近邻宇宙中气体与星系形成
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摘要
在冷暗物质宇宙学框架下,星系周围暗物质晕中有大量可以冷却成为气体沉积的重子。在星系形成和演化的图景中,除去较为剧烈而短暂的星系并合过程,恒星形成的触发和被抑制是基本元素,而形成恒星的材料—-气体的存在与否,吸积或排开成为直接和决定条件。本论文致力于研究近域宇宙中星系中气体含量和分布与星系特性的关系,从而获知近域宇宙中星系演化的规律和方向。
本论文第二章研究了含有非常丰富原子气体的盘星系形成和演化。我们分析了一个近域宇宙中(z <0.05 )、大质量(M*> 10~(10)M⊙)的HI丰富的星系样本。我们发现在同样恒星质量和恒星形成率下,HI气体更丰富的星系有更陡的颜色梯度,即星系的外盘相对内区更蓝;星系在蓝光下的尺度比红光下的尺度更大;改正了尘埃消光后,外盘的比恒星形成率(specific star formation rate)比内盘更高。这些结果强烈支持盘星系吸积气体并从内而外的形成图景,这被广泛用作冷暗物质宇宙学框架下,盘星系形成的半解析模型的基础。而HI含量和星系的不对称性之间没有任何内在联系,暗示气体是平滑地被吸积到星系的外盘上的。
在第三章中,我们研究了气体较丰富的盘星系中由于气体内流导致的被动演化,讨论了气体内流的主要引发机制之一—-棒结构的作用。我们发现只有当棒(bar)比较强,椭率高于0.5时,棒样本的恒星形成率集中度相比有同样的恒星形成率的控制星系要明显更大。星系中有强棒的概率峰值出现在恒星质量大于3×10~(10)M⊙,恒星质量面密度小于3×10~8M⊙kpc~(-2)和聚集度参数小于2.5时。强棒优先分布在两个很好地隔开的区域,一个有着很高的恒星形成率聚集度C(SF),另一个有着比盘星系平均值低的C(SF)。这表示棒可能在星系恒星形成最终的抑制上起到一定作用。只有50%有强烈集中的恒星形成的星系有强棒,暗示着其它的过程,比如星系间相互作用也在引发星系中心星暴。同时,棒的大小与星系大小的比值相比其他星系的性质,最依赖于星系的颜色,暗示着棒的生长可能由气体吸积调节。
第四章研究了气体最贫乏的一类星系,星系团中最亮的星系—-BCG(brightestcluster galaxy)。我们分析了一个低红移(z < 0.1)光学选的星系团中BCG样本和一个X-ray选星系团中的BCG样本。我们发现光学选择的BCG相对同样质量的控制星系,表现出的光学颜色离散更小,而且内区的NUV-r颜色更红,暗示它们由年龄相近的年老星族组成。X-ray选的星系团样本中的BCG在光学颜色上有类似的跨度,但是却有更蓝的NUV-r颜色。在X-ray选择的BCG中,那些在中心冷却时标小于1 Gyr的星系团中的BCG比起在中心冷却时标更长的星系团中的BCG要蓝得多。我们的主要结论是星系位于暗物质晕的中心并不足以决定它是否正在进行恒星形成,还必需要有暗物质晕中心气体热动力学状态的信息,比如冷却时标。
第五章介绍了正在进行的有关辨识被附近星系扰动的星系的工作。星系和近邻星系之间的相互作用,既是气体吸积的重要来源,又是导致星系内气体内流的重要机制。我们发展了对更容易受到扰动的低表面密度的星系外区的形态敏锐的参数,可以辨认质量比高达39:1的并合星系,并且在并合过程中有效的平均动力学时间高达0.2Gyr。因此我们有希望为外界环境扰动对星系形成和演化的影响提供更全面的图景。
第六章介绍了本论文在GASS项目中的作用。我们发展的测光程序包,能谱拟合测量恒星形成率和消光的方法以及预测氢原子质量比例的方法,被广泛应用于GASS项目的各项工作中。第二章的工作更是直接属于GASS(GALEXArecibo SDSS Survey)项目,成为GASS后续WSRT(Westerbork Synthesis RadioTelescope)项目的立项基础。
第七章对本论文进行总结,对将来可能进行的工作进行了展望。在将来的工作中,我们会利用星系的图像分解技术和我们发展的星系形态测量参数,综合分析星系的棒,核球,旋臂和外界环境扰动对星系演化的影响。
Under the cosmology of cold dark matter, there is large amount of baryons inthe halo around galaxies. Aside from the much more violent and temporary processof merger between galaxies,the inducement and suppression of star formationare the most basic process that make the picture of formation and evolution ofgalaxies. Thus the existence, accretion and expelling of gas–the material for starformation– are directly determining in the picture. This thesis aims at knowledgeabout the evolution of galaxies in the local universe, by studying the relationbetween gas content and other properties of galaxies in the local universe.
