飞行时间法无扫描三维成像摄像机的机理和特性研究
|
摘要
三维成像技术发展迅速,广泛应用于导航、监控、识别和虚拟现实等领域。其中,无扫描三维成像系统是目前的研究热点。基于直接飞行时间(Time of Flight,TOF)测量法的无扫描三维成像系统,探测距离远,能穿透树叶、尘埃等障碍物,适合军事应用领域。基于间接TOF测量法和像增强器耦合型CCD (Intensified CCD, ICCD)/CMOS传感器的无扫描三维成像系统,空间分辨率较高,适合机器人导航、智能视频监控、演播室和游戏控制等近距离应用。基于ICCD的三维成像系统,与CMOS专用传感器技术相比,具有高空间分辨率和高动态范围等优点,但因缺乏定量分析方法,无法对各种因素进行精确分析,给系统设计和优化造成了困难。为解决这些问题,优化系统设计,本文对基于ICCD传感器和间接TOF测量法的无扫描三维成像摄像机的机理和特性进行研究,分别从工作原理,系统建模,数据处理和系统实现这几个方面,提出了具有参考意义的结论和改进的算法。
第一部分研究了TOF系统测距理论。从摄像机固定噪声和光子噪声出发,推导了几种间接TOF测量法的最小相对误差。对余弦波-方波法展开重点研究：根据采样原理,研究了调制光源谐波分量、光源调制度、摄像机解调深度、采样脉冲波形对称性和系统增益非线性等因素对测量精度的影响。理论分析结果表明,应提高摄像机动态范围和势阱容量,抑制余弦调制光源奇次谐波分量,提高光源调制度和系统解调度,提高采样脉冲波形对称性,抑制高于2阶的非线性。
第二部分主要研究了基于ICCD的TOF无扫描三维成像系统模型。改进了ICCD噪声模型和增益饱和模型,并推导了测量误差估计公式。结合光源功率和像增强器增益非恒定的特点,提出了模型时间离散化的处理方法。结合光照模型和物体三维数据,采用蒙特卡洛仿真方法,在MATLAB环境下,对影响系统测量精度的因素进行定量分析。实验结果验证了第一部分的研究结论,同时表明应该降低MCP增益,选择时间常数较小的低阻抗MCP。提出了自动曝光控制和分段检测两种改进测量精度的方法。该模型为系统设计优化提供了依据和支持。
第三部分以SR3000摄像机为例,对三维成像系统的数据处理方法进行了研究,提出了一种数据处理框架。介绍了摄像机标定和距离校正技术。提出了利用交替频率消除距离歧义性的方法和基于感兴趣区域的快速自动曝光控制方法。针对环境因素,提出了一种基于幅值的数据可靠性判断和噪声滤除方法。针对混合像素,提出了一种自适应阈值的边界混合像素滤除方法。针对散射等特殊情况,提出了根据偏移值与幅值比值进行数据有效性判断的方法。
第四部分,针对无扫描三维成像系统实现进行研究,提出了一种系统参数设置和优化方法。首先根据各参数对测量结果的影响正向推导系统最优参数,然后结合具体器件性能反向确定相关参数预测值,最后根据仿真结果修正系统参数。提出了通过延时曝光来提高系统动态范围的方法。在此基础上,提出了系统硬件结构、软件结构和外形结构的设计方法。
最后是全文总结和展望。
The rapid development of 3D imaging technology, has been widely used in navigation, surveillance, identification and virtual reality fields, and non-scanning three-dimensional imaging system is the focus of research. Direct TOF measurement based non-scanning 3D imaging system is suitable for military applications for its long detection range, and high penetration ability into leaves, dust and other barriers. Non-scanning 3D imaging system based on indirect TOF measurement and ICCD/ CMOS sensor, for its high spatial resolution, is more suitable for robot navigation, intelligent video surveillance, studio, game control and other close range applications. ICCD-based 3D imaging system, compared with CMOS sensor technology, has high spatial resolution and high dynamic range. But it's hard to design and optimize, since quantitative analysis method is not available. To address these problems, this dissertation studied on the principle and the characteristics of indirect TOF non-scanning 3D imaging camera based on ICCD and some conclusions for reference and improved algorithms were proposed on system principles, system modeling, data processing methods and system implementations.
The first part is the ranging principle of TOF system theory. The minimum relative error of various indirect TOF methods commonly used was derived from the view of camera noise and photon noise. The cosine wave-square wave method was studied: according to sampling theory, aliasing, light modulation depth, demodulation depth of the camera, the symmetry of sampling pulse, non-linear system gain and other factors which affect measurement accuracy were studied. The results showed that dynamic range and potential well capacity of the camera should be increased. Odd harmonic of cosine modulated light and nonlinearity higher than 2nd -order had impact on accuracy. Additionally, light modulation depth and system demodulation depth, as well as the symmetry of sampling pulse should be improved.
The second part studied the model of TOF scannerless 3D imaging system based on ICCD. An improved ICCD noise model was proposed, and a nonlinear gain model was used. As the light was cosine modulated and the gain of image intensifiers changed over time, the model was modified in time-discrete situation.. The system was simulated in MATLAB by Monte Carlo simulation method, together with illumination model and objects 3D data. The influence of the factors on measurement accuracy was analyzed quantificationally. The results verified the conclusion in the first part of research. Additionally, it showed that small MCP gain and low impedance MCP with small time constant should be chosen. Automatic exposure control and segmented detection method were suggested for improving the measurement accuracy. The model provides the basis and support for system design and optimization.
The third part, data processing methods of 3D imaging system based on SR3000 camera were studied, and a framework for data processing was presented. Calibration and distance correction technologies were introduced. A method to eliminate range ambiguity by alternating frequency, and a rapid automatic exposure control method based on the region of interest were proposed. Considering environmental factors, a data reliability analysis method and a noise filtering method based on amplitude were proposed. Kinds of mixed pixel were discussed, and an adaptive threshold filter method for the border mixed-pixel was presented. Scatter and other special conditions were also analyzed, and a method for range data analysis based on the ratio of offset and amplitude was suggested.
The last part talked about the design and optimization of non-scanning 3D imaging system. A method for system design and optimization was proposed:Firstly, the impact of parameters on the measurement results was derived, and then, the parameters were determined conversely according to the specific device performance. Finally, the parameters were corrected according to simulation results. A method for increasing the system dynamic range by exposure time delay control was proposed. Additionally, the hardware structure, software structure and structure design method were discussed.
Finally the conclusion and perspective are given at the end of the dissertation.
第一部分研究了TOF系统测距理论。从摄像机固定噪声和光子噪声出发,推导了几种间接TOF测量法的最小相对误差。对余弦波-方波法展开重点研究：根据采样原理,研究了调制光源谐波分量、光源调制度、摄像机解调深度、采样脉冲波形对称性和系统增益非线性等因素对测量精度的影响。理论分析结果表明,应提高摄像机动态范围和势阱容量,抑制余弦调制光源奇次谐波分量,提高光源调制度和系统解调度,提高采样脉冲波形对称性,抑制高于2阶的非线性。
第二部分主要研究了基于ICCD的TOF无扫描三维成像系统模型。改进了ICCD噪声模型和增益饱和模型,并推导了测量误差估计公式。结合光源功率和像增强器增益非恒定的特点,提出了模型时间离散化的处理方法。结合光照模型和物体三维数据,采用蒙特卡洛仿真方法,在MATLAB环境下,对影响系统测量精度的因素进行定量分析。实验结果验证了第一部分的研究结论,同时表明应该降低MCP增益,选择时间常数较小的低阻抗MCP。提出了自动曝光控制和分段检测两种改进测量精度的方法。该模型为系统设计优化提供了依据和支持。
第三部分以SR3000摄像机为例,对三维成像系统的数据处理方法进行了研究,提出了一种数据处理框架。介绍了摄像机标定和距离校正技术。提出了利用交替频率消除距离歧义性的方法和基于感兴趣区域的快速自动曝光控制方法。针对环境因素,提出了一种基于幅值的数据可靠性判断和噪声滤除方法。针对混合像素,提出了一种自适应阈值的边界混合像素滤除方法。针对散射等特殊情况,提出了根据偏移值与幅值比值进行数据有效性判断的方法。
第四部分,针对无扫描三维成像系统实现进行研究,提出了一种系统参数设置和优化方法。首先根据各参数对测量结果的影响正向推导系统最优参数,然后结合具体器件性能反向确定相关参数预测值,最后根据仿真结果修正系统参数。提出了通过延时曝光来提高系统动态范围的方法。在此基础上,提出了系统硬件结构、软件结构和外形结构的设计方法。
最后是全文总结和展望。
The rapid development of 3D imaging technology, has been widely used in navigation, surveillance, identification and virtual reality fields, and non-scanning three-dimensional imaging system is the focus of research. Direct TOF measurement based non-scanning 3D imaging system is suitable for military applications for its long detection range, and high penetration ability into leaves, dust and other barriers. Non-scanning 3D imaging system based on indirect TOF measurement and ICCD/ CMOS sensor, for its high spatial resolution, is more suitable for robot navigation, intelligent video surveillance, studio, game control and other close range applications. ICCD-based 3D imaging system, compared with CMOS sensor technology, has high spatial resolution and high dynamic range. But it's hard to design and optimize, since quantitative analysis method is not available. To address these problems, this dissertation studied on the principle and the characteristics of indirect TOF non-scanning 3D imaging camera based on ICCD and some conclusions for reference and improved algorithms were proposed on system principles, system modeling, data processing methods and system implementations.
