribution of aerosol light absorption to black carbon, brown carbon, and dust in China- interpretations of atmospheric measurements during EAST-AIRE, Atmos. Chem. Phys.,9,2035-2050.
Cao, G., Zhang, X., and Zheng, F.,2006:Inventory of black carbon and organic carbon emissions from China, Atmos. Environ.,40,6516-6527.
Chin, M., Rood, R. B., Lin, S.-J., M"uller, J.-F., and Thompson, A. .M,2000a:Atmospheric sulfur cycle simulated in the global model GOCART:Model description and global properties, J. Geophys. Res.,105,24671-24687.
Chin, M., D. Savoie, D. Thornton, A. Bandy, B. Huebert,2000b:Atmospheric sulfur cycle inthe global model GOCART:Comparison with observations, J. Geophys. Res.,105, 24,698-24,712.
Chin, M., Ginoux, P., Kinne, S., Torres, O., Holben, B. N., Duncan, B. N., Martin, R. V., Logan, J. A., Higurashi, A., and Nakajima, T.,2002:Tropospheric aerosol optical thickness from the GOCART model and comparisons with satellite and sun photometer measurements, J. Atmos., Sci.,59,461-483.
Chin, M., Diehl, T., Dubovik, O., Eck, T. F., Holben, B. N., Sinyuk, A., and Streets, D. G.,2009: Light absorption by pollution, dust, and biomass burning aerosols:a global model study and evaluation with AERONET measurements, Ann. Geophys.,27,3439-3464, doi:10.5194/angeo-27-3439-2009.
IPCC. Climate Change 2007:The Physical Science Basis. Working Group I Contribution to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment Report. Solomon S, Qing D H, et al. Eds., Cambridge University Press, Cam2 bridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA,2007.
Magi, B.,2009:Chemical apportionment of southern African aerosol mass and optical depth, Atmos. Chem. Phys.,9,7643-7655, doi:10.5194/acp-9-7643-2009.
Magi, B.,2011:Corrigendum to "Chemical apportionment of southern African aerosol mass and optical depth" published in Atmos. Chem. Phys.,9,7643-7655,2009
Ginoux, P., M. Chin, I. Tegen, J. Prospero, B. Holben, O. Dubovik, and S.-J. Lin,2001:Sources and global distributions of dust aerosols simulated with the GOCART model, J. Geophys. Res.,106,20,255-20,273.
Ramanathan V, and Carmichael G,2008:Global and regional climate changes due to black carbon. Nat Geosci 1:221-227.
Ramanathan, V., et al.,2001:The Indian Ocean Experiment:An integrated analysis of the climate forcing and effects of the Great Indo-Asian Haze, J. Geophys. Res.,106,28,371-28,398.
Reddy, M. S., and O. Boucher,2007:Climate impact of black carbon emitted from energy consumption in the world's regions, Geophys. Res. Lett.,34, L11802, doi:10.1029/2006GL028904.
Russell, P. B., Bergstrom, R. W., Shinozuka, Y., Clarke, A. D., De-Carlo, P. F., Jimenez, J. L. Livingston, J. M., Redemann, J., Dubovik, O., and Strawa, A.,2010:Absorption Angstrom Exponent in AERONET and related data as an indicator of aerosol composition, Atmos. Chem. Phys.,10,1155-1169, doi:10.5194/acp-10-1155-2010.
Sato, M., J. Hansen, D. Koch, A. Lacis, R. Ruedy, O. Dubovik, B. Holben, M. Chin, and T. Novakov,2003:Global atmospheric black carbon inferred from AERONET, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.,100(11),6319-6324.
Wolff, M. J., M. D. Smith, R. T. Clancy, R. Arvidson, M. Kahre, F. Seelos IV, S. Murchie, and H. Savija"rvi,2009:Wavelength dependence of dust aerosol single scattering albedo as observed by the Compact Reconnaissance Imaging Spectrometer, J. Geophys. Res.,114, E00D04, doi:10.1029/2009JE003350.
Angstrom, A.,1929:On the atmospheric transmission of Sun radiation and on the dust in the air. Geografis. Ann.,11, pp.156-166.
Angstrom, A.,1930:On the atmospheric transmission of Sun radiation. Geografis. Ann.,12, pp. 130-159.
Chin, M., Ginoux, P., Kinne, S., Torres, O., Holben, B. N., Duncan, B. N., Martin, R. V., Logan, J. A., Higurashi, A., and Nakajima, T.,2002:Tropospheric aerosol optical thickness from the GOCART model and comparisons with satellite and sun photometer measurements, J. Atmos., Sci.,59,461-483.
IPCC. Climate Change 2007:The Physical Science Basis. Working Group I Contribution to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment Report. Solomon S, Qing D H, et al. Eds., Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA,2007.
Magi, B.,2009:Chemical apportionment of southern African aerosol mass and optical depth, Atmos. Chem. Phys.,9,7643-7655, doi:10.5194/acp-9-7643-2009.
Magi, B.,2011:Corrigendum to "Chemical apportionment of southern African aerosol mass and optical depth" published in Atmos. Chem. Phys.,9,7643-7655,2009
Ramanathan, V., et al.,2001:The Indian Ocean Experiment:An integrated analysis of the climate forcing and effects of the Great Indo-Asian Haze, J. Geophys. Res.,106,28,371-28,398.
Sato, M., J. Hansen, D. Koch, A. Lacis, R. Ruedy, O. Dubovik, B. Holben, M. Chin, and T. Novakov,2003:Global atmospheric black carbon inferred from AERONET, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.,100(11),6319-6324.
Yu, H., et al.,2006:A review of measurement-based assessments of aerosol direct radiative effect and forcing, Atmos. Chem. Phys.,6,613-666.