In the second chapter of this thesis we study the formation and evolution ofgalaxies that have unusually high fraction of atomic gas. We analyze a sample ofmassive (M*> 10~(10)M⊙) HI-rich galaxies in the local universe (z <0.05). I findthat at a certain stellar mass and global star fomration rate, galaxies with larger HIfractions have steeper colour gradients, in other words, they have blue outer diskscompared to the inner part of the galaxy. Theys also have larger radii in blue lightcompared to in red light. After correcting for dust attenuation, they have higherstar formation rate per stellar mass on the outside disk than on the inside region.Our results strongly support the picture of disk galaxy accreting gas and formingfrom inside-out, which is wildly used as the basis of disk galaxy formation underthe∧CDM cosmology. The lack of any intrinsic connection between HI fractionand galaxy asymmetry suggests that gas is accreted smoothly onto the outer disk.
In the thrid chapter we look into the subsequent disc evolution induced by gasinflow. Here we discuss one of the major mechanism, the effect of bar structurein galaxies. Only when the bar is strong, with ellipticity greater than 0.5, doI find clear evidence that C(SF) (sSFR concentration) is larger for the barredsample than a control sample with similar global SFR. The fraction of galaxies with strong bars peaks at M*greater than 3×10~(10)M⊙,μ*less than 3×10~8M⊙and R_(90)/R_(50) less than 2.5. Moreover, the strong bars preferentially occur intwo well separated regions: a high C(SF) region and a lower-than-average C(SF)region. This suggests that bars may play a role in the eventual quenching of starformation in galaxies. Only 50% of galaxies with strongly concentrated SF havestrong bars, indicating that other processes such as galaxy interactions also inducecentral star-bursts. We also find that D(bar)/D(disk) depends most strongly onthe colour of the galaxy, suggesting that the growth of the bar may be regulatedby gas accretion.
Then in the fourth chapter we study the galaxies with the poorest gas content.We analysis a sample BCGs in low redshift (z < 0:1), optically-selected clusters,and a smaller sample of BCGs in X-ray selected clusters. We find that opticallyselectedBCGs exhibit smaller scatter in optical colours and redder inner NUV ??r colours than the control galaxies which have similar stellar mass, indicatingthat they are a homogenous and ancient population. The BCGs in the X-rayselected cluster sample span a similar range in optical colours, but have bluerNUV ?? r colours. Among X-ray selected BCGs, those located in clusters withcentral cooling times of less than 1 Gyr are significantly bluer than those locatedin clusters where the central gas cooling times are long. Our main conclusion isthat the location of a galaxy at the centre of its halo is not sufficient to determinewhether or not it is currently forming stars. One must also have information aboutthe thermodynamic state of the gas in the core of the halo, the cooling time scaleof gas, for example.
In the fifth chapter, we introduce an on-going project about identifying thegalaxies disturbed by neighbors. The interaction between galaxy and neighbors isone important source of gas accretion as well as important mechanism of inducinggas inflow in galaxies. We develop parameters which are more sensitive to thelow surface density out region of galaxies, so can find out merging galaxies withmass ratio up to 39:1, and the effective dynamic time in the mergering processis on average longer than 0.2 Gyr. As a result, hopefully we can obtain a more complete picture of galaxy formation and evolution under the effect of externalenvironment disturbance。
In the sixth chapter, we explain the role that this thesis plays in the GASSproject. We develop a photometry pipeline, a SED fitting technique for derivingstar formation rate and attenuation and a photometric predictor of atomic gasmass fraction for the GASS project. Moreover, the work in described in thesecond chapter belongs to the GASS (GALEX Arecibo SDSS Survey) project,and serves as the basis for the following WSRT (Westerbork Synthesis RadioTelescope) project proposal.