The first part is the ranging principle of TOF system theory. The minimum relative error of various indirect TOF methods commonly used was derived from the view of camera noise and photon noise. The cosine wave-square wave method was studied: according to sampling theory, aliasing, light modulation depth, demodulation depth of the camera, the symmetry of sampling pulse, non-linear system gain and other factors which affect measurement accuracy were studied. The results showed that dynamic range and potential well capacity of the camera should be increased. Odd harmonic of cosine modulated light and nonlinearity higher than 2nd -order had impact on accuracy. Additionally, light modulation depth and system demodulation depth, as well as the symmetry of sampling pulse should be improved.
The second part studied the model of TOF scannerless 3D imaging system based on ICCD. An improved ICCD noise model was proposed, and a nonlinear gain model was used. As the light was cosine modulated and the gain of image intensifiers changed over time, the model was modified in time-discrete situation.. The system was simulated in MATLAB by Monte Carlo simulation method, together with illumination model and objects 3D data. The influence of the factors on measurement accuracy was analyzed quantificationally. The results verified the conclusion in the first part of research. Additionally, it showed that small MCP gain and low impedance MCP with small time constant should be chosen. Automatic exposure control and segmented detection method were suggested for improving the measurement accuracy. The model provides the basis and support for system design and optimization.
The third part, data processing methods of 3D imaging system based on SR3000 camera were studied, and a framework for data processing was presented. Calibration and distance correction technologies were introduced. A method to eliminate range ambiguity by alternating frequency, and a rapid automatic exposure control method based on the region of interest were proposed. Considering environmental factors, a data reliability analysis method and a noise filtering method based on amplitude were proposed. Kinds of mixed pixel were discussed, and an adaptive threshold filter method for the border mixed-pixel was presented. Scatter and other special conditions were also analyzed, and a method for range data analysis based on the ratio of offset and amplitude was suggested.
The last part talked about the design and optimization of non-scanning 3D imaging system. A method for system design and optimization was proposed:Firstly, the impact of parameters on the measurement results was derived, and then, the parameters were determined conversely according to the specific device performance. Finally, the parameters were corrected according to simulation results. A method for increasing the system dynamic range by exposure time delay control was proposed. Additionally, the hardware structure, software structure and structure design method were discussed.
Finally the conclusion and perspective are given at the end of the dissertation.
引文
[Abdel,1971] Y.I. Abdel-Aziz, H.M. Karara. Direct linear transformation into object space coordinates in close-range photogrammertry. Proceedings of the Symposim on Close-Range Photogrammetry,1971:1-18.
[Aida,2007] T. Aida, A. Yoneda, et al. Acquisition of three-dimensional coordinates of objects from Axi-Vision image data and application to stereoscopic display using Integral Photography system. Proceedings of SPIE,2007, Vol.6491.
[Anthes,1993] JP Anthes, P. Garcia, et al. Non-scanned LADAR Imaging and Applications. Applied Laser Radar Technology, Proceedings of SPIE,1993, Vol.1936.
[Anderson,2005] Anderson D., Herman H., Kelly A. Experimental characterization of commercial flash ladar devices. In Proceedings of International Conference on Sensing and Technology, Palmerston North, New Zealand,2005.
[Arman,1993] F. Arman and JK Aggarwal. Model-Based Object Recognition in Dense-Range Images-a Review. Comm. ACM,1993,25(1):5-43.
[Aull,2002] B.F. Aull, A.H. Loomis, et al. Geiger-Mode Ava-lanche Photodiodes for Three-Dimensional Imaging. Linc.Lab.J.,2002,13:335.
[Aull,2005] Aull, B. and R. Marino. Three-dimensional imaging with arrays of Geiger-mode avalanche photodiodes. Proceedings of SPIE,2005.
[Barry,1995] Barry L. Stann, William C. Ruff, et al. A practical low-cost high-range-resolution ladar. Proceedings of SPIE,1995, Vol.2472.
[BARNYAKOV,2006] BARNYAKOV A Y, BARNYAKOV M Y, et al. R&D of microchannel plate phototubes [J]. Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research,2006, A567:17-20.
[Bell,1975] Bell, Ronald L. Noise Figure of the MCP Image Intensifier Tube. IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices,1975:ED-22(10):821-829.
[Beraldin,2000] JA Beraldin, F Blais, P Boulanger. Real world modelling through high resolution digital 3D imaging of objects and structures. ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing,2000,55(4):230-250.
[Blais,2004] F.Blais. Review of 20 years of range sensor development. J. Electron. Imaging,2004, 13:231-240.
[Brian,2004] Brian F. Aull, Andrew H. Loomis, et al. Three-dimensional imaging with arrays of Geiger-mode avalanchephotodiodes. Proceedings of SPIE,2004, Vol.5353.
[Bumchul,2002] Bumchul Kim. Eye Safety Analysis. IrisAccessTM 3000 Optical Unit,2002.
[Burdea,1994] G. Burdea and P. Coiffet. Virtual Reality Technology. New York:Wiley,1994.
[Buttgen,2005] Buttgen B., Oggier T., et al. CCD/CMOS Lock-in pixel for range imaging: challenges, limitations and state-of-the-art. Proceedings of the First ETH Zurich Range Imaging Research Day,2005:21-32.
[Buttgen,2006] B. Buttgen, et al. High-speed and high-sensitive demodulation pixel for 3D imaging. Proceedings of SPIE on IS&T Electronic Imaging,2006, Vol.6056.
[CANESTA,2009] CANESTA. Canesta's 3D sensor. JON PEDDIE's TECH WATCH,2009, 9(25).
[Chen,2000] F. Chen, GM Brown, et al. Overview of three-dimensional shape measurement using optical method. Optical Engineering,2000,39:10-22.
[CRABB,2008] CRABB R., TRACEY C., PURANIK A., et al. Real-time foreground segmentation via range andcolor imaging. IEEE Conf. on Computer Vision & Pat-tern Recogn, 2008.
[DALSA,2006] DALSA Professional Imaging. http://www.dalsa.com/public/sensors/datasheets/ FTT1010M_datasheet_20070417b.pdf.2006.
[Denvir,2003] D. Denvir and E. Conroy. Electron multiplying CCDs. Proceedings of SPIE,2003.
[DePiero,1996] F. W. DePiero, M. M. Trivedi.3-D Computer Vision Using Structured Light: Design, Calibration, and Implementation Issues. Advances in Computers,1996,43:243-278.
[DeSouza,2002] G. N. DeSouza, A. Kak. Vision for mobile robot navigation:A survey. IEEE Trans. on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intel.,2002,24(2):237-267.
[Diegert,1997] C Diegert, J. Sackos, et al. Building Accurate Geometric Models from Abundant Range Imaging Information. Proceedings of SPIE on Laser Radar Technology and Application, 1997.
[DORRONSORO,2005] DORRONSORO C, OTADUY D, et al. Simulated intensified images. Proceedings of SPIE on Electro-Optical and Infrared Systems,2005:59870D.1-59870D.
[EBERHARDT,1979] EBERHARDT E H. Gain model for microchannel plates [J]. Applied Optics,1979,18(9):1418-1423.
[EyeSafe,1981] Eye Safety with Near Infra-Red Illuminators. American Conference of Government Industrial Hygienists,1981.
[FRASER,1991] FRASER G W, PAIN M T, et al. The operation of microchannel plates at high count rates [J]. Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research,1991, A306:247-260.
[FRENKEL,1997] FRENKEL A, SARTOR M A, et al. Photon-noise-limited operation of intensified CCD cameras [J]. Applied Optics,1997,36(22):5288-5297.
[Fukaya,2003] T. Fukaya, H. Fujikake, Y. Yamanouchi, et al. An effective Interaction Toolfor Performance in the virtual Studio-Invisible Light Projection System. NHKScience & Technical Research Laborato-ries, Japan,2003
[GIUDICOTTI,1994] GIUDICOTTI L, BASSAN M, et al. Simple analytical model of gain saturation in microchannel plate devices [J]. Review of Scientific Instruments,1994,65(1): 247-258.
[Grantham,1998] Grantham, J. W., Meidunas, E. C. Laser radar in adverse weather. SPIE Conference on Laser Radar Technology and Applications Ⅲ,1998,303(14):14-16.
[Habbit,2003] Habbit, R. D., Nellums, R. O., et al. Utilization of flash ladar forcooperative and uncooperative rendezvous and capture. Proceedings of SPIE,2003:146-157.
[HAMAMATSU,2000] HAMAMATSU. http://sales.hamamatsu.com/assets/pdf/catsandguides /Ⅱ_TII0004E02.pdf,2000.
[Heikki,2002] Heikki Ailistol, Veli Heikkinenl, et al. Scannerless imaging pulsed-laser range finding. JOURNAL OF OPTICS A:PURE AND APPLIED OPTICS.2002,4:S337-S346.
[Heinrichs,2003] R. M. Heinrichs, B. F. Aull, et al.3-D laser radar development with arrays of photon-counting detectors. Conference on Lasers and Electro-Optics/Quantum Electronics and Laser Science Conference, Technical Digest (Optical Society of America,2003), paper CTuK1.
[Hosticka,2003] B. J. Hosticka, W. Brockherde, et al. CMOS imaging for automotive applications. IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices,2003,50(1),173-183.
[Hu,1989]G. Hu and G. Stockman.3-D surface solution using structured light and constraint propagation. IEEE Trans. Part. Anal. Machine Intell.,1989,11(4):390-402.
[Iddan,2001] G. J. Iddan, G. Yahav.3D Imaging in the Studio and Elsewhere…. Proceedings of SPIE on Videometrics and Optical Methods for 3D Shape Measurements'01,2001:48-55.
[Ientilucci,2000] Ientilucci, E. Synthetic Simulation and Modeling of Image Intensified CCDs (IICCD). Rochester Institute of Technology:New York,2000.
[Jack,2007] Jack M, Asbrock J, et al. MBE based HgCdTe APDs and 3D LADAR sensors obscuration [J]. Proceedings of SPIE,2007,6542(1A):1-12.
[JAVIDI,2002] JAVIDI B., OKANO, et al. Three-Dimensional Television,Video and Display Technologies. Springer-Verlag,2002.
[Jeremias,2001] R. Jeremias, W. Brockherde, G. Doemens. A CMOS photosensor array for 3D imaging using pulsed laser. ISSCC Dig. Tech. Papers,2001:252-253.
[Kahlmann,2005] T Kahlmann, T Oggier, F Lustenberger. Proceedings of SPIE on Photonics in the Automobile,2005, Vol.5663.
[Kawakita,2000] M. Kawakita, K. Iizuka, T. Aida. Axi-vision camera:a three-dimension camera. Proceedings of SPIE on Three-Dimensional Image Capture and Applications Ⅲ,2000,3958: 61-70.
[Kawakita,2004] M. Kawakita, K. Iizuka, et al. High-definition real-time depth-mapping TV camera:HDTV Axi-Vision Camera. OPTICS EXPRESS,2004,12(12):2781-2794.
[Kawakita,2004] M. Kawakita, K. Iizuka, T. Aida, et al. Real-time three-dimensional video image compositon by depth information. IEICE Elect. Express,2004,1(9):237-242.
[Kilm,2003] Kilm T. Looking for a light:Optical technologies offer the promise of a RF-free battlefield [J]. Journal of Electronic Defense,2003,26(12):53-56.
[Kollorz,2007] E.Kollorz and J.Hornegger. Gesture recognition with a time-of-flight camera. Proceedings of the Workshop Dynamic 3D Imaging in conjunction with DAGM'07,2007:86-93.
[Kuhnert,2006] Kuhnert, KD, Stommel, M. Fusion of stereo-camera and pmd-camera data for real-time suited precise 3D environment reconstruction. Intelligent Robots and Systems,2006 IEEE/RSJ International Conference,2006:4780-4785.
[Lange,1999] R. Lange, P. Seitz, et al. Time-of-flight range imaging with a custom solid-state image sensor. Proceedings of SPIE,1999,3823:180-91.
[Lange,2000] R. Lange, P. Seitz, et al. Demodulation pixels in CCD and CMOS technologies for time-of-flight ranging. Proceedings of SPIE,2000,3965A:177-188.
[Lange,2000] R. Lange.3D Time-of-Flight distance measurement with custom solid-state image sensor in CMOS/CCD technology. Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Siegen,2000.
[Lenz,1998] R.K. Lenz, R. Y. Tsai. Techniques for calibration of the scale factor and image center for high accuracy 3D machine vision metrology. IEEE Trans. on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence,1998,10(10):713-720.
[LOT]LOT-Oriel Gruppe Europa. THE GENERATION GAP (Gen Ⅱ vs Gen Ⅲ Filmed vs Ultravis). http://www.lot-oriel.com/site/site_down/cc_istargap_deen02.pdf
[LOU,2007]LOU Ying, BAI Ting-zhu. A study on solar blind UV ICCD detection performance. Proceedings of SPIE Conference 6621:Photoelectronic Imaging and Detection,2007:66210P.
[Marino,2005] Marino R M.Davis W R.Rich G C. High-resolution 3D imaging laser radar flight test experiments [J]. Proceedings of SPIE,2005,5791:138-151.
[Marsha,1985] Marsha R. Torr. Persistence of phosphor glow in microchannel plate image intensifiers. Applied Optics,1985,24(6):793-795.
[Massa,1998] J. S. Massa, G. S. Buller, et al. Time of flight optical ranging system based on time correlated single photon counting. Appl. Opt.1998,37(31):7298-7304.
[MCAmann,2001] MCAmann, T.Bosch, et al. Laser ranging:a critical review of usual techniques for distance measurement. Opt. Eng.,2001,40(1):10-19.
[McManamon,1998] McManamon P F. Laser radar development. Proceedings of SPIE,1998, 3380:50-57.
[Melen,1994] T.Melen. Geometrical modeling and calibration of video cameras for underwater navigation. PhD thesis, Institut for teknisk kybernetikk, Norges tekniske hogskole,Trondheim, 1994.
[MESA,2008] MESA Imaging AG. SR-3000 Data Sheet. Retrieved from MESA Imaging AG: http://www.mesa-imaging.ch/pdf/SR3000_Flyer_Jan07.pdf,2008.
[Monson,1999] T. Monson, J. Grantham, S.Ghildress. Characterization of scannerless LADAR. Proceedings of SPIE,1999,3707:409-420.
[Moran,1997] SE Moran, BL Ulich, et al. Intensified CCD (ICCD) dynamic range and noise performance. SPIE 1997,3173:430-457.