We summarize and discuss about future work in the seventh chapter. In thefuture, we will analysis the influence of bar, bulge, spiral structure and externaldisturbance on the evolution of galaxies, by decomposing the image of galaxies andmaking use of the new morphological parameters that we devolop and introducein the fifth chapter.
本论文第二章研究了含有非常丰富原子气体的盘星系形成和演化。我们分析了一个近域宇宙中(z <0.05 )、大质量(M*> 10~(10)M⊙)的HI丰富的星系样本。我们发现在同样恒星质量和恒星形成率下,HI气体更丰富的星系有更陡的颜色梯度,即星系的外盘相对内区更蓝;星系在蓝光下的尺度比红光下的尺度更大;改正了尘埃消光后,外盘的比恒星形成率(specific star formation rate)比内盘更高。这些结果强烈支持盘星系吸积气体并从内而外的形成图景,这被广泛用作冷暗物质宇宙学框架下,盘星系形成的半解析模型的基础。而HI含量和星系的不对称性之间没有任何内在联系,暗示气体是平滑地被吸积到星系的外盘上的。
在第三章中,我们研究了气体较丰富的盘星系中由于气体内流导致的被动演化,讨论了气体内流的主要引发机制之一—-棒结构的作用。我们发现只有当棒(bar)比较强,椭率高于0.5时,棒样本的恒星形成率集中度相比有同样的恒星形成率的控制星系要明显更大。星系中有强棒的概率峰值出现在恒星质量大于3×10~(10)M⊙,恒星质量面密度小于3×10~8M⊙kpc~(-2)和聚集度参数小于2.5时。强棒优先分布在两个很好地隔开的区域,一个有着很高的恒星形成率聚集度C(SF),另一个有着比盘星系平均值低的C(SF)。这表示棒可能在星系恒星形成最终的抑制上起到一定作用。只有50%有强烈集中的恒星形成的星系有强棒,暗示着其它的过程,比如星系间相互作用也在引发星系中心星暴。同时,棒的大小与星系大小的比值相比其他星系的性质,最依赖于星系的颜色,暗示着棒的生长可能由气体吸积调节。
第四章研究了气体最贫乏的一类星系,星系团中最亮的星系—-BCG(brightestcluster galaxy)。我们分析了一个低红移(z < 0.1)光学选的星系团中BCG样本和一个X-ray选星系团中的BCG样本。我们发现光学选择的BCG相对同样质量的控制星系,表现出的光学颜色离散更小,而且内区的NUV-r颜色更红,暗示它们由年龄相近的年老星族组成。X-ray选的星系团样本中的BCG在光学颜色上有类似的跨度,但是却有更蓝的NUV-r颜色。在X-ray选择的BCG中,那些在中心冷却时标小于1 Gyr的星系团中的BCG比起在中心冷却时标更长的星系团中的BCG要蓝得多。我们的主要结论是星系位于暗物质晕的中心并不足以决定它是否正在进行恒星形成,还必需要有暗物质晕中心气体热动力学状态的信息,比如冷却时标。
第五章介绍了正在进行的有关辨识被附近星系扰动的星系的工作。星系和近邻星系之间的相互作用,既是气体吸积的重要来源,又是导致星系内气体内流的重要机制。我们发展了对更容易受到扰动的低表面密度的星系外区的形态敏锐的参数,可以辨认质量比高达39:1的并合星系,并且在并合过程中有效的平均动力学时间高达0.2Gyr。因此我们有希望为外界环境扰动对星系形成和演化的影响提供更全面的图景。
第六章介绍了本论文在GASS项目中的作用。我们发展的测光程序包,能谱拟合测量恒星形成率和消光的方法以及预测氢原子质量比例的方法,被广泛应用于GASS项目的各项工作中。第二章的工作更是直接属于GASS(GALEXArecibo SDSS Survey)项目,成为GASS后续WSRT(Westerbork Synthesis RadioTelescope)项目的立项基础。
第七章对本论文进行总结,对将来可能进行的工作进行了展望。在将来的工作中,我们会利用星系的图像分解技术和我们发展的星系形态测量参数,综合分析星系的棒,核球,旋臂和外界环境扰动对星系演化的影响。
Under the cosmology of cold dark matter, there is large amount of baryons inthe halo around galaxies. Aside from the much more violent and temporary processof merger between galaxies,the inducement and suppression of star formationare the most basic process that make the picture of formation and evolution ofgalaxies. Thus the existence, accretion and expelling of gas–the material for starformation– are directly determining in the picture. This thesis aims at knowledgeabout the evolution of galaxies in the local universe, by studying the relationbetween gas content and other properties of galaxies in the local universe.