[Moring,1989] I. Moring, H. Ailisto, et al. Active 3-D vision system for automatic model-based shape inspection. Opt. Lasers Eng,1989,10:3-4.
[Muguira,1995] MR Muguira, JT Sackos, BD Bradley. Scannerless Range Imaging with a Square Wave. Proceedings of SPIE,1995,2472:106-113.
[Netramai,2008] C Netramai, M Oleksandr, C Joochim, H. Motion Estimation of a Mobile Robot using different types of 3D Sensors. Proceedings of Fourth International Conference on Autonomic and Autonomous Systems,2008.
[Niclass,2005] C. Niclass, A. Rochas, et al. Design and Characterization of a CMOS 3-D Image Sensor Basedon Single Photon Avalanche Diodes. IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits,2005, 40(9):1847-1854.
[Niclass,2006] C. Niclass, M. Sergio, E. Charbon. A Single Photon Avalanche Diode Array Fabricated on Deep-Submicron CMOS Technology. Design and Test in Europe (DATE),2006.
[NNVT]NNVT.1XZ18/18WHS. Retrieved from NNVT:http://www.nnvt.com.
[Oggier,2003] T. Oggier, M. Lehmann, et al. An all-solid-state optical range camera for 3D-real-time imaging with sub-centimeter depth-resolution (SwissRanger). Proceedings of SPIE, 2003,5249:634-545.
[Oggier,2004] T. Oggier, K. Griesbach, et al.3D-Imaging in Real-Time with Miniaturized Optical Range Camera.6th Int. Conf. for Opt. Technologies OPTO,2004:89-94.
[Oggier,2005] Oggier, R. Kaufmann, et al. Novel pixel architecture with inherent background suppression for 3D time-of-flight imaging. Proceedings of SPIE on Electronic Imaging,2005, 5665:1-8.
[OSRAM,2005] OSRAM Opto Semiconductors GmbH. SFH 4259.pdf. Retrieved from OSRAM: http://catalog.osram-os.com,2005.
[Palojarvi,2002] P. Palojarvi, K. Maatta, J. Kostamovaara. Pulsed Time-of-Flight Laser Radar Module With Millimeter-Level Accuracy Using Full Custom Receiver and TDC ASICs, IEEE Transactions on Instrumentation and Measurement,2002,51:1102-1108.
[Paul,1999] Paul HOB, Karlheinz Fleder. Sub-nanosecond optical gating and irising properties of different types of microchannel plate image intensifiers (MCPII). Part of the SPIE Conference on Optical Diagnostics for Fluids/Heat/Combustion 194 and Photomechanics for Solid,1999, Vol. 3783.
[PMDTec,2009] PMDTec. Retrieved from PMDTec:http://www.pmdtec.com/fileadmin/ pmdtec/downloads/documentation/datasheet_camcube.pdf.2009.
[PRESCOTT,1996] PRESCOTT J R. A statistical model for photo-multiplier single-electron statistics. Nuclear Instruments and Methods,1996,39(1):173-179.
[Princeton] Princeton Instruments. Comparison of Lens-Coupled and Fiberoptic-Coupled ICCD Cameras. Retrieved from Princeton Instruments:http://www.piacton.com.
[Oppenheim,1983] Oppenheim, A.V., Willsky, A.S.& Young, I.T. Signals and Systems2nd ed. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey,1983.
[Oppenheim,1989] A. V. Oppenheim and R. W. Schafer. Discrete-time SignalProcessing. Englewood Cliffs, NJ 07632:Prentice-Hall,1989.
[Redman,2005] Brian Redman, William Ruff, et al. Anti-ship missile tracking with a chirped AM ladar-Update:design, model predictions, and experimental results. Proceedings of SPIE,2005, Vol.5791.
[Redman,2006] B Redman, W Ruff, M Giza. Photon counting chirped AM ladar concept, simulation, and initial experimental results. Proceedings of SPIE,2006,6214:62140P.
[Richard,2000] Richard A. Sturz, San Diego. Image intensifier selection from a user viewpoint. Proceedings of SPIE on Image Intensifiers and Applications Ⅱ,2000, Vol.4128.
[Richmond,2000] RD Richmond, R Stettner, JW Glessner. Eye-safe laser radar focal plane array for three-dimensional imaging. Proceedings of SPIE,2000, Vol.4035.
[Richmond,2001] RD Richmond, R Stettner, JW Glessner. Eye-safe laser radar 3D imaging Proceedings of SPIE on Laser Radar Technology and Applications Ⅵ,2001, Vol.4377.
[Ringbeck,2007] T Ringbeck, B Hagebeuker. A 3D TIME OF FLIGHT CAMERA FOR OBJECT DETECTION. Optical 3-D Measurement Techniques.2007,07:09-12.
[Robert,2003] Robert D. Habbit Jr., Robert O. Nellums, et al. Utilization of flash ladar for cooperative and uncooperative rendezvous and capture. Proceedings of SPIE,2003,5088: 146-157.
[Robert,2006] Robert O. Nellums, Robert D, et al.3D Scannerless LADAR for Orbiter Inspection. SPIE,2006,6220:G1-G17.
[Roger,2004] Roger Stettner, Howard Bailey, Richard Richmond. Eye-safe laser radar 3D imaging. Laser Radar Technology and Applications IX. Proceedings of SPIE,2004, Vol.5412: 277-786X.
[Roper,2002] Introduction to Image Intensifiers for Scientific Imaging. Roper Scientific, Inc. 2002.
[Sackos,1996] J. Sackos, B. Bradley, et al. The Emerging Versatility of a Scannerless Range Imager. Laser Radar Technology and Applications Conference, SPIE AeroSense Symposium,1996, 2748:47-60.
[Sackos,1998] J. T. Sackos, R.O. Nellums, et al. Low-cost high-resolution video-rate imaging optical radar. Part of the SPIE Conference on Laser Radar Technology and Arrnlications Ⅲ,1998, vol.3380.
[Schael,2001] Schael U. Rothe H. Field measurements with 1574 nm imaging, scannerless, eye-safe laser radar. SPIE,2001,4377:1-11.
[Schael,2004] Ulrich Schael, Hendrik Rothe. New pixel-oriented simulation for 3D laser radar. Proceedings of SPIE on Electro-Optical and Infrared Systems:Technology and Applications,2004, Vol.5612.
[Schroder,1998] W. Schroder, E. Forgber, G. Roh. Laser range cameraapplications. Proceedings of the fifth ESA Workshop onAdvanced Space Technologies for Robot Applications,1998. [Scott,1990] M. W. Scott. Range Imaging Laser Radar. US patent 4.935.616,1990.
[Seitz,2001] P. Seitz. Smart pixels.2001 InternationalSymposium on Electron Devices for Microwave and Optoelectronic Applications,2001:229-34.
[SHIKHALIEV,1999] SHIKHALIEV P M. Saturation model for secondary electron multiplier detectors. Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research.1999, A420(1/2):202-212.
[Smithpeter,2000] CL Smithpeter, RO Nellums, SM Lebien, and G. Studor. A miniature, high-resolution laser radar operating at video rates. Proceedings of SPIE on Laser Radar Technology and Applications.2000, vol.4035.
[Smithpeter,2001] Smithpeter CL. LADAR Measurements of the International Space Station. Proceedings of SPIE,2001, (4377):65-72.
[Spirig,1995] T. Spirig, P. Seitz, et al. The lock-in CCD—Two-di-mensional synchronous detection of light. IEEE JOURNAL OF QUANTUM ELEETRONICS,1995,31:1705-1708.
[Stann,1995] BL Stann, WC Ruff, ZG Sztankay. Practical low-cost high-range-resolution ladar. Proceedings of SPIE,1995, vol.2472.
[Stann,1999] Barry Stann, Mark Giza, et al. A scannerless imaging ladar using a laser diode illuminator and FM/cw radar principles Part of the SPIE Conference on Laser Radar Technooqy and Applications Ⅳ.1999, Vol.3707.
[Stann,2002] B.Stann, A. Abou-Auf, et al. Line imaging ladar using a laser-diode transmitter and FM/CW radar principlesfor submunition applications. Proceedings of SPIE,2002,4035:192-203.
[Stann,2004] BL Stann, K Aliberti, et al. A 32x32 pixel focal plane array ladar system using chirped amplitude modulation. Proceedings of SPIE,2004,5412:264-272.
[Stoppa,2005] Stoppa, D., Gonzo, L., Simoni, A. Scannerless 3D imaging sensors. IEEE International Workshop on Imag-ing Systems and Techniques,2005.
[Thorsten,2007] Thorsten Ringbeck, Bianca Hagebeuker. A 3D time of flight camera for object detection. Object 3D Measurement Techniques. ETHZurich,2007.
[Tsai,1987] R.Y.Tsai. A versatile camera calibration technique for high accuracy 3D machine metrology using off-the-shelf cameras and lenses. IEEE Journal of Robotics and Automation, 1987,3(4):323-344.
[Vaidyanathan,2007] Vaidyanathan M., Blask S., et al. Jigsaw phase III:A miniaturized airborne 3-D imaging laser radar with photon-counting sensitivity for foliage penetration. Proceedings of SPIE,2007,6550:1-12.
[Viarani,2002] L. Viarani, D. Stoppa, et al. A CMOS smart pixel for active 3D vision applications. Proceedings of IEEE International Conference on Sensors,2002.
[Viarani,2004] L. Viarani, D. Stoppa, et al. A CMOS Smart Pixel for Active3-D Vision Applications. IEEE SensorsJournal,2004,4(1):145-152.
[Viarani,2005] Viarani, G.F. Dalla Betta. A CMOS Sensor based on. Single Photon Avalanche Diode for Distance. Proceedings of IMTC on Measurement Applications,2005:16-19.
[Wei,1993]G. Wei, S.Ma. Complete two plane camera calibration and experimental comparisons. In:Proc. ICCV'93,1993:439-446.
[Weingarten,2004] Weingarten, G. Gruener, R. Siegwart. A state-of-the-art 3Dsensor for robot navigation. IEEE/RSJ Int. Conf. on Intelligent Robots and Systems,2004.
[Wilfried,1999] Wilfried Schroeder, Ernst Forgber, SteAphane Estable. Scannerless laser range camera. Sensor Review,1999,19:285-291.
[Xu,1998]Xu, Z., Schwarte, R., et al. Smart pixel-photonicmixer device (PMD), New system concept of a3D-imaging camera-on-a-chip.5th International Conference on Mechatronics and Machine Vision in Practice.1998:259-264.
[Yahav,2007] G. Yahav, T. Reiner, Seung-Hyun Lee. A low cost 3D tracker for parallax Barrier Display.3DTV Conference Greece,2007.
[Yahav,2006] G. Yahav, G. J. Iddan, D. Mandelboum.3D imaging camera forgaming application. Technical Report,3DV Systems Ltd.,2006.
[Yamanouchi,2002] Y.Yamanoucfhi, H.Mitsumine, T. Fukaya. Real Space-based Virtual Studio Seamless Synthesis of a Real Set Image with a virtual set image. ACM VRST 2002 Conference, 2002:194-200.
[Yen,1999]W. M. Yen, S. Shionoya. Phosphor Handbook, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL,1999.
[Yilmaz,2006] A. Yilmaz, et al. Object Tracking:A Survey, ACM Journal of Computing Surveys. 2006,38(4).
[Zhang Xiuda,2007] Zhang Xiuda, Yah Huiming, et al. A 3D framing camera with pulse laser and modulated receiver. Proceedings of SPIE on High-Speed Photography and Photonics,2007.
[Zhang Xiuda,2005] Zhang Xiuda, Yan Huimin, et al. A new three dimension PLMR imaging system. Proceedings of SPIE on Optical Devices and Instruments,2005:6024.
[ZHANG,2000] ZHANG Z. A flexible new technique for camera calibration [J]. IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence,2000,22(11):1330-1334
[ZHU,2006]ZHU Y, CHEN Q. Scene simulation for LLL night vision system based on daytime image. Proceedings of SPIE Conference 6031:remote Sensing and Infrared Devices and Systems. Changchun:SPIE,2006:60310E.
[Zhu,2008]Zhu, L. Wang, R. Yang, et al. Fusion of Time-of-Flight Depthand Stereo for High Accuracy Depth Maps, Proceedings of CVPR,2008.
[李云雁,2008]李云雁,胡传荣.试验设计与数据处理[M].北京：化学工业出版社,2008.
[李众力,2008]李众力.距离亮度增益调制三维成像系统的应用研究.硕士论文,南京理工大学,2008.
[刘扬,2003]刘扬,徐德坤,王晓峰.CCD相机遥感模型与仿真.航天返回与遥感,2003：48-51.
[马颂德,2003]马颂德,张正友.计算机视觉——计算理论与算法基础[M].北京：科学出版社,2003.
[王焕钦,2009]王焕钦.新型光电测距与三维成像技术研究.博士论文,中国科学技术大学,2009.
[王晓峰,2003]王晓峰,刘扬,徐德坤,等.ICCD相机建模与仿真分析.红外与激光工程,2003：560-563.
[项志宇,2009]项志宇,郑路.摄像机与3D激光雷达联合标定的新方法.浙江大学学报：工学版,2009：1401-1405.
[闫丰,2006]闫丰,于子江,于晓,等.电晕探测紫外ICCD相机图像噪声分析与处理[J].光学精密工程,2006,14(4)：7092713.
[杨帆,2007]杨帆.激光雷达技术发展及其应用.科学研究动态监测快报：空间光电科技专辑,2007.
[章剑梅,2003]章剑梅.三维测距成像的并行鉴相接收系统研究.硕士论文,浙江大学,2003.
[张璐璐,2006]张璐璐.无扫描激光三维成像技术研究和系统实验平台的设计与实现.硕士论文,浙江大学,2006.
[张奇,1998]张奇,刘济林,郭小军,等.激光测距成像雷达三维测距：存在问题及解决方法[J].浙江大学学报：自然科学版,1998,32(8)：732-738.
[Aida,2007] T. Aida, A. Yoneda, et al. Acquisition of three-dimensional coordinates of objects from Axi-Vision image data and application to stereoscopic display using Integral Photography system. Proceedings of SPIE,2007, Vol.6491.
[Anthes,1993] JP Anthes, P. Garcia, et al. Non-scanned LADAR Imaging and Applications. Applied Laser Radar Technology, Proceedings of SPIE,1993, Vol.1936.
[Anderson,2005] Anderson D., Herman H., Kelly A. Experimental characterization of commercial flash ladar devices. In Proceedings of International Conference on Sensing and Technology, Palmerston North, New Zealand,2005.
[Arman,1993] F. Arman and JK Aggarwal. Model-Based Object Recognition in Dense-Range Images-a Review. Comm. ACM,1993,25(1):5-43.
[Aull,2002] B.F. Aull, A.H. Loomis, et al. Geiger-Mode Ava-lanche Photodiodes for Three-Dimensional Imaging. Linc.Lab.J.,2002,13:335.
[Aull,2005] Aull, B. and R. Marino. Three-dimensional imaging with arrays of Geiger-mode avalanche photodiodes. Proceedings of SPIE,2005.
[Barry,1995] Barry L. Stann, William C. Ruff, et al. A practical low-cost high-range-resolution ladar. Proceedings of SPIE,1995, Vol.2472.
[BARNYAKOV,2006] BARNYAKOV A Y, BARNYAKOV M Y, et al. R&D of microchannel plate phototubes [J]. Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research,2006, A567:17-20.
[Bell,1975] Bell, Ronald L. Noise Figure of the MCP Image Intensifier Tube. IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices,1975:ED-22(10):821-829.
[Beraldin,2000] JA Beraldin, F Blais, P Boulanger. Real world modelling through high resolution digital 3D imaging of objects and structures. ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing,2000,55(4):230-250.
[Blais,2004] F.Blais. Review of 20 years of range sensor development. J. Electron. Imaging,2004, 13:231-240.