In the second chapter of this thesis we study the formation and evolution ofgalaxies that have unusually high fraction of atomic gas. We analyze a sample ofmassive (M*> 10~(10)M⊙) HI-rich galaxies in the local universe (z <0.05). I findthat at a certain stellar mass and global star fomration rate, galaxies with larger HIfractions have steeper colour gradients, in other words, they have blue outer diskscompared to the inner part of the galaxy. Theys also have larger radii in blue lightcompared to in red light. After correcting for dust attenuation, they have higherstar formation rate per stellar mass on the outside disk than on the inside region.Our results strongly support the picture of disk galaxy accreting gas and formingfrom inside-out, which is wildly used as the basis of disk galaxy formation underthe∧CDM cosmology. The lack of any intrinsic connection between HI fractionand galaxy asymmetry suggests that gas is accreted smoothly onto the outer disk.
In the thrid chapter we look into the subsequent disc evolution induced by gasinflow. Here we discuss one of the major mechanism, the effect of bar structurein galaxies. Only when the bar is strong, with ellipticity greater than 0.5, doI find clear evidence that C(SF) (sSFR concentration) is larger for the barredsample than a control sample with similar global SFR. The fraction of galaxies with strong bars peaks at M*greater than 3×10~(10)M⊙,μ*less than 3×10~8M⊙and R_(90)/R_(50) less than 2.5. Moreover, the strong bars preferentially occur intwo well separated regions: a high C(SF) region and a lower-than-average C(SF)region. This suggests that bars may play a role in the eventual quenching of starformation in galaxies. Only 50% of galaxies with strongly concentrated SF havestrong bars, indicating that other processes such as galaxy interactions also inducecentral star-bursts. We also find that D(bar)/D(disk) depends most strongly onthe colour of the galaxy, suggesting that the growth of the bar may be regulatedby gas accretion.
Then in the fourth chapter we study the galaxies with the poorest gas content.We analysis a sample BCGs in low redshift (z < 0:1), optically-selected clusters,and a smaller sample of BCGs in X-ray selected clusters. We find that opticallyselectedBCGs exhibit smaller scatter in optical colours and redder inner NUV ??r colours than the control galaxies which have similar stellar mass, indicatingthat they are a homogenous and ancient population. The BCGs in the X-rayselected cluster sample span a similar range in optical colours, but have bluerNUV ?? r colours. Among X-ray selected BCGs, those located in clusters withcentral cooling times of less than 1 Gyr are significantly bluer than those locatedin clusters where the central gas cooling times are long. Our main conclusion isthat the location of a galaxy at the centre of its halo is not sufficient to determinewhether or not it is currently forming stars. One must also have information aboutthe thermodynamic state of the gas in the core of the halo, the cooling time scaleof gas, for example.
In the fifth chapter, we introduce an on-going project about identifying thegalaxies disturbed by neighbors. The interaction between galaxy and neighbors isone important source of gas accretion as well as important mechanism of inducinggas inflow in galaxies. We develop parameters which are more sensitive to thelow surface density out region of galaxies, so can find out merging galaxies withmass ratio up to 39:1, and the effective dynamic time in the mergering processis on average longer than 0.2 Gyr. As a result, hopefully we can obtain a more complete picture of galaxy formation and evolution under the effect of externalenvironment disturbance。
In the sixth chapter, we explain the role that this thesis plays in the GASSproject. We develop a photometry pipeline, a SED fitting technique for derivingstar formation rate and attenuation and a photometric predictor of atomic gasmass fraction for the GASS project. Moreover, the work in described in thesecond chapter belongs to the GASS (GALEX Arecibo SDSS Survey) project,and serves as the basis for the following WSRT (Westerbork Synthesis RadioTelescope) project proposal.
We summarize and discuss about future work in the seventh chapter. In thefuture, we will analysis the influence of bar, bulge, spiral structure and externaldisturbance on the evolution of galaxies, by decomposing the image of galaxies andmaking use of the new morphological parameters that we devolop and introducein the fifth chapter.
引文
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