[Brian,2004] Brian F. Aull, Andrew H. Loomis, et al. Three-dimensional imaging with arrays of Geiger-mode avalanchephotodiodes. Proceedings of SPIE,2004, Vol.5353.
[Bumchul,2002] Bumchul Kim. Eye Safety Analysis. IrisAccessTM 3000 Optical Unit,2002.
[Burdea,1994] G. Burdea and P. Coiffet. Virtual Reality Technology. New York:Wiley,1994.
[Buttgen,2005] Buttgen B., Oggier T., et al. CCD/CMOS Lock-in pixel for range imaging: challenges, limitations and state-of-the-art. Proceedings of the First ETH Zurich Range Imaging Research Day,2005:21-32.
[Buttgen,2006] B. Buttgen, et al. High-speed and high-sensitive demodulation pixel for 3D imaging. Proceedings of SPIE on IS&T Electronic Imaging,2006, Vol.6056.
[CANESTA,2009] CANESTA. Canesta's 3D sensor. JON PEDDIE's TECH WATCH,2009, 9(25).
[Chen,2000] F. Chen, GM Brown, et al. Overview of three-dimensional shape measurement using optical method. Optical Engineering,2000,39:10-22.
[CRABB,2008] CRABB R., TRACEY C., PURANIK A., et al. Real-time foreground segmentation via range andcolor imaging. IEEE Conf. on Computer Vision & Pat-tern Recogn, 2008.
[DALSA,2006] DALSA Professional Imaging. http://www.dalsa.com/public/sensors/datasheets/ FTT1010M_datasheet_20070417b.pdf.2006.
[Denvir,2003] D. Denvir and E. Conroy. Electron multiplying CCDs. Proceedings of SPIE,2003.
[DePiero,1996] F. W. DePiero, M. M. Trivedi.3-D Computer Vision Using Structured Light: Design, Calibration, and Implementation Issues. Advances in Computers,1996,43:243-278.
[DeSouza,2002] G. N. DeSouza, A. Kak. Vision for mobile robot navigation:A survey. IEEE Trans. on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intel.,2002,24(2):237-267.
[Diegert,1997] C Diegert, J. Sackos, et al. Building Accurate Geometric Models from Abundant Range Imaging Information. Proceedings of SPIE on Laser Radar Technology and Application, 1997.
[DORRONSORO,2005] DORRONSORO C, OTADUY D, et al. Simulated intensified images. Proceedings of SPIE on Electro-Optical and Infrared Systems,2005:59870D.1-59870D.
[EBERHARDT,1979] EBERHARDT E H. Gain model for microchannel plates [J]. Applied Optics,1979,18(9):1418-1423.
[EyeSafe,1981] Eye Safety with Near Infra-Red Illuminators. American Conference of Government Industrial Hygienists,1981.
[FRASER,1991] FRASER G W, PAIN M T, et al. The operation of microchannel plates at high count rates [J]. Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research,1991, A306:247-260.
[FRENKEL,1997] FRENKEL A, SARTOR M A, et al. Photon-noise-limited operation of intensified CCD cameras [J]. Applied Optics,1997,36(22):5288-5297.
[Fukaya,2003] T. Fukaya, H. Fujikake, Y. Yamanouchi, et al. An effective Interaction Toolfor Performance in the virtual Studio-Invisible Light Projection System. NHKScience & Technical Research Laborato-ries, Japan,2003
[GIUDICOTTI,1994] GIUDICOTTI L, BASSAN M, et al. Simple analytical model of gain saturation in microchannel plate devices [J]. Review of Scientific Instruments,1994,65(1): 247-258.
[Grantham,1998] Grantham, J. W., Meidunas, E. C. Laser radar in adverse weather. SPIE Conference on Laser Radar Technology and Applications Ⅲ,1998,303(14):14-16.
[Habbit,2003] Habbit, R. D., Nellums, R. O., et al. Utilization of flash ladar forcooperative and uncooperative rendezvous and capture. Proceedings of SPIE,2003:146-157.
[HAMAMATSU,2000] HAMAMATSU. http://sales.hamamatsu.com/assets/pdf/catsandguides /Ⅱ_TII0004E02.pdf,2000.
[Heikki,2002] Heikki Ailistol, Veli Heikkinenl, et al. Scannerless imaging pulsed-laser range finding. JOURNAL OF OPTICS A:PURE AND APPLIED OPTICS.2002,4:S337-S346.
[Heinrichs,2003] R. M. Heinrichs, B. F. Aull, et al.3-D laser radar development with arrays of photon-counting detectors. Conference on Lasers and Electro-Optics/Quantum Electronics and Laser Science Conference, Technical Digest (Optical Society of America,2003), paper CTuK1.
[Hosticka,2003] B. J. Hosticka, W. Brockherde, et al. CMOS imaging for automotive applications. IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices,2003,50(1),173-183.
[Hu,1989]G. Hu and G. Stockman.3-D surface solution using structured light and constraint propagation. IEEE Trans. Part. Anal. Machine Intell.,1989,11(4):390-402.
[Iddan,2001] G. J. Iddan, G. Yahav.3D Imaging in the Studio and Elsewhere…. Proceedings of SPIE on Videometrics and Optical Methods for 3D Shape Measurements'01,2001:48-55.
[Ientilucci,2000] Ientilucci, E. Synthetic Simulation and Modeling of Image Intensified CCDs (IICCD). Rochester Institute of Technology:New York,2000.
[Jack,2007] Jack M, Asbrock J, et al. MBE based HgCdTe APDs and 3D LADAR sensors obscuration [J]. Proceedings of SPIE,2007,6542(1A):1-12.
[JAVIDI,2002] JAVIDI B., OKANO, et al. Three-Dimensional Television,Video and Display Technologies. Springer-Verlag,2002.
[Jeremias,2001] R. Jeremias, W. Brockherde, G. Doemens. A CMOS photosensor array for 3D imaging using pulsed laser. ISSCC Dig. Tech. Papers,2001:252-253.
[Kahlmann,2005] T Kahlmann, T Oggier, F Lustenberger. Proceedings of SPIE on Photonics in the Automobile,2005, Vol.5663.
[Kawakita,2000] M. Kawakita, K. Iizuka, T. Aida. Axi-vision camera:a three-dimension camera. Proceedings of SPIE on Three-Dimensional Image Capture and Applications Ⅲ,2000,3958: 61-70.
[Kawakita,2004] M. Kawakita, K. Iizuka, et al. High-definition real-time depth-mapping TV camera:HDTV Axi-Vision Camera. OPTICS EXPRESS,2004,12(12):2781-2794.
[Kawakita,2004] M. Kawakita, K. Iizuka, T. Aida, et al. Real-time three-dimensional video image compositon by depth information. IEICE Elect. Express,2004,1(9):237-242.
[Kilm,2003] Kilm T. Looking for a light:Optical technologies offer the promise of a RF-free battlefield [J]. Journal of Electronic Defense,2003,26(12):53-56.
[Kollorz,2007] E.Kollorz and J.Hornegger. Gesture recognition with a time-of-flight camera. Proceedings of the Workshop Dynamic 3D Imaging in conjunction with DAGM'07,2007:86-93.
[Kuhnert,2006] Kuhnert, KD, Stommel, M. Fusion of stereo-camera and pmd-camera data for real-time suited precise 3D environment reconstruction. Intelligent Robots and Systems,2006 IEEE/RSJ International Conference,2006:4780-4785.
[Lange,1999] R. Lange, P. Seitz, et al. Time-of-flight range imaging with a custom solid-state image sensor. Proceedings of SPIE,1999,3823:180-91.
[Lange,2000] R. Lange, P. Seitz, et al. Demodulation pixels in CCD and CMOS technologies for time-of-flight ranging. Proceedings of SPIE,2000,3965A:177-188.
[Lange,2000] R. Lange.3D Time-of-Flight distance measurement with custom solid-state image sensor in CMOS/CCD technology. Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Siegen,2000.
[Lenz,1998] R.K. Lenz, R. Y. Tsai. Techniques for calibration of the scale factor and image center for high accuracy 3D machine vision metrology. IEEE Trans. on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence,1998,10(10):713-720.
[LOT]LOT-Oriel Gruppe Europa. THE GENERATION GAP (Gen Ⅱ vs Gen Ⅲ Filmed vs Ultravis). http://www.lot-oriel.com/site/site_down/cc_istargap_deen02.pdf
[LOU,2007]LOU Ying, BAI Ting-zhu. A study on solar blind UV ICCD detection performance. Proceedings of SPIE Conference 6621:Photoelectronic Imaging and Detection,2007:66210P.
[Marino,2005] Marino R M.Davis W R.Rich G C. High-resolution 3D imaging laser radar flight test experiments [J]. Proceedings of SPIE,2005,5791:138-151.
[Marsha,1985] Marsha R. Torr. Persistence of phosphor glow in microchannel plate image intensifiers. Applied Optics,1985,24(6):793-795.
[Massa,1998] J. S. Massa, G. S. Buller, et al. Time of flight optical ranging system based on time correlated single photon counting. Appl. Opt.1998,37(31):7298-7304.
[MCAmann,2001] MCAmann, T.Bosch, et al. Laser ranging:a critical review of usual techniques for distance measurement. Opt. Eng.,2001,40(1):10-19.
[McManamon,1998] McManamon P F. Laser radar development. Proceedings of SPIE,1998, 3380:50-57.
[Melen,1994] T.Melen. Geometrical modeling and calibration of video cameras for underwater navigation. PhD thesis, Institut for teknisk kybernetikk, Norges tekniske hogskole,Trondheim, 1994.
[MESA,2008] MESA Imaging AG. SR-3000 Data Sheet. Retrieved from MESA Imaging AG: http://www.mesa-imaging.ch/pdf/SR3000_Flyer_Jan07.pdf,2008.
[Monson,1999] T. Monson, J. Grantham, S.Ghildress. Characterization of scannerless LADAR. Proceedings of SPIE,1999,3707:409-420.
[Moran,1997] SE Moran, BL Ulich, et al. Intensified CCD (ICCD) dynamic range and noise performance. SPIE 1997,3173:430-457.
[Moring,1989] I. Moring, H. Ailisto, et al. Active 3-D vision system for automatic model-based shape inspection. Opt. Lasers Eng,1989,10:3-4.
[Muguira,1995] MR Muguira, JT Sackos, BD Bradley. Scannerless Range Imaging with a Square Wave. Proceedings of SPIE,1995,2472:106-113.
[Netramai,2008] C Netramai, M Oleksandr, C Joochim, H. Motion Estimation of a Mobile Robot using different types of 3D Sensors. Proceedings of Fourth International Conference on Autonomic and Autonomous Systems,2008.
[Niclass,2005] C. Niclass, A. Rochas, et al. Design and Characterization of a CMOS 3-D Image Sensor Basedon Single Photon Avalanche Diodes. IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits,2005, 40(9):1847-1854.
[Niclass,2006] C. Niclass, M. Sergio, E. Charbon. A Single Photon Avalanche Diode Array Fabricated on Deep-Submicron CMOS Technology. Design and Test in Europe (DATE),2006.
[NNVT]NNVT.1XZ18/18WHS. Retrieved from NNVT:http://www.nnvt.com.
[Oggier,2003] T. Oggier, M. Lehmann, et al. An all-solid-state optical range camera for 3D-real-time imaging with sub-centimeter depth-resolution (SwissRanger). Proceedings of SPIE, 2003,5249:634-545.
[Oggier,2004] T. Oggier, K. Griesbach, et al.3D-Imaging in Real-Time with Miniaturized Optical Range Camera.6th Int. Conf. for Opt. Technologies OPTO,2004:89-94.
[Oggier,2005] Oggier, R. Kaufmann, et al. Novel pixel architecture with inherent background suppression for 3D time-of-flight imaging. Proceedings of SPIE on Electronic Imaging,2005, 5665:1-8.
[OSRAM,2005] OSRAM Opto Semiconductors GmbH. SFH 4259.pdf. Retrieved from OSRAM: http://catalog.osram-os.com,2005.
[Palojarvi,2002] P. Palojarvi, K. Maatta, J. Kostamovaara. Pulsed Time-of-Flight Laser Radar Module With Millimeter-Level Accuracy Using Full Custom Receiver and TDC ASICs, IEEE Transactions on Instrumentation and Measurement,2002,51:1102-1108.
[Paul,1999] Paul HOB, Karlheinz Fleder. Sub-nanosecond optical gating and irising properties of different types of microchannel plate image intensifiers (MCPII). Part of the SPIE Conference on Optical Diagnostics for Fluids/Heat/Combustion 194 and Photomechanics for Solid,1999, Vol. 3783.
[PMDTec,2009] PMDTec. Retrieved from PMDTec:http://www.pmdtec.com/fileadmin/ pmdtec/downloads/documentation/datasheet_camcube.pdf.2009.
[PRESCOTT,1996] PRESCOTT J R. A statistical model for photo-multiplier single-electron statistics. Nuclear Instruments and Methods,1996,39(1):173-179.
[Princeton] Princeton Instruments. Comparison of Lens-Coupled and Fiberoptic-Coupled ICCD Cameras. Retrieved from Princeton Instruments:http://www.piacton.com.
[Oppenheim,1983] Oppenheim, A.V., Willsky, A.S.& Young, I.T. Signals and Systems2nd ed. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey,1983.
[Oppenheim,1989] A. V. Oppenheim and R. W. Schafer. Discrete-time SignalProcessing. Englewood Cliffs, NJ 07632:Prentice-Hall,1989.
[Redman,2005] Brian Redman, William Ruff, et al. Anti-ship missile tracking with a chirped AM ladar-Update:design, model predictions, and experimental results. Proceedings of SPIE,2005, Vol.5791.
[Redman,2006] B Redman, W Ruff, M Giza. Photon counting chirped AM ladar concept, simulation, and initial experimental results. Proceedings of SPIE,2006,6214:62140P.
[Richard,2000] Richard A. Sturz, San Diego. Image intensifier selection from a user viewpoint. Proceedings of SPIE on Image Intensifiers and Applications Ⅱ,2000, Vol.4128.
[Richmond,2000] RD Richmond, R Stettner, JW Glessner. Eye-safe laser radar focal plane array for three-dimensional imaging. Proceedings of SPIE,2000, Vol.4035.
[Richmond,2001] RD Richmond, R Stettner, JW Glessner. Eye-safe laser radar 3D imaging Proceedings of SPIE on Laser Radar Technology and Applications Ⅵ,2001, Vol.4377.
[Ringbeck,2007] T Ringbeck, B Hagebeuker. A 3D TIME OF FLIGHT CAMERA FOR OBJECT DETECTION. Optical 3-D Measurement Techniques.2007,07:09-12.
[Robert,2003] Robert D. Habbit Jr., Robert O. Nellums, et al. Utilization of flash ladar for cooperative and uncooperative rendezvous and capture. Proceedings of SPIE,2003,5088: 146-157.
[Robert,2006] Robert O. Nellums, Robert D, et al.3D Scannerless LADAR for Orbiter Inspection. SPIE,2006,6220:G1-G17.
[Roger,2004] Roger Stettner, Howard Bailey, Richard Richmond. Eye-safe laser radar 3D imaging. Laser Radar Technology and Applications IX. Proceedings of SPIE,2004, Vol.5412: 277-786X.
[Roper,2002] Introduction to Image Intensifiers for Scientific Imaging. Roper Scientific, Inc. 2002.
[Sackos,1996] J. Sackos, B. Bradley, et al. The Emerging Versatility of a Scannerless Range Imager. Laser Radar Technology and Applications Conference, SPIE AeroSense Symposium,1996, 2748:47-60.
[Sackos,1998] J. T. Sackos, R.O. Nellums, et al. Low-cost high-resolution video-rate imaging optical radar. Part of the SPIE Conference on Laser Radar Technology and Arrnlications Ⅲ,1998, vol.3380.
[Schael,2001] Schael U. Rothe H. Field measurements with 1574 nm imaging, scannerless, eye-safe laser radar. SPIE,2001,4377:1-11.
[Schael,2004] Ulrich Schael, Hendrik Rothe. New pixel-oriented simulation for 3D laser radar. Proceedings of SPIE on Electro-Optical and Infrared Systems:Technology and Applications,2004, Vol.5612.
[Schroder,1998] W. Schroder, E. Forgber, G. Roh. Laser range cameraapplications. Proceedings of the fifth ESA Workshop onAdvanced Space Technologies for Robot Applications,1998. [Scott,1990] M. W. Scott. Range Imaging Laser Radar. US patent 4.935.616,1990.
[Seitz,2001] P. Seitz. Smart pixels.2001 InternationalSymposium on Electron Devices for Microwave and Optoelectronic Applications,2001:229-34.
[SHIKHALIEV,1999] SHIKHALIEV P M. Saturation model for secondary electron multiplier detectors. Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research.1999, A420(1/2):202-212.
[Smithpeter,2000] CL Smithpeter, RO Nellums, SM Lebien, and G. Studor. A miniature, high-resolution laser radar operating at video rates. Proceedings of SPIE on Laser Radar Technology and Applications.2000, vol.4035.
[Smithpeter,2001] Smithpeter CL. LADAR Measurements of the International Space Station. Proceedings of SPIE,2001, (4377):65-72.
[Spirig,1995] T. Spirig, P. Seitz, et al. The lock-in CCD—Two-di-mensional synchronous detection of light. IEEE JOURNAL OF QUANTUM ELEETRONICS,1995,31:1705-1708.
[Stann,1995] BL Stann, WC Ruff, ZG Sztankay. Practical low-cost high-range-resolution ladar. Proceedings of SPIE,1995, vol.2472.
[Stann,1999] Barry Stann, Mark Giza, et al. A scannerless imaging ladar using a laser diode illuminator and FM/cw radar principles Part of the SPIE Conference on Laser Radar Technooqy and Applications Ⅳ.1999, Vol.3707.
[Stann,2002] B.Stann, A. Abou-Auf, et al. Line imaging ladar using a laser-diode transmitter and FM/CW radar principlesfor submunition applications. Proceedings of SPIE,2002,4035:192-203.
[Stann,2004] BL Stann, K Aliberti, et al. A 32x32 pixel focal plane array ladar system using chirped amplitude modulation. Proceedings of SPIE,2004,5412:264-272.
[Stoppa,2005] Stoppa, D., Gonzo, L., Simoni, A. Scannerless 3D imaging sensors. IEEE International Workshop on Imag-ing Systems and Techniques,2005.
[Thorsten,2007] Thorsten Ringbeck, Bianca Hagebeuker. A 3D time of flight camera for object detection. Object 3D Measurement Techniques. ETHZurich,2007.
[Tsai,1987] R.Y.Tsai. A versatile camera calibration technique for high accuracy 3D machine metrology using off-the-shelf cameras and lenses. IEEE Journal of Robotics and Automation, 1987,3(4):323-344.
[Vaidyanathan,2007] Vaidyanathan M., Blask S., et al. Jigsaw phase III:A miniaturized airborne 3-D imaging laser radar with photon-counting sensitivity for foliage penetration. Proceedings of SPIE,2007,6550:1-12.
[Viarani,2002] L. Viarani, D. Stoppa, et al. A CMOS smart pixel for active 3D vision applications. Proceedings of IEEE International Conference on Sensors,2002.
[Viarani,2004] L. Viarani, D. Stoppa, et al. A CMOS Smart Pixel for Active3-D Vision Applications. IEEE SensorsJournal,2004,4(1):145-152.
[Viarani,2005] Viarani, G.F. Dalla Betta. A CMOS Sensor based on. Single Photon Avalanche Diode for Distance. Proceedings of IMTC on Measurement Applications,2005:16-19.
[Wei,1993]G. Wei, S.Ma. Complete two plane camera calibration and experimental comparisons. In:Proc. ICCV'93,1993:439-446.
[Weingarten,2004] Weingarten, G. Gruener, R. Siegwart. A state-of-the-art 3Dsensor for robot navigation. IEEE/RSJ Int. Conf. on Intelligent Robots and Systems,2004.
[Wilfried,1999] Wilfried Schroeder, Ernst Forgber, SteAphane Estable. Scannerless laser range camera. Sensor Review,1999,19:285-291.
[Xu,1998]Xu, Z., Schwarte, R., et al. Smart pixel-photonicmixer device (PMD), New system concept of a3D-imaging camera-on-a-chip.5th International Conference on Mechatronics and Machine Vision in Practice.1998:259-264.
[Yahav,2007] G. Yahav, T. Reiner, Seung-Hyun Lee. A low cost 3D tracker for parallax Barrier Display.3DTV Conference Greece,2007.
[Yahav,2006] G. Yahav, G. J. Iddan, D. Mandelboum.3D imaging camera forgaming application. Technical Report,3DV Systems Ltd.,2006.
[Yamanouchi,2002] Y.Yamanoucfhi, H.Mitsumine, T. Fukaya. Real Space-based Virtual Studio Seamless Synthesis of a Real Set Image with a virtual set image. ACM VRST 2002 Conference, 2002:194-200.
[Yen,1999]W. M. Yen, S. Shionoya. Phosphor Handbook, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL,1999.
[Yilmaz,2006] A. Yilmaz, et al. Object Tracking:A Survey, ACM Journal of Computing Surveys. 2006,38(4).
[Zhang Xiuda,2007] Zhang Xiuda, Yah Huiming, et al. A 3D framing camera with pulse laser and modulated receiver. Proceedings of SPIE on High-Speed Photography and Photonics,2007.
[Zhang Xiuda,2005] Zhang Xiuda, Yan Huimin, et al. A new three dimension PLMR imaging system. Proceedings of SPIE on Optical Devices and Instruments,2005:6024.
[ZHANG,2000] ZHANG Z. A flexible new technique for camera calibration [J]. IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence,2000,22(11):1330-1334
[ZHU,2006]ZHU Y, CHEN Q. Scene simulation for LLL night vision system based on daytime image. Proceedings of SPIE Conference 6031:remote Sensing and Infrared Devices and Systems. Changchun:SPIE,2006:60310E.
[Zhu,2008]Zhu, L. Wang, R. Yang, et al. Fusion of Time-of-Flight Depthand Stereo for High Accuracy Depth Maps, Proceedings of CVPR,2008.
[李云雁,2008]李云雁,胡传荣.试验设计与数据处理[M].北京：化学工业出版社,2008.
[李众力,2008]李众力.距离亮度增益调制三维成像系统的应用研究.硕士论文,南京理工大学,2008.
[刘扬,2003]刘扬,徐德坤,王晓峰.CCD相机遥感模型与仿真.航天返回与遥感,2003：48-51.
[马颂德,2003]马颂德,张正友.计算机视觉——计算理论与算法基础[M].北京：科学出版社,2003.
[王焕钦,2009]王焕钦.新型光电测距与三维成像技术研究.博士论文,中国科学技术大学,2009.
[王晓峰,2003]王晓峰,刘扬,徐德坤,等.ICCD相机建模与仿真分析.红外与激光工程,2003：560-563.
[项志宇,2009]项志宇,郑路.摄像机与3D激光雷达联合标定的新方法.浙江大学学报：工学版,2009：1401-1405.
[闫丰,2006]闫丰,于子江,于晓,等.电晕探测紫外ICCD相机图像噪声分析与处理[J].光学精密工程,2006,14(4)：7092713.
[杨帆,2007]杨帆.激光雷达技术发展及其应用.科学研究动态监测快报：空间光电科技专辑,2007.
[章剑梅,2003]章剑梅.三维测距成像的并行鉴相接收系统研究.硕士论文,浙江大学,2003.
[张璐璐,2006]张璐璐.无扫描激光三维成像技术研究和系统实验平台的设计与实现.硕士论文,浙江大学,2006.
[张奇,1998]张奇,刘济林,郭小军,等.激光测距成像雷达三维测距：存在问题及解决方法[J].浙江大学学报：自然科学版,1998,32(8)：732-738.